UNI

T1BASI
CCOMPUTERORANI
ZATI
ONANDDESI
GN
Comput
eror
gani
zat
ioni
sconcer
nedwi
tht
hest
ruct
ureandbehav
iouroft
heasseen
byt
heuser
.Itdeal
swi
thcomponent
sandconnect
ionsi
nthesy
stem.Comput
er
Or
gani
zat
iont
ell
sushowexact
lyal
ltheuni
tsi
nthesy
stem ar
ear
rangedand
i
nter
connect
ed.
Comput
erAr
chi
tect
urei
sconcer
nedwi
tht
hewayhar
dwar
ecomponent
sar
e
connect
edt
oget
hert
ofor
m acomput
ersy
stem.I
tact
sasani
nter
facebet
ween
har
dwar
eandsof
twar
e.I
thel
pust
hef
unct
ional
i
tiesoft
hesy
stem.
Basi
coper
ati
onalConcept
s
Toper
for
m agi
vent
askanappr
opr
iat
epr
ogr
am consi
sti
ngofal
i
stofi
nst
ruct
ionsi
s
st
oredi
nthememor
y.I
ndi
vi
duali
nst
ruct
ionsar
ebr
oughtf
rom t
hememor
yint
othe
pr
ocessor
,whi
chexecut
est
hespeci
fi
edoper
ati
ons.Dat
atobest
oredar
eal
so
st
oredi
nthememor
y.
Exampl
es:
-AddLOCA,
R0
Thi
sinst
ruct
ionaddst
heoper
andatmemor
ylocat
ionLOCA,t
ooper
andi
nregi
ster
R0& pl
acest
hesum i
ntor
egi
ster
.Thi
sinst
ruct
ionr
equi
rest
heper
for
manceof
sev
eral
steps,
1.Fi
rstt
hei
nst
ruct
ioni
sfet
chedf
rom t
hememor
yint
othepr
ocessor
.
2.Theoper
andatLOCAi
sfet
chedandaddedt
othecont
ent
sofR0
3.Fi
nal
l
yther
esul
ti
ngsum i
sst
oredi
nther
egi
sterR0

PREPAREDBYSAHALAKIJAIBHARATHCOLLEGE,
1
PBVR
Theabov
efi
gur
eshowshowt
ememor
yandpr
ocessorcanbeconnect
ed.Iaddi
ti
on
t
oALUandcont
roluni
tthepr
ocessorcont
ainst
heno.ofr
egi
ster
susedf
orsev
eral
pur
poses.
ThePC (
Progr
am Count
er)cont
ainst
hememor
yaddr
essoft
hei
nst
ruct
iont
o
beexecut
ed.Dur
ingexecut
ion,t
hecont
ent
soft
hePCar
eupdat
edt
opoi
ntt
othe
nexti
nst
ruct
ion.Ev
eryt
ime t
hatan i
nst
ruct
ion i
sto be execut
ed,
the pr
ogr
am
count
err
eleasesi
tscont
ent
stot
hei
nter
nal
busandsendsi
ttot
hememor
yaddr
ess
r
egi
ster
.
Ther
egi
ster
sMARandMDRf
aci
l
itat
escommuni
cat
ionwi
tht
hememor
y.TheMAR
(
Memor
yAddr
essRegi
ster
)hol
dst
headdr
essoft
hel
ocat
iont
oorf
rom whi
chdat
a
ar
etobet
ransf
err
ed.Ascanbeseenf
rom t
hef
igur
eabov
e,t
heconnect
ionoft
he
MARt
othemai
nmemor
yisone-
wayoruni
dir
ect
ional
.
TheMDR(
Memor
yDat
aRegi
ster
)cont
ainst
hedat
atobewr
it
tenorr
eadoutoft
he
addr
essedl
ocat
ion.Dur
ingt
hef
etchoper
ati
on,t
heMDRcont
ainst
hei
nst
ruct
iont
o
beexecut
edordat
aneededdur
ingexecut
ion.I
nwr
it
eoper
ati
on,
MDRt
hedat
atobe
wr
it
teni
ntot
hemai
nmemor
y.
TheI
R(I
nst
ruct
ionRegi
ster
)cont
ainst
hei
nst
ruct
iont
hati
sbei
ngexecut
ed.Bef
ore
t
heI
Rexecut
est
hei
nst
ruct
ioni
tneedst
obedecodedf
ir
st.Assoonast
hecont
ent
oft
he MDR i
str
ansf
err
ed t
othe I
R,t
he decodi
ng pr
ocess commences.Af
ter
decodi
ng,
execut
ionoft
hei
nst
ruct
ionwi
l
ltakepl
ace.
Then-gener
alpur
poser
egi
ster
sR0t
oRn-1i
susedf
orst
ori
ngt
empor
aryv
alues

PREPAREDBYSAHALAKIJAIBHARATHCOLLEGE,
2
PBVR
Letusconsi
dersomeoper
ati
ngst
eps.
1.Pr
ogr
amsr
esi
dei
nthememor
y&usual
l
ygett
heset
hrought
heI
/Puni
t.
2.Execut
ionoft
hepr
ogr
am st
art
swhent
hePCi
ssett
opoi
ntatt
hef
ir
sti
nst
ruct
ion
oft
hepr
ogr
am.3.Cont
ent
sofPCar
etr
ansf
err
edt
oMARandaReadCont
rolSi
gnal
i
ssentt
othememor
y.
4.Af
tert
het
imer
equi
redt
oaccesst
hememor
yel
apses,t
headdr
esswor
disr
ead
outoft
hememor
yandl
oadedi
ntot
heMDR.
5.Nowcont
ent
sofMDRar
etr
ansf
err
edt
otheI
R&nowt
hei
nst
ruct
ioni
sreadyt
obe
decodedandexecut
ed.
6.I
fthei
nst
ruct
ioni
nvol
vesanoper
ati
onbyt
heALU,i
tisnecessar
ytoobt
aint
he
r
equi
redoper
ands.
7.Anoper
andi
nthememor
yisf
etchedbysendi
ngi
tsaddr
esst
oMAR&I
nit
iat
inga
r
eadcy
cle.
8.Whent
heoper
andhasbeenr
eadf
rom t
hememor
ytot
heMDR,i
tist
ransf
err
ed
f
rom MDRt
otheALU.
9.Af
teroneort
wosuchr
epeat
edcy
cles,
theALUcanper
for
mthedesi
redoper
ati
on.
10.I
fther
esul
toft
hisoper
ati
oni
stobest
oredi
nthememor
y,t
her
esul
tissentt
o
MDR.
11.Addr
essofl
ocat
ionwher
ether
esul
tisst
oredi
ssentt
oMAR&awr
it
ecy
clei
s
i
nit
iat
ed.
12.Thecont
ent
sofPCar
eincr
ement
edsot
hatPCpoi
ntst
othenexti
nst
ruct
iont
hat
i
stobeex
ecut
ed.
I
nst
ruct
ionCodes
Ani
nst
ruct
ioncodei
sagr
oupofbi
tst
hati
nst
ructt
hecomput
ert
oper
for
ma
speci
fi
coper
ati
on.Acomput
eri
nst
ruct
ioni
sabi
nar
ycodet
hatdet
ermi
nest
hemi
cro
-
oper
ati
onsi
nasequencef
oracomput
er.Theyar
esav
edi
nthememor
yal
ongwi
th
t
hei
nfor
mat
ion.Eachcomput
erhasi
tsspeci
fi
cgr
oupofi
nst
ruct
ions.I
tisusual
l
y
di
vi
dedi
ntot
wopar
ts:

