Spontaneous Reaction ¿−666 J /mol (spontaneous)

- Favors the formation of products

- Exothermic G: T =298K, S = 212J/mol·K, H =-46,500 J/mol
- The combination of energy decrease and
entropy increase dictates that combustion Δ G=−46,500 J /mol−298 K (212 J /mol·K )
reactions are spontaneous reactions. ¿−46,500 J /mol−63176 J /mol
Ex: Rusting of iron, leaving sugar in boiling water, a ¿−109.676 J /mol(spontaneous)
bonfire
G: T =298K, S = -205.1J/mol·K,
Non-Spontaneous Reaction H =-890,300 J/mol
- Does not favor the formation of products Δ G=−890,300 J /mol−298 K (−205.1 J /mol·K )
- It must be endothermic, accompanied by a ¿−890,300 J /mol+ 61,119.8J /mol
decrease in entropy, or both. ¿−829,480.2 J /mol(spontaneous)
Ex: Photosynthesis, Formation of Diamonds from Coal
Chemical Equilibrium
- Dynamic (constant reaction)
Entropy (ΔS)
- Occurs when the forward and reverse reaction
- ΔS = S(f) - S(i) rates are equal.
- Disorderness, something in chaos - Amount of each chemical stays the same
- Measures how atoms are free to move around - Nearly all chemical reactions are equilibrium
and arrange themselves in random ways. reactions
- A state function, independent of the path taken - refers to the state in which a reversible
to attain the final state chemical reaction occurs at an equal rate in
both the forward and reverse directions,
Factors Affecting Entropy
resulting in no net change in the concentrations
- Change in Phase of reactants and products.
- Change in Temperature
- Number of Particles A reversible chemical reaction is when the products
react to produce the original reactants as soon as they
Gibbs Free Energy (ΔG) are formed. These reactions tend to attain a state of
equilibrium.
- ΔG = ΔH - TΔS
- used to measure the maximum amount of work The concept of equilibrium is described by the
done in a thermodynamic system when the equilibrium constant (K). For a general reaction:
temperature and pressure are kept constant.
- Indicates the direction of a chemical reaction kf
and determines if a reaction is spontaneous or
aA +bB ⇋ cC +dD
kr
not. At equilibrium,
○ -ΔG: the reaction is spontaneous in the rate forward =rate reverse
direction written. Using the rate law,
○ ΔG=0: the system is at equilibrium and kf ¿
there is no net change either in a
forward or reverse direction. Rate of FR = K1(N2)(H2)3
○ +ΔG: reaction is not spontaneous and Rate of RR = K(NH3)2
the process proceeds spontaneously in General Expression: K = ¿ ¿
Or
the reserve direction. K=¿ ¿
Ex:
What does K mean?
G: T = 293 K, H = 19.07 Kcal, S = 90 Kcal
K>1, is product favored
Δ G=19.07 Kcal−293 K (90 Kcal) K<1, is reactant favored
90 Kcal Note:
¿ 19.07 Kcal−293 K ( )
1000 K Any solid reactant/product has a value of 1
¿ 19.07 Kcal−293 K (0.09 cal) Solids have an activity of 1
¿19.07 Kcal−26.37 Kcal R - REACTION
¿−7.3 Kcal( spontaneous) I - INITIAL MOLARITY
C - CHANGE IN MOLARITY
Note: 1kJ/mol = 1000 J/mol E - EQUILIBRIUM MOLARITY
G: T = 30℃ + 273 = 303 K, S = 22J/mol-K
H = 6kJ/mol x 1000 J/mol = 6,000 J/mol Ex:
Δ G=6000 J /mol−303 K (22 J /mol−K) 2 S O 2(g) +O2 (g) ⇋2 S O3(g )
(cancel K)
G: [SO2]= 0.90 M [O2]= 0.35 M [SO3]= 1.1 M
¿ 6000 J /mol−666 J /mol
 2 2
[S O3 ] [1.1] K ≈ 4.27 C
K C= → K C= C
¿¿ ¿¿
E 0.20

The following reaction was performed in a sealed

vessel at 727 °C: R 2AB C2B ⇌ A2D 2CB
H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g) I 0.30 0.30
Initially, only H2 and I2 were present at concentrations
C -2x -x +x +2x
of [H2] = 3.80 M and [I2] = 2.70 M. The equilibrium
concentration of I2 is 0.0900 M. What is the equilibrium E 0.20
constant, Kc, for the reaction at this temperature?

