INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL ENGINEERING UNIT-I BASICS OF THERMODYNAMICS Thermodynamics deals with the concepts of hea conversion of heat and other forms of energy. ‘The four laws of thermodynamics govern the behaviour of these quantities and provide a quantitative description. William Thomson, in 1749, coined the term thermodynamics and temperature and the inter- Definition of Thermodynamics: Thermodynamics in physics is a branch that deals with heat, work and temperature, and their relation to energy, radiation and physical properties of matter. Thermodynamics is not concerned about how and at y transformations are carried out. It is based on the initial and final states undergoing the change Classical Thermodynamics In classical thermodynamics, the behaviour of matter is analysed with a macroscopic approach. Units such as temperature and pressure are taken into consideration, which helps the individuals calculate other properties and predict the characteristics of the matter undergoing the process. In statistical thermodynamics, every molecule is under the spotlight, i. the properties of every molecule and how they interact are taken into consideration to characterise the behaviour of a group of molecules. Distinction Between Mechanics and Thermodynamics The distinction between mechanics and thermodynamics is worth |. noting. In mechanics, we solely concentrate on the motion of boundary particles or bodies under the action of forces and torques. On the other hand, thermodynamics is not concerned with the motion of the system as a whole. It is only concerned with the internal macroscopic state of the body. A Figure 4 Thermodynamic systems wot os Thermodynamic Systems A thermodynamic system is a specific portion of matter with a definite boundary on which our attention is focused. The system boundary may be real or imaginary, fixed or deformable. Boundary: A boundary is a closed surface surrounding a system through which energy and mass may enter or leave the system. © Surroundings: Everything that interacts with the system. System: A system is a region containing energy and/or matter that is separated from its surroundings by arbitrarily imposed walls or boundaries. ‘ Surrounding: Everything outside the system that has a direct influence on the behaviour of the system is known as a surrounding.INTRODUCTION to MECHANICAL ENGINEERING UNIT-I Example: tn a car, the engi ine i 1 the radios PUtDs gasoline inside the cylinder and is considered as a sean eersien; the radiator, piston, exhaust system and air outside form the environment fystem. The inner surfaces of the eylinder and Piston are considered as the boundary, Thermodynamic SYSTEMS are classified ay: Open System: If the thermodynamic system has the capacity 1 exchange both matter and Snerby with its surroundings, iti said to be an open system, Example: A steam turbine, a pool filled with water, pool, where the water can enter or leave the Closed System: 6 System which has the ability to exchany ise only energy with its surroundings and cannot exchange matter is know nas a closed system, /essel made of materials like ste« Example: Reactants placed in a cloyed ‘opper, and silver are an ideal example of a closed system since the material of the vessel tt conducting in Tate. Or @ cylinder in which the valve is closed is an example of a closed system, When the cylinder is heated or cooled, it does not lose its mas Isolated System: known as an isolated proc which cannot exchange matter or energy with the Surroundings is *ystem. The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that thermodynamic do not affect the total energy of the system, Example: We iclants are prevent in a thermos flask or an insulated vessel, where neither on Y nor matter is exchanged with the environment. Thermodynamic Process em undergoes a thermodynamic process when there is some energetic change swociated with changes in pressure, volume and internal energy system that i are four types of thermodynamic processes that have their unique properties, and they are Adiabatic Process ~ A process where no heat transfer into or out of the system occurs Iwochoric Process ~ A process where no chang in volume occurs and the system does no work * Isobaric Proce ~ A process in which no change in pressure occurs. * Isothermal Proves ~ A process in which no change in temperature occurs. ‘Thermodynamic Properties : i ile Veer sini Genaol ene Thermodynamic properties are defined ax characteristic features of a system, capable specifying the system's state, Thermodynamic properties may be extensive or intensiv ‘+ Imwnsive properties are properties that do not depend on the quantity of matter. Pressure erat arecraetia and temperature are intensive proper a ii # In the case of extensive properties, their values depends on the mass of the sys Volume, energy, and enthalpy are extensive properties.INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL ENGINEERING UNIT-I Laws of thermodynamics 7 ynami E peaey atch las define the fundamental physical