I
tconsi
stsof12bi
tsofmemor
ythatar
erequi
redt
odef
inet
headdr
essast
he

PREPAREDBYSAHALAKIJAIBHARATHCOLLEGE,
3
PBVR
memor
yincl
udes 4096 wor
ds.The 15t
h bi
toft
he i
nst
ruct
ion det
ermi
nes t
he
addr
essi
ngmode(
wher
edi
rectaddr
essi
ngcor
respondst
o0,i
ndi
rectaddr
essi
ng
cor
respondst
o1)
.Ther
efor
e,t
hei
nst
ruct
ionf
ormati
ncl
udes12bi
tsofaddr
essand
1bi
tfort
headdr
essi
ngmode,
3bi
tsar
elef
tforOpcodes.
Thenumberofbi
tsr
equi
redf
ort
heoper
ati
oncodedependsupont
het
otal
number
ofoper
ati
onsav
ail
abl
eont
hecomput
er.Theoper
ati
oncodemustconsi
stofat
l
eastnbi
tsf
oragi
ven2^
noper
ati
ons.Theoper
ati
onpar
tofani
nst
ruct
ioncode
speci
fi
est
heoper
ati
ont
obeper
for
med.
St
oredPr
ogr
am Or
gani
sat
ion
Thesi
mpl
estwayt
oor
gani
zeacomput
eri
stohav
eonepr
ocessorr
egi
sterandan
i
nst
ruct
ioncodef
ormatwi
tht
wopar
ts.Thef
ir
stpar
tspeci
fi
est
heoper
ati
ont
obe
per
for
medandt
hesecondspeci
fi
esanaddr
ess.Thememor
yaddr
esst
ell
sthe
cont
rolwher
etof
indanoper
andi
nmemor
y.Thi
soper
andi
sreadf
rom memor
yand
usedast
hedat
atobeoper
atedont
oget
herwi
tht
hedat
ast
oredi
nthepr
ocessor
r
egi
ster
.

Theabov
efi
gur
edepi
ctst
hist
ypeofor
gani
zat
ion.I
nst
ruct
ionsar
est
oredi
none
sect
ionofmemor
yanddat
ainanot
her
.Foramemor
yuni
twi
th4096wor
dsweneed
12bi
tst
ospeci
fyanaddr nce212=4096.I
esssi fwest
oreeachi
nst
ruct
ioncodei
n

PREPAREDBYSAHALAKIJAIBHARATHCOLLEGE,
4
PBVR
one 16-
bitmemor
ywor
d,we hav
e av
ail
abl
efourbi
tsf
ort
he oper
ati
on code
(
abbr
evi
atedopcode)t
ospeci
fyoneoutof16possi
bleoper
ati
ons,and12bi
tst
o
speci
fyt
headdr
essofanoper
and.Thecont
rol
readsa16-
biti
nst
ruct
ionf
rom t
he
pr
ogr
am por
ti
onofmemor
y.I
tusest
he12-
bitaddr
esspar
toft
hei
nst
ruct
iont
oread
a16-
bitoper
andf
rom t
hedat
apor
ti
onofmemor
y.I
tthenexecut
est
heoper
ati
on
speci
fi
edbyt
heoper
ati
oncode.
Comput
erswi
thasi
ngl
epr
ocessorr
egi
steri
sknownasAccumul
ator(
AC)
.The
oper
ati
oni
sper
for
medwi
tht
hememor
yoper
andandt
hecont
entofAC.
I
ndi
rectAddr
ess
I
tissomet
imesconv
eni
entt
ouset
headdr
essbi
tsofani
nst
ruct
ioncodenotasan
addr
essbutast
heact
ualoper
and.Whent
hesecondpar
tofani
nst
ruct
ioncode
speci
fi
esanoper
and,t
hei
nst
ruct
ioni
ssai
dtohav
eani
mmedi
ateoper
and.When
t
hesecondpar
tspeci
fi
est
headdr
essofanoper
and,
thei
nst
ruct
ioni
ssai
dtohav
ea
di
rectaddr
ess.Thi
sisi
ncont
rastt
oat
hir
dpossi
bil
i
tycal
l
edi
ndi
rectaddr
ess,
wher
e
t
hebi
tsi
nthesecondpar
toft
hei
nst
ruct
iondesi
gnat
eanaddr
essofamemor
ywor
d
i
nwhi
cht
headdr
essoft
heoper
andi
sfound.Onebi
toft
hei
nst
ruct
ioncodecanbe
usedt
odi
sti
ngui
shbet
weenadi
rectandani
ndi
rectaddr
ess.
Asani
l
lust
rat
ionoft
hisconf
igur
ati
on,
consi
dert
hei
nst
ruct
ioncodef
ormatshowni
n
Fi
g.bel
ow par
t(a)
.Itconsi
stsofa3-
bitoper
ati
oncode,a12-
bitaddr
ess,andan
i
ndi
rectaddr
essmodebi
tdesi
gnat
edbyI
.Themodebi
tis0f
oradi
rectaddr
essand
1f
orani
ndi
rectaddr
ess.Adi
rectaddr
essi
nst
ruct
ioni
sshowni
nFi
g.bel
owpar
t(b)
.
I
tispl
acedi
naddr
ess22i
nmemor
y.TheIbi
tis0,
sot
hei
nst
ruct
ioni
srecogni
zedas
adi
rectaddr
essi
nst
ruct
ion.Theopcodespeci
fi
esanADD i
nst
ruct
ion,andt
he
addr
esspar
tist
hebi
nar
yequi
val
entof457.
Thecont
rol
findst
heoper
andi
nmemor
y
ataddr
ess457andaddsi
ttot
hecont
entofAC.Thei
nst
ruct
ioni
naddr
ess35shown
i
nFi
g.bel
owpar
t(c)hasamodebi
tI=1.Ther
efor
e,i
tisr
ecogni
zedasani
ndi
rect
addr
essi
nst
ruct
ion.Theaddr
esspar
tist
hebi
nar
yequi
val
entof300.Thecont
rol
goest
o addr
ess300 t
ofi
nd t
headdr
essoft
heoper
and.Theaddr
essoft
he
oper
andi
nthi
scasei
s1350.Theoper
andf
oundi
naddr
ess1350i
sthenaddedt
o
t
hecont
entofAC.Thei
ndi
rectaddr
essi
nst
ruct
ionneedst
wor
efer
encest
omemor
y
t
ofet
chanoper
and.Thef
ir
str
efer
encei
sneededt
oreadt
headdr
essoft
heoper
and;
t
hesecondi
sfort
heoper
andi
tsel
f.Wedef
inet
heef
fect
iveaddr
esst
obet
he