The change for the reactions is due to the

R [H2] [I2] ⇌ [2Hl] stoichiometric coefficient and the determination of
whether it is positive or negative lies in which side the
I 3.80 2.70 0
molecule is on: if it's on the reactant side it is negative
and if it's on the product side it is positive
C -x -x +2x

E 0.0900 Why is the reactant side negative, well because it’s

being consumed to form the product side (also why the
product side is positive, it is gaining from the reactant)
R [H2] [I2] ⇌ [Hl]
Note: Solids can’t affect the equilibrium constant
I 3.80 2.70 0
Let’s solve for x:
C 2.61 2.61 5.22 [ A 2 D]=0.30+ x=0.20→ x=0.20−0.30 → x=−0.10
[2 AB]=−2(−0.10)→=0.20M
E 1.19 0.0900 5.22
[C2 B ]=−0.10 M
[2CB]=2(−0.10)→=−0.20 M
[I2] change: 2.70-0.0900 = 2.61
And such:
Since [I2] & [H2] have a 1:1 ratio
[2AB] eq: 0.30+ 0.20=0.50
[H2] change: = 2.61
Since the coefficient of [HI] is 2, making [I2] & [2HI] have a 1:2 R 2AB C2B ⇌ A2D 2CB
ratio, doubling this means we can get:
I 0.30 0 0.30 0
[2HI] change: 2.61+2.61 = 5.22
And since the initial molarity of [2HI] is 0 it is also its C 0.20 0 -0.10 0
Equilibrium Molarity
E 0.50 0 0.20 0
[2HI] eq: = 5.22 Then to [H2]’s eq
[H2] eq: 3.80-2.61 = 1.19 why because in [I2] 2.70- And such:
2.61=0.09 [2AB] eq: 0.30+ 0.20=0.50
2 2
[HI ] [5.22] K ≈ 254.42 M Since [C2B] and [2CB] are in solid states it won’t affect the
K C= → K C= C equilibrium constant
¿¿ ¿¿ ❑ ❑
[ A 2 D] [0.20] K ≈ 0.80 M
K C= → K = C
Find the equilibrium constant for the following ¿¿ C
¿¿
equilibrium. The initial concentration of AB and A2D are
0.30M before they mixed and when equilibrium is
reached the equilibrium concentration of A2D is 0.20M. Le Chatelier’s Principle
Show the RICE for calculation. - A fundamental concept in chemistry states that
if a system at equilibrium is subjected to a
2AB + C2B ⇌ A2D + 2CB change in conditions, the system will respond in
a way that tends to counteract or minimize the
effect of that change.
R 2AB C2B ⇌ A2D 2CB - helps predict how changes in temperature,
pressure, concentration, or the presence of a
I 0.30 0.30 catalyst can affect the position of an equilibrium
 and the concentrations of reactants and
products.
- This principle is named after the French
chemist Henry Louis Le Chatelier.

Change in Concentration
One factor affecting equilibrium is the change in the
amount of either the reactant or the product.

Change Action to Attain

Equilibrium

Reactants increased Shift to FR

Reactants decreased Shift to RR

Products increased Shift to RR

Products decreased Shift to FR

Change in Pressure (for gaseous reaction)

