Physics 102: Gauss’s Law

Assist. Prof. Dr. Ali Övgün

EMU Physics Department

www.aovgun.com
 Flux of Electric Field
q Like the flow of water, or light energy, we can
think of the electric field as flowing through a
surface (although in this case nothing is actually
moving).
q We represent the flux of electric field as Φ (greek
letter phi), so the flux of the electric field through
an element of area ΔA is
! !
ΔΦ = E ⋅ ΔA = E ΔA cosθ
q When θ < 90˚, the flux is positive (out of the
surface), and when θ > 90˚, the flux is negative.
q When we have a complicated surface, we can
divide it up into tiny elemental areas:
! !
dΦ = E ⋅ dA = E dAcosθ

September 26, 2007

 Gauss’ Law
q We are going to be most interested in closed
surfaces, in which case the outward direction
becomes self-evident.
q We can ask, what is the electric flux out of such a
closed surface? Just integrate over the closed
surface: ! ! Flux positive => out
Φ = ∫ dΦ = ∫ E ⋅ dA
Flux negative => in

q The ∫ symbol has a little circle to indicate that

the integral is over a closed surface.
q The closed surface is called a gaussian surface,
because such surfaces are used by Gauss’ Law,
which states that:
Gauss’ Law
The flux of electric field through a closed surface
is proportional to the charge enclosed.
September 26, 2007
 Flux of Electric Field
1. Which of the following figures correctly shows a positive
electric flux out of a surface element?
A. I.
Δ E
B. II. I. A II. θ
θ
C. III. ΔA
E
D. IV.
E. I and III.
E
III. θ IV.
ΔA
ΔA E
θ

September 26, 2007

Example 1: An electric field of 500 V/m makes an angle
of 30.00 with the surface vector, which has a magnitude of
0.500 m2. Find the electric flux that passes through the
surface.

Example 2:

September 26, 2007

 Mathematical Statement of
Gauss’ Law
q The constant of proportionality in Gauss’ Law is our
old friend ε0.
ε 0 Φ = qenc
! !
ε 0 ∫ E ⋅ dA = qenc
! !
q Recall that I said that we would see later why E ⋅ dA = E dA
Coulomb’s constant is written 1 ?
kE =
4πε 0 qenc
q We can see it now by integrating the electric flux of
a point charge over a spherical gaussian surface.
! !
ε 0 ∫ E ⋅ dA = ε 0 E ∫ dA =ε 0 E 4πr 2 = qenc r
q Solving for E gives Coulomb’s Law.
1 qenc
E=
4πε 0 r 2
September 26, 2007
 Example of Gauss’ Law
q Consider a dipole with equal positive and negative
charges.
q Imagine four surfaces S1, S2, S3, S4, as shown.
q S1 encloses the positive charge. Note that the field
is everywhere outward, so the flux is positive.
q S2 encloses the negative charge. Note that the
field is everywhere inward, so the flux through the
surface is negative.
q S3 encloses no charge. The flux through the
surface is negative at the upper part, and positive
at the lower part, but these cancel, and there is no
net flux through the surface.
q S4 encloses both charges. Again there is no net
charge enclosed, so there is equal flux going out
and coming in—no net flux through the surface.

September 26, 2007

 Field At the Surface of a
Conductor
q Imagine an electric field at some
arbitrary angle at the surface of a
! conductor.
E ! q There is a component perpendicular
E⊥ to the surface, so charges will move
in this direction until they reach the
! surface, and then, since they cannot
E|| leave the surface, they stop.
q There is also a component parallel to
the surface, so there will be forces
on charges in this direction.
q Since they are free to move, they
will move to nullify any parallel
component of E.
q In a very short time, only the
perpendicular component is left.

September 26, 2007

Field Inside a Conductor
q We can use Gauss’ Law to show that the inside of a
conductor must have no net charge.
q Take an arbitrarily shaped conductor, and draw a
gaussian surface just inside.
q Physically, we expect that there is no electric field
inside, since otherwise the charges would move to
nullify it.
q Since E = 0 everywhere inside, E must be zero also
on the gaussian surface, hence there can be no net
charge inside.
q Hence, all of the charge must be on the surface (as
discussed in the previous slide).
q If we make a hole in the conductor, and surround the
hole with a gaussian surface, by the same argument
there is no E field through this new surface, hence
there is no net charge in the hole.

September 26, 2007

Field Inside a Conductor
q We have the remarkable fact that
if you try to deposit charge on
the inside of the conductor...
q The charges all move to the
outside and distribute themselves
so that the electric field is
everywhere normal to the
surface.
q This is NOT obvious, but Gauss’
Law allows us to show this!

There are two ideas here

• Electric field is zero inside conductors
• Because that is true, from Gauss’
Law, cavities in conductors have E = 0

September 26, 2007

 A Charge Inside a Conductor
Spherical 2. What will happen when we add a
cavity charge inside a conductor?
A. E field is still zero in the cavity.
B. E field is not zero in the cavity, but it
is zero in the conductor.
C. E field is zero outside the conducting
sphere.
D. E field is the same as if the
conductor were not there (i.e. radial
outward everywhere).
E. E field is zero in the conductor, and
Positive point
Conducting negative (radially inward) outside the
charge
sphere conducting sphere.
September 26, 2007
Use Gauss’ Law to Find Out
! !
ε 0 ∫ E ⋅ dA = qenc Is E = 0 in the cavity?
No, because there is charge enclosed (Gauss’ Law).
Gaussian Surface
Is E = 0 in the conductor?
Yes, because as before, if there were an electric
field in the conductor, the charges would move in
response (NOT Gauss’ Law).
If we enlarge the gaussian surface so that it is
inside the conductor, is there any net charge
enclosed?
It looks like there is, but there cannot be, because
Gauss’ Law says E = 0 implies qenc = 0!
How do we explain this?
There must be an equal and opposite charge
induced on the inner surface.
September 26, 2007
E Field of Charge In Conductor
This negative charge acts with the inner charge to
make the field radial inside the cavity.