PREPAREDBYSAHALAKIJAIBHARATHCOLLEGE,
5
PBVR
addr
essoft
heoper
andi
nacomput
ati
on-
typei
nst
ruct
ionort
het
argetaddr
essi
na
br
anch-
typei
nst
ruct
ion.Thust
heef
fect
iveaddr
essi
nthei
nst
ruct
ionofFi
g.bel
ow
par
t(b)i
s457andi
nthei
nst
ruct
ionofFi
gbel
ow par
t(c)i
s1350.Thememor
y
wor
dthathol
dst
headdr
essoft
heoper
andi
nani
ndi
rectaddr
essi
nst
ruct
ioni
sused
asapoi
ntert
oanar
rayofdat
a.Thepoi
ntercoul
dbepl
acedi
napr
ocessorr
egi
ster
i
nst
eadofmemor
yasdonei
ncommer
cial
comput
ers.

Comput
erRegi
ster
s
Ther
egi
ster
sar
eal
sol
i
stedi
nTabl
ebel
owt
oget
herwi
thabr
iefdescr
ipt
ionoft
hei
r
f
unct
ionandt
henumberofbi
tst
hatt
heycont
ain.Thememor
yuni
thasacapaci
tyof
4096wor
dsandeachwor
dcont
ains16bi
ts.Twel
vebi
tsofani
nst
ruct
ionwor
dar
e
neededt
ospeci
fyt
headdr
essofanoper
and.Thi
sleav
est
hreebi
tsf
ort
heoper
ati
on
par
toft
hei
nst
ruct
ionandabi
ttospeci
fyadi
rectori
ndi
rectaddr
ess.Thedat
a
r
egi
ster(
DR)hol
dst
heoper
andr
eadf
rom memor
y.
The accumul
ator(
AC)r
egi
steri
s a gener
alpur
pose pr
ocessi
ng r
egi
ster
.The
i
nst
ruct
ion r
ead f
rom memor
yis pl
aced i
nthe i
nst
ruct
ion r
egi
ster(
IR)
.The

PREPAREDBYSAHALAKIJAIBHARATHCOLLEGE,
6
PBVR
t
empor
aryr
egi
ster(
TR)i
susedf
orhol
dingt
empor
arydat
adur
ingt
hepr
ocessi
ng.
Thememor
yaddr
essr
egi
ster(
AR)has12bi
tssi
ncet
hisi
sthewi
dthofamemor
y
addr
ess.Thepr
ogr
am count
er(
PC)al
sohas12bi
tsandi
thol
dst
headdr
essoft
he
nexti
nst
ruct
iont
ober
eadf
rom memor
yaf
tert
hecur
renti
nst
ruct
ioni
sexecut
ed.
The PC goest
hrough a count
ing sequence and causes t
he comput
ert
oread
sequent
iali
nst
ruct
ionspr
evi
ousl
yst
oredi
nmemor
y.I
nst
ruct
ionwor
dsar
ereadand
execut
ed i
n sequence unl
ess a br
anch i
nst
ruct
ion i
s encount
ered.A br
anch
i
nst
ruct
ioncal
l
sforat
ransf
ert
oanon-
consecut
ivei
nst
ruct
ioni
nthepr
ogr
am.The
addr
esspar
tofabr
anchi
nst
ruct
ioni
str
ansf
err
edt
oPCt
obecomet
headdr
essof
t
henexti
nst
ruct
ion.Tor
eadani
nst
ruct
ion,
thecont
entofPCi
stakenast
headdr
ess
f
ormemor
yandamemor
yreadcy
clei
sini
ti
ated.PCi
stheni
ncr
ement
edbyone,
so
i
thol
dst
headdr
essoft
henexti
nst
ruct
ioni
nsequence.
Twor
egi
ster
sar
eusedf
ori
nputandout
put
.Thei
nputr
egi
ster(
INPR)r
ecei
vesan8-
bi
tchar
act
erf
rom an i
nputdev
ice.The out
putr
egi
ster(
OUTR)hol
ds an 8-
bit
char
act
erf
oranout
putdev
ice.

PREPAREDBYSAHALAKIJAIBHARATHCOLLEGE,
7
PBVR
Comput
erI
nst
ruct
ions
Abasi
ccomput
erhast
hreei
nst
ruct
ioncodef
ormat
swhi
char
e:
1.Memor
y-r
efer
encei
nst
ruct
ion
2.Regi
ster-r
efer
encei
nst
ruct
ion
3.I
nput
-Out
puti
nst
ruct
ion
Memor
y-r
efer
encei
nst
ruct
ion
Amemor
y-r
efer
encei
nst
ruct
ionuses12bi
tst
ospeci
fyanaddr
essandonebi
tto
det
ermi
net
headdr
essi
ngmodeI
.Ii
sthesameas0f
ordi
rectaddr
essandt
o1f
or
i
ndi
rectaddr
ess.

