COMPUTER NETWORKS 1

1.1 COMPUTER NETWORKING BASICS

A. INTRODUCTION

Generally speaking a network is a group or system of people or things interconnected and working
together to attain a giving purpose e.g. a network of friends, telephone network, and computer
network.

Computer network is a group of two or more computers connected to each other so that they can
exchange information and share their resources with each other. The connection between the
computers may be effective by means of cables or air (satellite)

Computer network has three layers of components: Application software, Network software and
Network hardware. Application software consists of computer program that interface with the
user to enable them to do what they want to do e.g. graphics and video. Network software consists
of computer program that establish protocols or rules for communication between computers.
Network hardware is made up of the physical component that connects computers. Two
important components are the transmission media that carry computer signals typically on wire
or optic fiber cable and network adapter.

B. TYPES OF NETWORK

There several different types of computer network which can be classify according to their size,
topology and architecture based classification

1. Size base classification

i. Local Area Network

Local area network (LAN) are used to connect networking devices that are in a very close
geographical area, such as floor of a building, a building

ii. Metropolitan Area Network

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) consists of a computer network across an entire city or
small region. A MAN is larger than LAN and it is use to connect several LANs together to form
a bigger network

iii. Wide Area Network

Wide area network (WAN) are used to connect LANs together. Typically, WANs are used when
the LANs that must be connected are separated by a large distance such as a country or the world.
The internet is the best know example.

iv. Wireless network

Wireless network uses radio waves to connect devices such as laptop to internet and to your
business network and it application.

v. Wired network

Wired network connect devices to the internet or other network using cables. Most common wired
network use cable connected to Ethernet port on the network, router on one end and to a computer
or other devices on the cable opposite end.

C. NEED AND ADVANTAGES OF A COMPUTER NETWORK

• They offer a reduction in the barriers to information held on several system as well as
increase the speed of communication

• They reduce cost by enabling the sharing of hardware and software

• They offer multiple source of information

• Reduction of risks

D. TOPOLOGY BASE CLASSIFICATION

Topology is the layout of connected devices. Network topology is categorise into the following
basic types

a) Bus topology

Bus network use a common backbone cable to connect all devices. The backbone cable functions
as a share communication medium that all devices attach it with an interface connector. A device
that want to communicate with another device on the network send a broadcast message on to the
wire that all other devices see but only the intended recipient actually accept and processes the
message
Bus topology

Advantages of Bus Network

1) It is easy to set-up and extend bus network

2) Bus network cost very little

3) Bus network is mostly used in small network

Disadvantages of Bus network

1) If the central cable encounters some problems the whole network breaks down

2) It is difficult to detect and troubleshoot fault at individual station

3) Efficiency of bus network reduces, as the number of devices connected to it increases

4) It is not good for network with heavy traffic

5) Security is very low since all the computer receive the sent signal from the source

b) Ring Topology

In the ring topology every device has exactly two neighbours for communication purpose. All
massages travel in a ring network in the same direction either clockwise or counter clockwise

Computers

Advantages of Ring topology

1) This network is very organized

2) It reduces chances of data collision

 3) Even when the load on the network increases , the performance is better than the Bus
network

4) There is no need for a network server to control the connectivity between workstation

5) Addition component do not affect the network

6) Each computer has equal access to resources

Disadvantages of Ring topology

1) It is slower than the star topology

2) If one workstation goes down, the entire network get affected

3) Network card are expensive as compared to Ethernet card and hubs

c) Star topology

A Star topology is a network topology in which all network nodes are individually connected to a
central switch, hub or computer which acts as a central point of communication to pass on the
message. The other nodes are called the host

Advantages of star topology

1) Centralized management. It helps in monitoring the network

2) Failure of one computer or link doesn’t affect the rest of network

3) Easy to connect new nodes or devices

Disadvantages of Star topology

1) If the server fails , the whole system goes down

 2) The use of routers , hub or switch as central devices increases the overall cost of the
network

d) Tree topology

Tree topology integrates multiple star topologies together onto a bus. Only hub device connect
directly to the tree bus, and each hub function as the root of a tree of device

Tree topology

Advantages of tree topology

1) Expansion of network is possible and easy

2) Easily maintain and fault finding

3) Other hierarchical networks are not affected if one of them get damage

Disadvantages of tree topology

1) Huge cabling is needed

2) A lot of maintenance is needed

e) Mesh topology

Mesh topology involve the concept of routes. Messages sent on a mesh network can take any of
the several possible paths from source to destination. In mesh topology, each of the network nodes
are interconnected with one another in a network.
Advantages of a mesh topology

1) Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously

2) Even if one of the component fail, there is always an alternative present

3) Expansion and modification in topology can be done without disrupting any other node

Disadvantages of mesh topology

1) There is high chances of redundancy in many of the network connection

2) overall cost of this network is very high as compare to other network

3) set up and maintenance of topology is very difficult

E. CODING

Network coding is a networking technique in which transmitted data is encoded and decoded to
increase network throughput, reduce delays and make the network more robust. In network
coding, algebraic algorithms are applied to the data to accumulate the various transmissions.