quantities like energy, nas PY iS aracterize thermodynamic Systems at thermal equilibrium. These Tepresent how these quantities behave under various circumstances, Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics ; The Zeroth law. f thermodynar individually in equilibrium, witha ‘wo bodies are also in thermal eq temperature, and thermodynamics mics states that if two bodies are ‘Separate third body, then the first : juilibrium with each other. This means that if System A is in thermal equilibrium with Jo= ar @ tp System C and system B is also in equilibrium with system C, then : Ta system A and B are also in thermal equilibrium k aw Consider two cups A and B, with boiling water, When a @ io thermometer is placed in cup A, it gets warmed up by the Figure 5 Zeroth Low Water until it reads 100 °C. When it reads 100 °C, we say that the thermometer is in equilibrium with cup A. When we move the thermometer to cup B to read the temperature, it continues to read 100 °C. The thermometer is also in equilibrium with cup B. By Keeping in mind the zeroth law of thermodynamics, we can conclude that cup A and cup B are in equilibrium with each other. The zeroth law of thermodynamics en of any two objects that we like, F First law of thermodynamics, also known as the law of conservation of energy, states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but it can be changed from one form to another, wables us to use thermometers to compare the temperature Law of Thermodynamics Examples: Plants convert the radiant energy of sunlight to chemical energy Photosynthesis. We eat plants and convert the chemical energy into kin swim, walk, breathe, and scroll through this page. Switching on light may seem to produce energy, but it is electrical energy that is converted. Second Law of Thermodynamics : ‘The second law of thermodynamics (2nd Law) is the study of energy-conversion systems. It sets an upper limit to the efficiency of conversion of heat to work in Ctousus Sttoment heat engines. Clausius Statement: Clausius Statement of the Second Law One of | - the earliest statements of the Second Law of Thermodynamics was | made by R. Clausius in 1850. He stated the following, “It is impossible to construct a device which operates on a cycle and whose sole effect is the transfer of heat from a cooler body to a hotter body”. ure 6 Second law of Heat cannot spontaneously flow from the cold system to the hot ear See wees of system without external work being performed on the system. ThisINTRODUCTION 19 MIICHANICAL INGE UNIT WW ONNELIY What refhigen weratar and Newt HUN AewOInp tal, 10 hol but only when, lived hy snlern work, TeuiTINW Work thom thelr SUrrOUNG Inge lo operite, Kelvin Manek Atatoment "HAS impossible tu ¢ ont than the produetion ah wi WING In i refrigerator, Newt flows from wold relrivermtors we driven by electtto motors A device whieh operator on we velo and produes no other effet rk ani the Hansfor af bout Mom a vinyte bouly This statement operiien With the term “ermal rewervolr Terervolr ii a larue object, in Which the temperature remalny SOnAtANE While eheruy te extrneted, Aueh a system ean be PPproximated in numberof wayk=by the earth's aimonphere, {it Reson Tanne bevlien oF Water like lakes, aoennn und as on ie The Kelvin-Planek statement does o existence Of A ayslem, thal develope w net heat transfer extracted from a thermal 1 (hs statement, @ syste undergoing Positive Het aAMOUNL OF Work from a he A thermal reservoir oF “single reservoir, 4 Hol exclude the amount of work from jewervoir, According (o cycle cannot develop a w pal Hanlon extracted from Higure 7 Second law thermadynamies Third Law of Thermodynanies The third law af thermodynamies states that (he entropy of a aystem approuches # constant value fy the temperature approwvhes absolute vere The entropy of 4 pure crystalline substance (perfoet order) at absolute 2010 lemporatute is 2010, This statement holds true iF the perfect crystal hiv only one slate with minimum energy. Het uy consider steam as an example to understand the third law of thermoulynamten step by step 4, ‘The molecules within it move freely and have high entropy b, Ifone decreases the temperature below 100 "C, the steam gots converted to water, where the movement of molecules Is restricted, decreasing the entropy of water & When water |i further cooled below 0 °C, it gots converted to solid fee, In this state, the movement of molecules jy further restricted, and the entropy of the ayatom reduces more. d. Av the temperature of the oe further reduces, the move of th p substance woos on decronsing, rontricted further and the entropy of the substance yoo 0 ‘ ©, When the jee is cooled 10 absolute zero, ideally, the entropy should be zoro, But in reality, {L1s Impossible to cool any substance to Zoro. olecules in them isINT RODUCTION To MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Unies Heat Transfer Mechanisms Jn our daily Jife, it has been obwerved that when a pan is boiled full temperature increases, However, it slowly cools down when the flame is turned off. This happens due to the phenomenon of heat transfer occurring between the pan full of water and flame. It has been confirmed that heat transfer takes place from hotter objects to colder objects. Of weer on 2 flame, its When objects are falling at different’ temperatures or if there is an object at a different temperature from the Surroundings, then the transfer of heat takes place such that both the object and the Surroundings reach an equilibrium temperature. There exist three modes of hea trans! Examples of modes of heat transfer of those are given below. 