Regi
sterr
efer
encei
nst
ruct
ions
Ther
egi
sterr
efer
encei
nst
ruct
ionsar
eident
if
iedbyt
heoper
ati
oncode111wi
tha0
i
nthel
eft
mostbi
t(bi
t15)oft
hei
nst
ruct
ion.I
tdet
ermi
nesanoper
ati
ononorat
est
oft
heACr
egi
ster
.Anoper
andf
rom memor
yisnotr
equi
redbecauset
headdi
ti
onal

PREPAREDBYSAHALAKIJAIBHARATHCOLLEGE,
8
PBVR
12bi
tsar
eusedt
odet
ermi
net
heoper
ati
onort
estt
obei
mpl
ement
ed.

I
nput
-out
puti
nst
ruct
ion
Ani
nput
-out
puti
nst
ruct
iondoesnotr
equi
rear
efer
encet
omemor
yandi
sident
if
ied
byt
heoper
ati
oncode111wi
tha1 i
nthel
eft
mostbi
toft
hei
nst
ruct
ion.The
r
emai
ning 12 bi
ts can det
ermi
ne t
he t
ype ofi
nput
-out
putoper
ati
on ort
est
i
mpl
ement
ed.

Thet
ypeofi
nst
ruct
ioni
sident
if
iedbyt
hecomput
ercont
rolf
rom t
hef
ourbi
tsi
n
posi
ti
ons12t
hrough15oft
hei
nst
ruct
ion.I
fthet
hreeopcodebi
tsi
nposi
ti
ons12
t
hrough14ar
enotsi
mil
art
o111,
thei
nst
ruct
ioni
samemor
y-r
efer
encet
ypeandt
he
bi
tinposi
ti
on15i
stakenast
headdr
essi
ngmodeI
.Ift
he3-
bitopcodei
ssi
mil
art
o
111,
thecont
rolt
henexami
nest
hebi
tinposi
ti
on15.I
fthi
sbi
tis0,
thei
nst
ruct
ioni
s
ar
egi
ster
-r
efer
encet
ype.I
fthebi
tis1,
thei
nst
ruct
ioni
sani
nput
-out
putt
ype.
I
nst
ruct
ionsetcompl
eteness
Asetofi
nst
ruct
ionsi
ssai
dtobecompl
etei
fthecomput
eri
ncl
udesasuf
fi
cient
numberofi
nst
ruct
ionsi
neachoft
hef
oll
owi
ngcat
egor
ies:
 Ar
it
hmet
ic,
logi
cal
andshi
fti
nst
ruct
ions
 Asetofi
nst
ruct
ions f
ormov
ing i
nfor
mat
ion t
o and f
rom memor
yand
pr
ocessorr
egi
ster
s.
 I
nst
ruct
ionswhi
chcont
rol
sthepr
ogr
am t
oget
herwi
thi
nst
ruct
ionst
hatcheck
st
atuscondi
ti
ons.
 I
nputandOut
puti
nst
ruct
ions

PREPAREDBYSAHALAKIJAIBHARATHCOLLEGE,
9
PBVR
Ar
it
hmet
ic,l
ogi
c and shi
fti
nst
ruct
ions pr
ovi
de comput
ati
onalcapabi
l
iti
es f
or
pr
ocessi
ngt
het
ypeofdat
atheusermaywi
sht
oempl
oy.
A huge amountofbi
nar
yinf
ormat
ion i
s st
ored i
nthe memor
y uni
t,butal
l
comput
ati
onsar
edonei
npr
ocessorr
egi
ster
s.Ther
efor
e,onemustpossesst
he
capabi
l
ityofmov
ingi
nfor
mat
ionbet
weent
heset
wouni
ts.
Pr
ogr
am cont
roli
nst
ruct
ionssuch asbr
anch i
nst
ruct
ionsar
eused changet
he
sequencei
nwhi
cht
hepr
ogr
am i
sexecut
ed.
I
nputandOut
puti
nst
ruct
ionsactasani
nter
facebet
weent
hecomput
erandt
heuser
.
Pr
ogr
ams and dat
a must be t
ransf
err
ed i
nto memor
y,and t
he r
esul
ts of
comput
ati
onsmustbet
ransf
err
edbackt
otheuser
.
Memor
ylocat
ionsandaddr
esses
Memor
yconsi
stsofmanymi
l
li
onsofst
oragecel
l
s(f
li
p-f
lops)
.Eachcel
lcanst
orea
bi
tofi
nfor
mat
ioni
.e.0or1.
Eachgr
oupofnbi
tsi
sref
err
edt
oasawor
dof
i
nfor
mat
ion,andni
scal
l
edt
hewor
dlengt
h.Thewor
dlengt
hcanv
aryf
rom 8t
o64
bi
ts.Auni
tof8bi
tsi
scal
l
edaby
te.Accessi
ngt
hememor
ytost
oreorr
etr
iev
ea
si
ngl
eit
em ofi
nfor
mat
ion(
wor
d/by
te)r
equi
resdi
sti
nctaddr
essesf
oreachi
tem
l
ocat
ion.(
Iti
scust
omar
ytousenumber
sfr
om 0t
hrough2ˆ
k-1ast
headdr
essesof
successi
ve-
locat
ionsi
nthememor
y).
If2ˆ
k=no.ofaddr
essabl
elocat
ions;
then2ˆ
k
addr
essesconst
it
utet
headdr
ess-
spaceoft
hecomput
er.Forexampl
e,a24-
bit
addr
essgener
atesanaddr
ess-
spaceof2ˆ
24l
ocat
ions(
16MB)
.
Thegr
oupofnbi
tist
ermedaswor
dwher
eni
ster
medast
hewor
dlengt
h.Thewor
d
l
engt
hoft
hecomput
erhasev
olv
edf
rom 8,
16,
24,
32t
o64bi
ts.Gener
al-
pur
pose
comput
ersnowaday
shav
e32t
o64bi
ts.Thegr
oupof8bi
tiscal
l
edaby
te.