F. SUBNETTING

G. NETWORK HARDWARE

Computer networking devices are known by different names such as networking devices,
networking hardware, network equipment etc. However, all of the names mean the same but have
got different purposes. After covering different topics on network topologies and their advantages
and disadvantages, we are here once again with a series on the network devices.
i. HUB

Network Hub is a networking device which is used to connect multiple network hosts. A network
hub is also used to do data transfer. The data is transferred in terms of packets on a computer
network. So when a host sends a data packet to a network hub, the hub copies the data packet to
all of its ports connected to. Like this, all the ports know about the data and the port, for whom
the packet is intended, claims the packet.

However, because of its working mechanism, a hub is not so secure and safe. Moreover, copying
the data packets on all the interfaces or ports makes it slower and more congested which led to the
use of network switch.

Hubs: Also called wiring concentrators, provide a central attachment point for network cabling.

Hubs come in three types:

»Passive
»Active
» Intelligent

ii.REPEATERS

A repeater is an electronic device that amplifies the signal it receives. In other terms, you can think
of repeater as a device which receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level or higher power
so that the signal can cover longer distances.

For example, inside a college campus, the hostels might be far away from the main college where
the ISP line comes in. If the college authority wants to pull a wire in between the hostels and main
campus, they will have to use repeaters if the distance is much because different types of cables
have limitations in terms of the distances they can carry the data for.

Characteristics:

➢ Connect two cable segments by boosting and regenerating the signal

➢ Functions at the Physical layer of the OSI model

➢ Cause very small delays in propagating the packets

➢ Pass incoming traffic to all connected ports—they do not perform data filtering

➢ Cannot connect segments with different media access control methods

➢ Have limits in cascading (the number you can connect serially)

➢ Can increase network reliability

iii.BRIDGES

If a router connects two different types of networks, then a bridge connects two subnetworks as a
part of the same network. You can think of two different labs or two different floors connected by
a bridge.

Characteristics:

➢ Operate at the Data Link layer of the OSI model

➢ Have higher processing overhead than repeaters

➢ Segment networks into collision domains

➢ Propagate broadcast messages

➢ Can connect segments with different media access control methods

➢ Make intelligent decisions based on a bridging table

➢ Can improve network performance by isolating intra-segment network traffic

➢ May overflow during excessive network traffic

iv.SWITCHES
Like a hub, a switch also works at the layer of LAN (Local Area Network) but you can say that a
switch is more intelligent than a hub. While hub just does the work of data forwarding, a switch
does ‘filter and forwarding’ which is a more intelligent way of dealing with the data packets.

So, when a packet is received at one of the interfaces of the switch, it filters the packet and sends
only to the interface of the intended receiver. For this purpose, a switch also maintains a CAM
(Content Addressable Memory) table and has its own system configuration and memory. CAM
table is also called as forwarding table or forwarding information base (FIB).

Characteristics:

➢ Operates at the Data Link layer of the OSI model

➢ Functions very similarly to a bridge, but has higher performance because of parallel
processing

➢ Has a higher processing overhead than a repeater

➢ Segments networks into collision domains

➢ Propagates broadcast messages

➢ Can connect segments with different media access control methods and speeds

➢ Is transparent to end devices—meaning they require no special configuration to be aware

of the switch

➢ Improves network performance by implementing micro- segmentation

➢ May overflow because of the funnel effect

v.ROUTER:

A router is a network device which is responsible for routing traffic from one to another network.
These two networks could be a private company network to a public network. You can think of a
router as a traffic police who directs different network traffic to different directions.

Characteristics:

➢ Operates at the Network layer of the OSI model

➢ Has higher processing overhead than bridges or switches

➢ Can make intelligent decisions about how to reach the remote computer more efficiently
 ➢ Does not propagate broadcast messages: Segments networks into broadcast domains

➢ Can connect segments with different media access control methods and speeds

➢ Works only with routable protocols (for example IPX and IP)

➢ Must be configured by the administrator before functioning

➢ End nodes must be specifically configured to use the router

vi.MODEM:

A Modem is somewhat a more interesting network device in our daily life. So if you have noticed
around, you get an internet connection through a wire (there are different types of wires) to your
house. This wire is used to carry our internet data outside to the internet world. However, our
computer generates binary data or digital data in forms of 1s and 0s and on the other hand, a wire
carries an analog signal and that’s where a modem comes in. A modem stands for (Modulator +
Demodulator). That means it modulates and demodulates the signal between the digital data of a
computer and the analog signal of a telephone line.