1. Conduction 2. Convection 3. Radiation (2 Woes of hace transfer Conduction Mode of Heat Transfer Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interactions between the particles. Conduction ean take place in solids, liquids, or gases. In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and diffusion of the molecules during their random motion. In Solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by free electrons.aa Ne Know that wrapping a hot water tank with glass wool (an Upc reduces the rete of beat loss fick ths Hae thicker the insulation, the smaller the heat loss, We also know that a hot w Tate when the tem Further, the larger of heat loss, ater tank will lose heat at a higher perature of the room housing the tank is lowered. the tank, the larger the surface area and thus the rate 4 Figure 9 Heat conduction through the large plain wall Consider steady heat conduction through a large plane wall of thickness Ax = L and area A, as shown in igure 9. The temperature difference across the wall is AT = T:-T),. The rate of heat conduction through a plane lay across the layer and the heat transfer area but is in layer. That is, is proportional to the temperature difference Wersely proportional to the thickness of the Rate of heat conduction o (Area) (Temperature Difference ) / Thickness Fourier’s law of heat conduction Fourier’s law of conduction of heat is expressed as Qe Ax (dT/dx) eat flow through a body per unit time (in watts W) A= Surface area of heat flow m2, dt = Temperature difference in oC ot K dx = Thickness of the body in the direction of flow, m. Hence, we can express the Heat Conduction formula by Q=-k*A (dt/dx) Where k= thermal conductivity of the body and it is a Constant of proportionality Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing temperature, and the temperature gradient becomes negative when temperature decreases with increasing x. The negative sign in Eq. ensures that heat transfer in the positive x-direction is a positive quantity.INTROD UCTION To MECHANICAL ENGINEERING aw —— area of the rod (A) ~ ture dit Time me Se a cas the two surfaces of the conductor (- Ta) between two surfaces @. Applications of conduction Fins Provided 00 a motorcycle engine fase cut off : Electric heater Carbonization of coal Melting of iron in a blast furnace Fission reactions in nuclear fuel rods of nuclear reactors. Electrical wiring in housing Electric discharge machining in manufacturing Thermal Conductivity DIAN td + The thermal conductivity can be defin cof the material per unit area per unit t © The thermal conductivity conduct heat * Ahigh value for thermal conductiv red as the heat transfer rate through a unit thickness temperature difference. of 2 material is a measure of the ability of the material to y indicates that the material is a good heat conductor, and a low value indicates that the material is a poor heat conductor or insulator. © Note that materials such as copper and silver that are good electrical conductor are also ood heat conductors and have high values of thermal conductiv rity. ‘* Materials such as rubber, wood, and conductivity values. styrofoam are poor conductors of heat and have low Convection mode of Heat transfer + Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in motion. It involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion. The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat transfer. In the absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid is by pure conduction.ae Presence of bulk motion of ve © fluid enhances the heat viaion transfer between the solid surface say , and the fluid, but it also Temper =p! complicates the determination of : heat transfer rates, a * Consider the cooling of a hot block by blowing cool air over its top surface (Figure 10). Hot Block Figure 10 heat transfer by convection For example, in the absence of a fan, heat transfer from the surface of the hot block in the figure will be by natural Convection since any motion in the air, in this case, will be due to the rise of the farmer (and thus lighter) air near the surface and the fall of the cooler (and thus heavier) air to fill its place. Heat transfer between the block and the surroundin, temperature difference between the air and the block is the resistance of air to movement and thus to initiate na r will be by conduction if the not large enough to overcome tural convection currents Energy is first transferred to the air layer adjacent to the block by conduction. This