PREPAREDBYSAHALAKIJAIBHARATHCOLLEGE,
10
PBVR
Thef
igur
e2.
2(a)showsa32pat
ter
nthatcanbeusedt
orepr
esentsi
gnednumber
s.
Thel
eftmostbi
tiscal
l
edsi
gnbi
t–0f
orposi
ti
veand1f
ornegat
ivenumber
s.The
magni
tudeoft
henumberi
sdet
ermi
nedf
rom bi
tsb30t
ob0byt
hef
ormul
a
Magni
tude=b30x230+b29x229+……………………………….
.…….
.b1x21+b0x20
Theabov
eencodi
ngf
ormati
scal
l
edsi
gnandmagni
tuder
epr
esent
ati
on.
I
fthewor
dlengt
hofacomput
eri
s32,asi
ngl
ewor
dcanst
orea 32bi
tbi
nar
y
numberor4ASCI
Ichar
act
ereachoccupy
ing8bi
tsasshowni
nthef
igur
e2.
2(b)

I
nst
ruct
ionCy
cle

PREPAREDBYSAHALAKIJAIBHARATHCOLLEGE,
11
PBVR
Apr
ogr
am r
esi
dingi
nthememor
yuni
tofacomput
erconsi
stsofasequenceof
i
nst
ruct
ions.Thesei
nst
ruct
ionsar
eex
ecut
edbyt
hepr
ocessorbygoi
ngt
hrougha
cy
clef
oreachi
nst
ruct
ion.
I
nabasi
ccomput
er,
eachi
nst
ruct
ioncy
cleconsi
stsoft
hef
oll
owi
ngphases:
1.Fet
chi
nst
ruct
ionf
rom memor
y.
2.Decodet
hei
nst
ruct
ion.
3.Readt
heef
fect
iveaddr
essf
rom memor
y.
4.Execut
ethei
nst
ruct
ion.

PREPAREDBYSAHALAKIJAIBHARATHCOLLEGE,
12
PBVR
Upont
hecompl
eti
onofst
ep4,
thecont
rolgoesbackt
ost
ep1t
ofet
ch,
decode,
and
execut
ethenexti
nst
ruct
ion.Thi
spr
ocesscont
inuesi
ndef
ini
tel
yunl
essaHALT
i
nst
ruct
ioni
sencount
ered.
Theabov
efl
owchar
tpr
esent
sani
nit
ialconf
igur
ati
onf
ort
hei
nst
ruct
ioncy
cleand
showshowt
hecont
rol
det
ermi
nest
hei
nst
ruct
ionaf
terdecodi
ng.
Fet
chandDecode
I
nit
ial
l
y,t
hepr
ogr
am count
erPCi
sloadedwi
tht
headdr
essoft
hef
ir
sti
nst
ruct
ioni
n
t
hepr
ogr
am.Thesequencecount
erSCi
scl
ear
edt
o0,pr
ovi
dingadecodedt
imi
ng
si
gnalT0.Af
tereachcl
ockpul
se,SC i
sincr
ement
edbyone,sot
hatt
het
imi
ng
si
gnal
sgot
hroughasequenceT0,T1,T2,andsoon.Ther
nicr
o-oper
ati
onsf
ort
he
f
etch and decode phases can be speci
fi
ed by t
he f
oll
owi
ng r
egi
stert
ransf
er
st
atement
s.

1.T0:
AR← PC
2.T1:
IR← M[
AR]
,PC← PC+1
3.T2:
D0,
..
..,
D7← DecodeI
R(12-
14)
,AR← I
R(0-
11)
,I← I
R(15)

Si
nceonl
yARi
sconnect
edt
otheaddr
essi
nput
sofmemor
y,i
tisnecessar
yto
t
ransf
ert
headdr
essf
rom PC t
oAR dur
ingt
hecl
ockt
ransi
ti
onassoci
atedwi
th
t
imi
ngsi
gnalT0.Thei
nst
ruct
ionr
eadf
rom memor
yist
henpl
acedi
nthei
nst
ruct
ion
r
egi
sterI
Rwi
tht
hecl
ockt
ransi
ti
onassoci
atedwi
tht
imi
ngsi
gnalT1.Att
hesame
t
ime,
PCi
sincr
ement
edbyonet
opr
epar
eitf
ort
headdr
essoft
henexti
nst
ruct
ioni
n
t
hepr
ogr
am.Att
imeT2,t
heoper
ati
oncodei
nIRi
sdecoded,t
hei
ndi
rectbi
tis
t
ransf
err
edt
ofl
i
p-f
lopI
,andt
headdr
esspar
toft
hei
nst
ruct
ioni
str
ansf
err
edt
oAR.
Not
ethatSCi
sincr
ement
edaf
tereachcl
ockpul
set
opr
oducet
hesequenceT0,T1,
andT2
Det
ermi
net
het
ypeofi
nst
ruct
ion
Thet
imi
ngsi
gnal
thati
sact
iveaf
tert
hedecodi
ngi
sT3.Dur
ingt
imeT3,t
hecont
rol
uni
tdet
ermi
nest
het
ypeofi
nst
ruct
iont
hatwasj
ustr
eadf
rom memor
y.
Decoderout
putD7i
sequal
to1i
ftheoper
ati
oncodei
sequal
tobi
nar
y111.Fr
om Fi
g.
onbasi
ccomput
erf
ormat
swedet
ermi
net
hati
fD7=1,t
hei
nst
ruct
ionmustbea
r
egi
ster
-r
efer
enceori
nput
-out
putt
ype.I
fD7=0,
theoper
ati
oncodemustbeoneof
t
heot
hersev
env
alues000t
hrough110,speci
fyi
ngamemor
y-r
efer
encei
nst
ruct
ion.
Cont
rolt
heni
nspect
sthev
alueoft
hef
ir
stbi
toft
hei
nst
ruct
ion,whi
chi
snow