- If the pressure is increased, the system will shift
in the direction that reduces the total number of
moles of gas. If the pressure is decreased, the
system will shift in the direction that increases
the total number of moles of gas.
Change in Temperature
- Changes in temperature affect the
- equilibrium position differently for exothermic
and endothermic reactions
For an exothermic reaction (heat is released),
- increasing the temperature will shift the
equilibrium in the direction of the reactants,
while decreasing the temperature will shift it in
the direction of the products.
For an endothermic reaction (heat is absorbed),
- increasing the temperature will shift the
equilibrium in the direction of the products,
while decreasing the temperature will shift it in
the direction of the reactants.
 hydroxide ions. This reaction illustrated below is
called autoionization.
H2O(l) + H2O(l) →H3O+ + OH- (aq)
Therefore the eq. expression is:
Keq= [H+][OH-]
Q2W3: Acids and Bases
Can be replaced with:
Property Acid Base
Kw=[H+][OH-]
Taste Sour Bitter
In pure water concentration of H+ & OH- ions are [H+] =
Smell Frequently No Smell (1.0x10-7) M and [OH-] = (1.0x10-7) M
burns nostrils except for NH3
(ammonia) Kw=(1.0x10-7)(1.0x10-7)
= 1.0x10-14
Texture Sticky Slippery With the use of the equation the concentration can be
compiled as;
−14 −14
Reactivity Frequently Reacts with [H+]= (1.0 x 10 ) [OH-]= (1.0 x 10 )
reacts with ¿¿ ¿¿
metals to form
H2 In an acidic solution, [H+]>[OH-]
In a basic solution, [H+]<[OH-]
Bronsted-Lowry Theory
BL Acid
Example:
- donates protons (H+)
The concentration of the H+ ions in a certain soft drink is
- Once the Acid donates its protons to the base
0.0025 M. Calculate the concentration of OH-.
on the product side, it will now be called
conjugate base
G: Concentration of [H+] = 0.0025 M
- is any species that is capable of donating a −14
proton H+ (1.0 x 10 ) −12
S: OH-= ¿ 4.0 x 10 M ; ACID IC
BL Base [0.0025]
- accepts protons
- is any species that is capable of accepting a Power of Hydrogen pH
proton, which requires a lone pair of electrons - Hydrogen and hydroxide ion concentration are
- Once the Base accepts protons from the acid very small numbers and very difficult to deal
on the product side, it will now be called with.
conjugate acid - It is for this reason that in 1909, Danish chemist
Water Soren Sorensen introduced the term pH or
- is amphoteric, both can be a base and acid “power of hydrogen”
- 7 ph level (neutral) pH
- is a term used to describe the acidity and
Water as BL Acid alkalinity of a solution. Products with a pH of
H2O + NH3 ⇌NH4+ + OH- less than 7 are considered acidic, while those
with a pH of greater than 7 are basic.
Water as BL Base
H2O(l) + HCl(aq) ⇌H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

It is determined by taking the negative logarithm of the

concentration of H3O+ or H+;
pH = -log[H+]

For bases, instead of pH, pOH is used. pOH Is defined

as the negative logarithm of the hydroxide ion
concentration;
pOH = -log[OH-]

Acid-Base Properties of Water

- Two molecules of water can react with each
other to produce hydronium (H3O+) and
 G: NH3 = 3.00 M, NH4Cl = 2.88 M, pKb= 4.74.

Q2W4: Buffer Solutions

pH=4.74+ log ( 2.88
3.00 M )
M
=¿ 4.72

14−4.72=9.28
Buffer Solution Redox Reaction
- is a solution that contains comparable amounts
of either weak acid and its conjugate base or Oxidation-Reduction Reaction
weak base and its conjugate acid. The solution - Is any chemical reaction in which the oxidation
is resistant to a change in pH when small number of a losing molecule, atom, or ion
amounts of a strong acid or a strong base are changes by gaining or losing an electron.
added into it. The acid in the buffer reacts with Oxidation
any added OH ions whereas the base reacts - is the loss of electrons during the reaction by a
with any added H+ ions. molecule, atom, or ion.
Consider the ff. Solutions - occurs when the oxidation state of a molecule,
- HC2H3O2 and KC2H3O2 atom, or ion is increased.
- HCOOH and KCOOH Reduction
- H3PO4 and NaH2PO4 - is a gain of electrons or the oxidation state of an
The first three solutions are buffer solutions because atom, molecule, or ion decreases.
they can weaken acids and conjugate bases.
Redox Reaction
Consider the ff. Solutions - Common and vital to some basic functions of
- NH3 and NH4Cl life, including photosynthesis, respiration,
- C5H5N and C5H5NHCl combustion, and corrosion or rusting.
- CH3NH2 and CH3NH3Cl Rules of Assigning Oxidation States
1. The oxidation state of an individual atom is 0.
The three solutions above are also buffers because the 2. The total oxidation state of all atoms in: a
mixtures can contain weak bases and conjugate acid. neutral species is 0 and in an ion is equal to the
ion charge.
The weak acid with its conjugate or weak base with its 3. Group 1 metals have an oxidation state of +1
conjugate acid does not consume each other in a and group 2 an oxidation state of its +2.
neutralization reaction; therefore, each is considered to 4. The oxidation state of fluorine is -1 in
be a buffer solution. compounds.
5. Hydrogen generally has an oxidation state of +1
Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation in compounds.
- The pH of a buffer solution can be estimated 6. Oxygen generally has an oxidation state of -2 in
with the help of this equation when the compounds.
concentration of the acid and its conjugate 7. In binary metal compounds, Group 17 elements
base, or the base and the corresponding have an oxidation state of -1, group 16
conjugate acid, are known. elements of -2, and group 15 elements of -3
Formula:
Example:
Zn + 2H+ → Zn2+ + H₂
+
Zn → Zn2 (oxidation) 2H+ →H₂ (reduction)