VII.CABLE
S
1. Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable consists of an inner core and an outer flexible braided shield, both of conductive
material separated by an insulator. The braided shield prevents the cable from picking up or
emitting electrical noise. There are two types of coaxial cable:
thinnet and
thicknet.

Coaxial cable

To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors. The most common type of
connectors used today is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman, or BNC connector.
2. Twisted Pair Cable
Twisted-pair cable is the most common type of cabling used in LAN networks today. It
consists of a pair or pairs of insulated wires twisted together. Cable twisting helps reduce noise
 pickup from outside sources and crosstalk on multi-pair cables. There are two types of twisted
pair cables: shielded twisted pairs (STP) and unshielded twisted pairs (UTP).

Twisted pair cable

uses RJ-14 and RJ-45
connectors
Twisted pair cable

3. Unshielded Twisted Pair

UTP can be connected as straight through or crossover. A straight-thru cable has identical
ends. A crossover cable has different ends.
4. Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber optic cables use optical fibers that carry digital data signals in the form of modulated light
pulses. An optic fiber consists of an extremely thin cylinder of glass, called the core, surrounded
by a concentric layer of glass, known as the cladding. Each cable has two fibers - one to transmit
and one to receive.
There are two types of optic fibers:
A single mode fiber (SMF) uses a single ray of light to carry transmissions over
long distances.
A multi-mode fiber (MMF) uses multiple rays of light simultaneously with each
ray of light running at a different reflection angle to carry transmissions over short
distances.

Optic fiber

The light source can be LED (light emitting diode) or LD (laser diode)
5.Unguided Media
Unguided media do not use physical means to define the path to be taken. They provide a means
for transmitting electromagnetic waves but do not guide them. They are also called unbounded
media. Examples of unguided media are infrared waves, radio wavesand microwaves.
a. Infrared
Infrared uses transmitters/receivers (transceivers) that modulate non-coherent infrared light.
Infrared signals do not penetrate walls as such transceivers must be within line-of-sight either
directly or via reflection. Line of sight is a type of propagation that can transmit and receive
data only where transmit and receive stations are in view of each other without any sort of an
obstacle between them.
b. Radio waves
Radio wave systems transmit signals by modulation of electromagnetic waves with
frequencies below that of visible light. Radio waves carry information by systematically
changing some property of the radiated waves such as amplitude (AM radio), frequency (FM
 radio) and phase. Radio waves are omnidirectional. This means that signals
spread out in all directions and can be received by many antennas.
4.2 cable wiring
The network uses two types of wiring: straight through and crossover.
a) Straight through
This cable facilitates communication between two different types of devices. Example:
computer-hub; hub-switch; hub-router; router-switch. This cable has two identical heads
(connectors). The two standards are: EAI568A and EIA568B.

1) Green/White 1) Orange/White

2) Green 2) Orange

3) Orange/White 3) Green/White

4) Blue 4) Blue

Standard EIA568A 5) Blue/White Standard EIA568B 5) Blue/White

(widely used) (widely used)
6) Orange 6) Green

7) Brown/White 7) Brown/White
Note: To change the standard EIA658A to the standard EIA568B,
simply switch the color green and orange.
8) Brown 8) Brown
b) Crossover
This cable connects two similar devices. Example: computer-computer;
hub-hub…
To obtain a twisted-pair cable, insert the standard EIA568A to first RJ45 connected, then the
standard
EIA568B to the second
connector.
A switch or a hub may contain a twisted port (it is always indicated) among its
ports. In this case, use a straight cable to connect two similar devices (computer to
computer for example);

An «intelligent» switch is capable of accepting either type of cable (straight or twisted).

GHANGHA E. 13
 4.3 Physical Network Setup
It is necessary to connect the cables between the computer and the hub or switch. Attach the
ready-set cable into the specific port of the hub or switch and the network card adapter. When
everything is correctly connected, a light on the hub (or switch) will light up when the
computer is started. If there is a printer, for it to act as a network printer, connect it directly to
the hub or switch.
For a network consisting of four computers and one shared printer, see the figure
below:

H. TRANSMISSION MODE

Transmission mode means the transferring of data between two devices. It is also called
communication mode. This mode directs the flow of information. In the transmission mode we
have the simplex mode, half duplex mode and full duplex mode.

a) Simplex mode

In this type of transmission mode data can be sent only on one direction e.g. loudspeaker,
television broadcasting