PREPAREDBYSAHALAKIJAIBHARATHCOLLEGE,
13
PBVR
av
ail
abl
einf
li
p-f
lopI
.IfD7=0andI=1,wehav
eamemor
yref
erencei
nst
ruct
ion
wi
thani
ndi
rectaddr
ess.I
tist
hennecessar
ytor
eadt
heef
fect
iveaddr
essf
rom
memor
y.Themi
crooper
ati
onf
ort
hei
ndi
rectaddr
esscondi
ti
oncanbesy
mbol
i
zed
byt
her
egi
stert
ransf
erst
atement
:AR← M[
AR]I
nit
ial
l
y,ARhol
dst
headdr
esspar
tof
t
hei
nst
ruct
ion.Thi
saddr
essi
suseddur
ingt
hememor
yreadoper
ati
on.Thewor
dat
t
headdr
essgi
venbyARi
sreadf
rom memor
yandpl
acedont
hecommonbus.The
LDi
nputofARi
sthenenabl
edt
orecei
vet
hei
ndi
rectaddr
esst
hatr
esi
dedi
nthe12
l
eastsi
gni
fi
cantbi
tsoft
hememor
ywor
d.Whenamemor
y-r
efer
encei
nst
ruct
ionwi
th
I=0i
sencount
ered,
iti
snotnecessar
ytodoany
thi
ngsi
ncet
heef
fect
iveaddr
essi
s
al
readyi
n AR.Howev
er,t
he sequence count
erSCmustbe i
ncr
ement
ed when
D'
7T3= 1,so t
hatt
he execut
ion oft
he memor
y-r
efer
ence i
nst
ruct
ion can be
cont
inued wi
th t
imi
ng v
ari
abl
e T4. A r
egi
ster
-r
efer
ence or i
nput
-out
put
i
nst
ruct
ioncanbeexecut
edwi
tht
hecl
ockassoci
atedwi
tht
imi
ngsi
gnal
T3.Af
tert
he
i
nst
ruct
ioni
sexecut
ed,
SCi
scl
ear
edt
o0andcont
rolr
etur
nst
othef
etchphasewi
th
T0=1.
Not
ethatt
hesequencecount
erSCi
sei
theri
ncr
ement
edorcl
ear
edt
o0wi
th
ev
eryposi
ti
vecl
ockt
ransi
ti
on.
Ti
mingandCont
rol
Thet
imi
ngf
oral
lregi
ster
sint
hebasi
ccomput
eri
scont
rol
l
edbyamast
ercl
ock
gener
ator
.Thecl
ockpul
sesar
eappl
i
edt
oal
lfl
i
p-f
lopsandr
egi
ster
sint
hesy
stem,
i
ncl
udi
ngt
hef
li
p-f
lopsandr
egi
ster
sint
hecont
roluni
t.Thecl
ockpul
sesdonot
changet
hest
ateofar
egi
sterunl
esst
her
egi
steri
senabl
edbyacont
rolsi
gnal
.The
cont
rolsi
gnal
sar
egener
atedi
nthecont
roluni
tandpr
ovi
decont
roli
nput
sfort
he
mul
ti
plexer
sint
hecommonbus,cont
roli
nput
sinpr
ocessorr
egi
ster
s,andmi
cro-
oper
ati
onsf
ort
heaccumul
ator
.
Ther
ear
etwomaj
ort
ypesofcont
rol
organi
zat
ion:
1.Har
dwi
redcont
rol
and
2.Mi
cro-
progr
ammedcont
rol
.
I
nthehar
dwi
redor
gani
zat
ion,
thecont
rol
logi
cisi
mpl
ement
edwi
thgat
es,
fli
p-f
lops,
decoder
s,andot
herdi
git
alci
rcui
ts.I
thast
headv
ant
aget
hati
tcanbeopt
imi
zedt
o
pr
oduceaf
astmodeofoper
ati
on.I
nthemi
cro-
progr
ammedor
gani
zat
ion,t
he
cont
roli
nfor
mat
ion i
s st
ored i
n a cont
rolmemor
y.The cont
rolmemor
yis
pr
ogr
ammedt
oini
ti
atet
her
equi
redsequenceofmi
cro-
oper
ati
ons.A har
dwi
red

PREPAREDBYSAHALAKIJAIBHARATHCOLLEGE,
14
PBVR
cont
rol
,ast
henamei
mpl
i
es,r
equi
reschangesi
nthewi
ri
ngamongt
hev
ari
ous
component
sift
hedesi
gnhast
obemodi
fi
edorchanged.I
nthemi
cro-
progr
ammed
cont
rol
,anyr
equi
redchangesormodi
fi
cat
ionscanbedonebyupdat
ingt
hemi
cro-
pr
ogr
am i
ncont
rol
memor
y.
Thebl
ockdi
agr
am oft
hecont
rol
uni
tisshownbel
ow
I
tconsi
stsoft
wodecoder
s,
1.Asequencecount
er,
and
2.Anumberofcont
rol
logi
cgat
es.
Ani
nst
ruct
ionr
eadf
rom memor
yispl
acedi
nthei
nst
ruct
ionr
egi
ster(
IR)
.posi
ti
onof
t
hisr
egi
steri
nthecommonbussy
stem i
sindi
cat
edi
nFi
gThei
nst
ruct
ionr
egi
steri
s
shownagai
ninFi
g,wher
eiti
sdi
vi
dedi
ntot
hreepar
ts:
1.t
he1bi
t,
2.t
heoper
ati
oncode,
and
3. Bi
ts0t
hrough11.

PREPAREDBYSAHALAKIJAIBHARATHCOLLEGE,
15
PBVR
Theoper
ati
oncodei
nbi
ts12t
hrough14ar
edecodedwi
tha3x8decoder
.The
ei
ghtout
put
soft
hedecoderar
edesi
gnat
edbyt
hesy
mbol
sD0t
hroughD7.The
subscr
ipt
eddeci
malnumberi
sequi
val
entt
othebi
nar
yval
ueoft
hecor
respondi
ng
oper
ati
oncode.Bi
t15oft
hei
nst
ruct
ioni
str
ansf
err
edt
oaf
li
p-f
lopdesi
gnat
edby
t
hesy
mbolI
.Bi
ts0t
hrough11ar
eappl
i
edt
othecont
roll
ogi
cgat
es.The4-
bit
sequencecount
ercancounti
nbi
nar
yfr
om 0t
hrough15.Theout
put
soft
hecount
er
ar
edecodedi
nto16t
imi
ngsi
gnal
sT0t
hroughT15.
Thesequencecount
erSCcanbei
ncr
ement
edorcl
ear
edsy
nchr
onousl
y.Mostof
t
het
ime,t
hecount
eri
sincr
ement
edt
opr
ovi
det
hesequenceoft
imi
ngsi
gnal
sout
oft
he4x16decoder
.Oncei
nawhi
l
e,t
hecount
eri
scl
ear
edt
o0,causi
ngt
henext
act
ivet
imi
ngsi
gnal
tobeT0.
Asanexampl
e,consi
dert
hecasewher
eSC i
sincr
ement
edt
o pr
ovi
det
imi
ng

PREPAREDBYSAHALAKIJAIBHARATHCOLLEGE,
16
PBVR
si
gnal
sT0,T1,
T2,T3,andT4i
nsequence.Att
imeT4,SCi
scl
ear
edt
o0i
fdecoder
out
putD3i
sact
ive.Thi
sisexpr
essedsy
mbol
i
cal
l
ybyt
hest
atement
SC<__0
D3T4:
Thet
imi
ngdi
agr
am ofFi
g.5-
7showst
het
imer
elat
ionshi
poft
hecont
rol
signal
s.