energy is then carried away from the surface by convection, that is, by the combined effects of conduction within the air that are due to the random motion of air molecules and the bulk or macroscopic motion of the air that removes the heated air near the surface and replaces it by the cooler air. Types of Convection: + Forced Convection- Convection is called forced convection if the fluid is forced to flow over the surface by external means such as a fan, pump, or the wind. + Natural or Free Convection- In contrast, convection is called natural (or free) convection if the fluid motion is caused by buoyancy forces that are induced by density differences due to the variation of temperature in the fluid (Figure) Forced Natural convection convection Air ZZ, Figure 11 forced and free convectionConvection Formula The rate of convecti and is convenient} Where, The conve velocity h is the convection heat transfer coeffi Ais the surface area through which c Tsis the surface temperature, ‘ais the temperature of the fluid suffi ‘ction heat transfer coefficient h is d parameter whose value depends © geometry, the nature of fluid motion, Applications of convection- cient in W/m? °C. “onvection heat transfer takes place, ciently far from the surface. Forced Convection is used to cool down the headed plate. Foreed Convection is used to cool down the heated engine of the vehicle. Forced convection is used to cool dows n the laptop and supercomputer ete. Forced convection is used to cool down the human body in the summer season. Radiator — Puts warm air out at the top and draws in cooler air at the bottom. Difference Between Conduction and Convection Conduction It is the mode of heat transfer from one part of substance to another part of same substance or one substance to another without displacement of molecules or due to the vibrations of molecules. Convection | It is the mode of heat transfer from one part of a substance to another part of same ‘substance or one substance to another with a displacement of molecules or due to the | fluid flowing. It is the mode of heat transfer in which fluid particles do not mix with each other. It occurs in solid, liquid and gases. Itis the mode of heat transfer in which fluid particles mix with each other. It occurs in liquid and gases. It governs by Fourier"s law of heat | conduction, It governs by Newton"s law of convection | heat transfer. Example: Heat flow from one end to other end of metal rod. Example: Heat flow from boiler shell to water.Radiation is the energy emitted by matter By the form of electromagnetic waves (or Photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic confi i igurations of the at molecules. es Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of energy by radiation does not Tequire the presence of an intervening medium. In fact, energy transfer by ‘)) Ce Ss ws VO \ radiation is the fastest (at the speed of light) and it suffers no attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun reaches the earth. Facatn Figure 12 three modes of eneray transfer The mechanism of the heat flow by radiation consists of three distinct phases 1, Conversion of thermal energy of the hot source into electromagnetic waves: All bodies above absolute zero temperature are capable of emitting radiant energy. The energy released by a radiating surface is not continuous but is in the form of successive and separate (discrete) packets or quanta of energy called photons. The photons are propagated through space as rays; the movement of a swarm of photons is described as electromagnetic waves, 2. Passage of wave motion through intervening space ‘The photons, as carries of energy, travel with unchanged frequency in straight paths with speed equal to that of light. 3. Transformation of waves into heat + When the photons approach the cold receiving surface, there occurs reconversion of wave motion into thermal energy which is partly absorbed, reflected, or transmitted through the receiving surface + In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation, which is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature, It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays, gamma rays, microwaves, radio waves, and television waves that are not related to temperature. Radiation Heat transfer equation The net exchange of heat between the two radiating surfaces is due to the face that one at a higher temperature radiates more and receives less energy for its absorption. Q=oe Ai Fy (TH-Tj! )I TRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL, NG UNIT-1 NEERIN Where, Q® Heat flow rate from surfice i oj = Stephan- boltzman constant 6 = Emissivity A = area of surface i Fy = Form factor between surface iandj Tiand Ty absolute temperatures of the surfaces The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a su K) is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann law as at an absolute temperature (in Ey = on AT! ste ‘an constant=5.67x10" Where By is the energy radiated by the black body, en is the Stefan Boltzman constant *Wim'k"