GHANGHA E. 14
b) Half duplex mode(HDX)

In a half-duplex system, we can send data in both direction but it is done one at a time. Both
the connected device can transmit and receive but not simultaneously

c) Full duplex mode(FDX)

In a full duplex we can send data in both directions simultaneously. We can send and receive
data at the same time e.g. a telephone network in which there is communication between two
persons by a telephone line

d) Broadcast

Broadcast is a term use to describe communication where a piece of information is sent from
one point to all other point and there is only one sender but the information is send to all
connected devices. Broadcast transmission is supported on most LANs and may be used to send
the same message to all computers on the LAN e.g. radio station

e) Point to point transmission

Point to point is when communication signals are carried between two locations without
branching to another location

I. ARCHITECTURE BASE CLASSIFICATION

Network architecture refers to the structural design that defines the arrangement of hardware,
software, access method, and protocol in the network. Here we have the peer to peer (P2P) and
client/server architecture.

i. Peer to peer network is a group of computers where each computer acts as a node for
sharing files within the group. Instead of having a central computer to act as a server,
each computer acts as the server for the file stored on it

ii. Client/server network. Here, a central computer acts as a storage location for files and
applications share on the network. The server control the network access of other
computer known as the client

NETWORK PROTOCOL

GHANGHA E. 15
A network protocol defines rules and conventions for communication between network
devices. Network protocols include mechanisms for devices to identify and make connections
with each other, as well as formatting rules that specify how data is packaged into messages
sent and received. Some protocols also support message acknowledgment and data compression
designed for reliable and/or high-performance network communication.

Some Network Protocols

Before we begin, we have to mention that are literally dozens more of these – the list below is
in our opinion the most important protocols.

IP: Internet Protocol

The Internet Protocol is where it all begins. IP is responsible for basic networking. The core of
the IP protocol works with Internet addresses and every computer on a TCP/ IP network must
have a numeric address.

FTP: File Transfer Protocol

FTP can be defined as a standard network protocol which is especially used to transfer files
from one host (machine/ operating system) to another host over a TCP/ IP based network.
Typically FTP is used to push files up or down to a server. Since Concise Courses is an
information security training school, we have to jump up and down at this point and say that
FTP is hugely insecure when left at its’ default settings. The reason for this, and why many
advise against using FTP is because users can, and do, authenticate themselves using only clear-
text which can easily be read by a Man In The Middle attack (Network attack) or otherwise.

To secure FTP the user can connect anonymously but only if the receiving server is configured
to allow it. A better and more robust solution is to use FTPS or better still, the SSH File Transfer
Protocol.

SSH: Secure Shell

SSH and FTP are often mentioned in the same breath. Invented in 1995 Secure Shell’s definition
is “a cryptographic network protocol for secure data communication”. SSH allows for remote
command-line login, and remote execution. It has many of the functions of FTP, but is more
secure. The latest versions are referred to as SSH-1 and SSH-2.

SSL: Secure Sockets Layer

GHANGHA E. 16
SSL allows security by allowing applications to encrypt data that go from a client to a matching
server (for example).

TELNET (telnet)

The telnet (written in small caps) lets you connect to a remote computer and work as if you
were sitting in front of your computer, no matter how far away you are. This is another old
technology, first invented in 1969. By default, telnet does not encrypt data sent over the network
so use with caution!

SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is the protocol for Internet email. It transfers email amongst
computers. The majority of computers in the wild understand SMTP, but some do not.

POP3: Post Office Protocol

The Post Office Protocol (latest version is ‘3’) provides basic client/ server features that help
the user download email from a POP3 email server to a computer (be it mobile or a desktop).
The main purpose of the protocol is to allow users to access their email more freely.

IMAP4 Internet Message Access Protocol

The Internet Message Access Protocol, and POP3, are sort of connected. Abbreviated to IMAP,
this protocol provides a richer set of features when compared to POP3. Worth mentioning that
although IMAP and POP3 both help to manage email, they cannot function together, i.e. the
user must must choice one or the other.

HTTP: Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

HTTP is the key protocol for being able to transfer data across the Internet. HTTP allows the
transfer of HyperText Markup Language (HTML) and other related scripting languages (like
CSS) to travel from servers to browsers.

HTTPS: Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure

Think of HTTPS as a secure version of HTTP. The Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure
(HTTPS) protocol facilitates a secure communication over a network. Strictly speaking HTTPS
is a layer on top of HTTP using SSL (see above).

SIP: Session Initiation Protocol

GHANGHA E. 17
In summary SIP is a signaling communications protocol, which is commonly used for managing
multimedia communications such as voice and video calls over Internet Protocol (IP) networks
– i.e. VoIP.

GHANGHA E. 18