Thesequencecount
erSCr
espondst
otheposi
ti
vet
ransi
ti
onoft
hecl
ock.I
nit
ial
l
y,
t
heCLRi
nputofSCi
sact
ive.Thef
ir
stposi
ti
vet
ransi
ti
onoft
hecl
ockcl
ear
sSCt
o0,
whi
chi
ntum act
ivat
est
het
imi
ngsi
gnalT0outoft
hedecoder
.T0i
sact
ivedur
ing
onecl
ockcy
cle.Theposi
ti
vecl
ockt
ransi
ti
onl
abel
l
edT0i
nthedi
agr
am wi
l
ltr
igger
onl
ythoser
egi
ster
swhosecont
roli
nput
sar
etr
ansi
ti
on,t
oti
mingsi
gnalT0.SCi
s
i
ncr
ement
edwi
thev
eryposi
ti
vecl
ockt
ransi
ti
onunl
essi
tsCLRi
nputi
sact
ive.Thi
s
pr
oducest
hesequenceoft
imi
ngsi
gnal
sT0,
T1,T2,T3,andT4andsoon,asshown
i
nthedi
agr
am.I
fSCi
snotcl
ear
ed,
thet
imi
ngsi
gnal
swi
l
lcont
inuewi
thT5,
T6upt
o
T15andbackt
oT0
BusOr
gani
zat
ion
Toachi
evear
easonabl
espeedofoper
ati
on,
acomput
ermustbeor
gani
zedsot
hat

PREPAREDBYSAHALAKIJAIBHARATHCOLLEGE,
17
PBVR
al
lit
suni
tscanhandl
eonef
ullwor
dofdat
aatagi
vent
ime.Whenawor
dofdat
ais
t
ransf
err
edbet
weenuni
ts,al
lit
sbi
tsar
etr
ansf
err
edi
npar
all
el,t
hati
s,t
hebi
tsar
e
t
ransf
err
edsi
mul
taneousl
yov
ermanywi
res,orl
i
nes,onebi
tperl
i
ne.Agr
oupof
l
i
nest
hatser
vesasaconnect
ingpat
hforsev
eraldev
icesi
scal
l
edabus.I
naddi
ti
on
t
othel
i
nest
hatcar
ryt
hedat
a,t
hebusmusthav
eli
nesf
oraddr
essandcont
rol
pur
poses.
Thedi
ff
erentbusesar
e
(
i)Addr
essbus:
Addr
essbusi
susedt
ocar
ryt
headdr
ess.I
tisuni
dir
ect
ional
bus.
Theaddr
essi
ssentt
ofr
om CPUt
omemor
yandI
/Opor
tandhenceuni
dir
ect
ional
.
(
ii
)Dat
abus:Dat
abusi
susedt
ocar
ryort
ransf
erdat
atoandf
rom memor
yandI
/O
por
ts.Theyar
ebi
dir
ect
ional
.Thepr
ocessorcanr
eadondat
ali
nesf
rom memor
y
andI
/Opor
tandaswel
lasi
tcanwr
it
edat
atomemor
y.
(
ii
i)
Cont
rolbus:Cont
rol
busi
susedt
ocar
rycont
rol
signal
sinor
dert
oregul
atet
he
cont
rol
act
ivi
ti
es.Theyar
ebi
dir
ect
ional
.TheCPUsendscont
rol
signal
sont
he
cont
rol
bust
oenabl
etheout
put
sofaddr
essedmemor
ydev
icesorpor
tdev
ices.
Si
ngl
ebusst
ruct
ure:

Sy
stem bus

Thesi
mpl
estwayt
oint
erconnectf
unct
ionaluni
tsi
stouseasi
ngl
ebus,
asshowni
n
Fi
gur
e.Al
luni
tsar
econnect
edt
othi
sbus.Becauset
hebuscanbeusedf
oronl
yone
t
ransf
eratat
ime,onl
ytwouni
tscanact
ivel
yuset
hebusatanygi
vent
ime.Bus
cont
roll
i
nesar
eusedt
oar
bit
rat
emul
ti
pler
equest
sforuseoft
hebus.Themai
n
v
irt
ueoft
hesi
ngl
e-busst
ruct
urei
sit
slow costand i
sfl
exi
bil
i
tyf
orat
tachi
ng
per
ipher
al"dev
ices.Sy
stemst
hatcont
ainmul
ti
plebusesachi
evemor
econcur
rency
i
noper
ati
onsbyal
l
owi
ngt
woormor
etr
ansf
erst
obecar
ri
edoutatt
hesamet
ime.
Thi
sleadst
obet
terper
for
mancebutatani
ncr
easedcost
.
Thedev
icesconnect
edt
oabusv
arywi
del
yint
hei
rspeedofoper
ati
on.Some
el
ect
romechani
caldev
ices,
suchaskey
boar
dsandpr
int
ersar
erel
ati
vel
ysl
ow.Ot
her
dev
ises l
i
ke magnet
ic oropt
icaldi
sks,ar
e consi
der
abl
yfast
er.Memor
y and