2 Al + 3Cu2+ → 2 Al3+ + 3Cu

Example 1 +
2Al → 2Al3 (oxidation) 3 Cu2+ → 3Cu (reduction)
What is the pH of the buffer solution that contains 1.00 Fe2+ + MnO4- → Fe3+ + Mn2+
M HC2H3O2 & 0.800 M KC2H3O2? The acid dissociation Fe2+→Fe3+ (reduction) MnO4→ Mn2(oxidation)
constant of KC2H3O2=1.8x10-5; hence the pKa=4.74.

G: KC2H3O2=0.800M, HC2H3O2=1.00 M, pKa= 4.74

pH=4.74+ log ( 0.800

1.00 M )
M
=¿ 4.64

14−4.64=9.36
Example 2

What is the pH of the buffer solution that contains 3.00

M NH3 AND 2.88 M NH4Cl ? The base dissociation
constant of NH3 = 1.8 x 10-5 ; hence the pKb = 4.74.
 - Is often sold as a cheap watch battery. It is also
the battery used in flashlights, MP3 players,
and handheld video games.
Anode: zinc
Cathode: manganese(IV) oxide
Electrolyte: strong alkaline KOH
Q2W5&6: ELECTROCHEMISTRY Classification: Primary Cell
Electrochemical Cells Silver Oxide Cell
Electrochemical reactions - is the battery used in wristwatches, calculators,
- Are redox reactions involve a flow of electrons and in auto exposure cameras.
from one substance to another. Anode: zinc
- These reactions take place in; Galvanic and Cathode: silver oxide
Electrolytic Cells Electrolyte: alkali
- Classification: Primary Cell
Galvanic Cells 3. Lead Storage Battery
- The chemical energy produced by a - The lead storage battery is used to supply
spontaneous reaction is converted to electrical power to the electrical accessories of the
energy. vehicle.
Batteries Anode: lead
- A galvanic cell in which oxidation-reduction Cathode: lead dioxide (PbO2) packed
reaction produces an electric current. It is self- on a metal plate
contained and is often arranged in a series of Electrolyte: dilute aqueous H2SO4
two or more cells. Classification: Secondary Cell
- Examples of a battery; dry cell, button battery, 4. Fuel Cells
lead storage battery, and fuel cells. - work like batteries, but they do not run down or
Primary Batteries need recharging. They produce electricity and
- Are single use only and cannot be recharged heat as long as fuel is supplied.
because the electrodes and the electrolytes - can be used in a wide range of applications,
cannot be restored to the original state. providing power for applications across multiple
Secondary Batteries sectors, including transportation,
- Are rechargeable batteries. industrial/commercial/residential buildings, and
Anode: The positive electrode where long-term energy storage.
oxidation occurs. Which facilitates the -
flow of electric charge. Electrolytic Cells
Cathode: The negative electrode - the electrical energy is used to make
where the reduction occurs. - a nonspontaneous reaction occurs. This
1. Dry Cell Battery/Leclanche Cell process is called electrolysis.
- It is used in flashlights, transistor radios, and - The electrolytic cell contains a pair of
telephone machines. electrodes – the anode(+) where the oxidation
Anode: zinc that is in contact with occurs and cathode (-) where reduction takes
manganese(IV) dioxide place, connected to the battery.
Cathode: carbon rod - For the electrolysis to happen, the electrodes
Electrolyte: paste of ammonium are immersed in a solution of an electrolyte.
chloride and zinc chloride
Classification: Primary Cell

2. Button Battery
- are used to power small portable electronic
devices.
Examples; Mercury Battery, Alkaline Battery,
Silver Oxide Cell
Mercury Battery
- Is ideal for heart pacemakers, hearing aids,
electric watches, and light meters. It has a
higher capacity and longer life than button
batteries.
Anode: zinc amalgamated with
mercury
Cathode: mercury (II) oxide mixed with
graphite
Electrolyte: strongly alkaline-
containing zinc oxide and mercury(II)
oxide
Classification: Primary Cell
Alkaline Cell