PREPAREDBYSAHALAKIJAIBHARATHCOLLEGE,
18
PBVR
pr
ocessoruni
tsoper
ateatel
ect
roni
cspeeds,maki
ngt
hem t
hef
ast
estpar
tsofa
comput
er.Becauseal
lthesedev
icesmustcommuni
cat
ewi
theachot
herov
erabus,
anef
fi
cientt
ransf
ermechani
sm t
hati
snotconst
rai
nedbyt
hesl
owdev
icesandt
hat
canbeusedt
osmoot
houtt
hedi
ff
erencesi
nti
mingamongpr
ocessor
s,memor
ies,
andext
ernal
dev
icesi
snecessar
y.
A commonappr
oachi
stoi
ncl
udebuf
ferr
egi
ster
swi
tht
hedev
icest
ohol
dthe
i
nfor
mat
iondur
ingt
ransf
ers.Toi
l
lust
rat
ethi
stechni
que,consi
dert
het
ransf
erofan
encodedchar
act
erf
rom apr
ocessort
oachar
act
erpr
int
er.Thepr
ocessorsendst
he
char
act
erov
ert
hebust
othepr
int
erbuf
fer
.Si
ncet
hebuf
feri
sanel
ect
roni
cregi
ster
,
t
hist
ransf
err
equi
resr
elat
ivel
yli
tt
let
ime.Oncet
hebuf
feri
sloaded,t
hepr
int
ercan
st
artpr
int
ing wi
thoutf
urt
heri
nter
vent
ion by t
he pr
ocessor
.The bus and t
he
pr
ocessorar
enol
ongerneededandcanber
eleasedf
orot
heract
ivi
ty.Thepr
int
er
cont
inuespr
int
ingt
hechar
act
eri
nit
sbuf
ferandi
snotav
ail
abl
eforf
urt
hert
ransf
ers
unt
ilt
hispr
ocessi
scompl
eted.Thus,
buf
ferr
egi
ster
ssmoot
houtt
imi
ngdi
ff
erences
amongpr
ocessor
s,memor
ies,
andI
/Odev
ices.Theypr
eventahi
gh-
speedpr
ocessor
f
rom bei
ngl
ockedt
oasl
ow I
/Odev
icedur
ingasequenceofdat
atr
ansf
ers.Thi
s
al
l
owst
hepr
ocessort
oswi
tchr
api
dlyf
rom onedev
icet
oanot
her
,int
erweav
ingi
ts
pr
ocessi
ngact
ivi
tywi
thdat
atr
ansf
ersi
nvol
vi
ngsev
eral
I/Odev
ices.
TwobusSt
ruct
ures

PREPAREDBYSAHALAKIJAIBHARATHCOLLEGE,
19
PBVR
I
ntwobusst
ruct
ure,
onebusi
susedt
ofet
chi
nst
ruct
ionwhi
l
eot
heri
susedt
o
f
etchdat
a,r
equi
redf
orexecut
ion.I
tist
oov
ercomet
hebot
tl
eneckofsi
ngl
ebus
st
ruct
ure.
Var
iousuni
tsar
econnect
edt
hrought
woi
ndependentbuses.
I
nconf
igur
ati
on1,I
/Ouni
tsar
econnect
edt
othepr
ocessort
houghanI
/Obusand
Memor
yisconnect
edt
othepr
ocessort
hrought
hememor
ybus.I
/Obusconsi
stsof
addr
ess,dat
aandcont
rolbusMemor
ybusal
soconsi
stsofaddr
ess,dat
aand
cont
rolbus.I
nthi
sty
peofar
rangement
spr
ocessorcompl
etel
ysuper
visest
he
t
ransf
erofi
nfor
mat
iont
oandf
rom I
/O uni
ts.Al
lthei
nfor
mat
ioni
sfi
rstt
akent
o
pr
ocessorandf
rom t
her
etot
hememor
y.Suchki
ndoft
ransf
ersar
ecal
l
edas
pr
ogr
am cont
rol
l
edt
ransf
er.
I
nconf
igur
ati
on2,I
/O uni
tsar
edi
rect
lyconnect
edt
othememor
yandnott
othe
pr
ocessor
TheI
/O uni
tsar
econnect
edt
ospeci
ali
nter
facel
ogi
cknownasDi
rectMemor
y
Access(
DMA)oranI
/O channel
.Thi
sisal
socal
l
edasPer
ipher
alPr
ocessorUni
t
(
PPU)
I
nthi
sthedat
afr
om t
heI
/O dev
icei
sdi
rect
lysentt
o memor
yby
passi
ngt
he
pr
ocessor
.
Repr
esent
ati
onofSi
gnedBi
nar
yNumber
s:
Ther
ear
ethr
eet
ypesofr
epr
esent
ati
onsf
orsi
gnedbi
nar
ynumber
s
Si
gn-
Magni
tudef
orm:
Fornbi
tbi
nar
ynumber
,1bi
tisr
eser
vedf
orsi
gnsy
mbol
.Ift
hev
alueofsi
gnbi
tis0,
t
hent
hegi
vennumberwi
l
lbeposi
ti
ve,
elsei
fthev
alueofsi
gnbi
tis1,
thent
hegi
ven
numberwi
l
lbenegat
ive.Remai
ning(
n-1)bi
tsr
epr
esentmagni
tudeoft
henumber
.
Si
ncemagni
tudeofnumberzer
o(0)i
sal
way
s0,sot
her
ecanbet
wor
epr
esent
ati
on
ofnumberzer
o(0)
,posi
ti
ve(
+0)andnegat
ive(
-0)
,whi
chdependsonv
alueofsi
gn
bi
t.
1’
scompl
ementf
orm:
Si
nce,
1’scompl
ementofanumberi
sobt
ainedbyi
nver
ti
ngeachbi
tofgi
vennumber
.
So,wer
epr
esentposi
ti
venumber
sinbi
nar
yfor
m andnegat
ivenumber
sin1’
s
compl
ementf
orm.Ther
eisext
rabi
tforsi
gnr
epr
esent
ati
on.I
fval
ueofsi
gnbi
tis0,
t
hennumberi
sposi
ti
veandy
oucandi
rect
lyr
epr
esenti
tinsi
mpl
ebi
nar
yfor
m,buti
f
v
alueofsi
gnbi
t1,
thennumberi
snegat
iveandy
ouhav
etot
ake1’
scompl
ementof
gi
venbi
nar
ynumber
.

PREPAREDBYSAHALAKIJAIBHARATHCOLLEGE,
20
PBVR
2’
scompl
ementf
orm:
Si
nce,
2’scompl
ementofanumberi
sobt
ainedbyi
nver
ti
ngeachbi
tofgi
vennumber
pl
us1t
oleastsi
gni
fi
cantbi
t(LSB)
.So,
wer
epr
esentposi
ti
venumber
sinbi
nar
yfor
m
and negat
ive number
sin 2’
s compl
ementf
orm.Ther
eis ext
ra bi
tforsi
gn
r
epr
esent
ati
on.I
fval
ueofsi
gnbi
tis0,t
hennumberi
sposi
ti
veandy
oucandi
rect
ly
r
epr
esenti
tinsi
mpl
ebi
nar
yfor
m,buti
fval
ueofsi
gnbi
t1,t
hennumberi
snegat
ive
andy
ouhav
etot
ake2’
scompl
ementofgi
venbi
nar
ynumber

PREPAREDBYSAHALAKIJAIBHARATHCOLLEGE,
21
PBVR