This negative charge cannot appear out of nowhere.

Where does it come from?
It comes from the outer surface (electrons drawn
inward, attracted to the positive charge in the
center). Therefore, it leaves positive charge
behind.
The net positive charge that appears conductor is
exactly the same as the original charge in the
center, so what do the field lines look like?
By spherical symmetry, the positive shell of charge
acts like a point charge in the center, so field is the
same as the field of the original point charge.

September 26, 2007

Back to the Previous Question
Spherical 3. What will happen when we add a
cavity charge inside a conductor?
A. E field is still zero in the cavity.
B. E field is not zero in the cavity, but it
is zero in the conductor.
C. E field is zero outside the conducting
sphere.
D. E field is the same as if the
conductor were not there (i.e. radial
outward everywhere).
E. E field is zero in the conductor, and
Positive point
Conducting negative (radially inward) outside the
charge
sphere conducting sphere.
September 26, 2007
E Field of Charge In Conductor
What happens when we move the inner charge
off-center?
It induces an off-center charge distribution on the
Inner wall.
Note that the field lines distorted, so they remain
perpendicular to the inner wall. What happens to
the outer positive charge distribution?

Draw a gaussian surface inside the conductor to

find out.
The net charge enclosed is zero, so E = 0, which
we already knew because it is inside the
conductor. The inner charge is shielded by the
induced charge distribution, so the outer charges
will be evenly distributed.

September 26, 2007

 Other Geometries
q Always use the symmetry of the problem to determine
what shape to make your gaussian surface.
q Here is a plate (plane) geometry, where the charges
are evenly distributed on a flat surface. If the total
charge on the plate is Q, and the plate has a total
area Atot, then the surface charge density is
σ = Q / Atot C/m 2
q The E field is everywhere perpendicular to the plate
(again, if not, the charges will move until the! part
parallel to the surface is nullified). What is E ?
!
q Use a gaussian surface that is parallel to E on the
sides (so no flux through side surfaces), and closes
inside the conductor (no flux through that end).
!
q On the remaining side, the area vector A is parallel to
! !
the E field, so ε E ⋅ dA = ε EA = σA or σ
0∫ 0 E= Conducting Surface
ε0
September 26, 2007
 Line of Charge
q In the previous chapter, we calculated the E field on
the axis of a line of charge, but with Gauss’ Law we
can now handle finding E off the line axis.
q Here is a line geometry, where the charges are evenly
distributed on a long line. If the total charge on the
line is Q, and the line has a total length Ltot, then the
linear charge density is
λ = Q / Ltot C/m
q The E field is everywhere perpendicular to the line
(again, if not, the charges will move until the part
parallel to the line is nullified).
!
q Use a cylindrical gaussian surface that is parallel to E
on the top and bottom (so no flux through
! those
surfaces), and is perpendicular to E elsewhere.
! !
q The area vector dA is parallel to E , and the total area
is 2πrh so
! ! λ
ε 0 ∫ E ⋅ dA = ε 0 E 2πrh = λh or E = Line of Charge
2πε 0 r
September 26, 2007
 Symmetry
5. A charged sphere has an electric field just like that of a
point charge of the same total charge, located at its
center. What is the electric field of a long conducting
cylinder like?
A. Also like that of a point charge at its center.
B. Like a circular ring of charge at its center.
C. Like a line charge along the cylinder axis.
D. Cannot tell from the information given.

September 26, 2007

 Uniform Sphere of Charge
q Here is a spherical geometry, where the charges are
evenly distributed throughout the volume. If the total
charge in the sphere is Q, and the sphere has a radius
R, then the volume charge density is Q
ρ= C/m3
4 πR 3
3
q By symmetry, the E field is everywhere radial from the
center of the sphere.
q Use a spherical gaussian! surface, which is
perpendicular to !E everywhere. !
q The area vector A is parallel to E , and the total area
is 4πr2 so when the gaussian surface radius is r < R,
then ! ! 4 3 ρ
ε 0 ∫ E ⋅ dA = ε 0 E 4πr = ρ πr or
2 E = r
3 3ε 0

q When r>R, then the charge enclosed is just Q, so

! ! or E = Q
ε 0 ∫ E ⋅ dA = ε 0 E 4πr 2 = Q Coulomb’s Law again
4πε 0 r 2
September 26, 2007
 Field Lines and Conductors
6. The drawing shows three cylinders in cross-section, each
with the same total charge. Each has the same size
cylindrical gaussian surface (again shown in cross-
section). Rank the three according to the electric field at
the gaussian surface, greatest first.
A. I, II, III
B. III, II, I
C. All tie.

I. II. III.
September 26, 2007
 Nonconducting Sheet
q A nonconducting sheet with a uniform surface charge
density has the same geometry as for the conducting
plate, so use the same gaussian surface.
q The only difference is that now one end cannot close
in a conductor, so there is electric flux out both ends.
q As you may expect, the resulting electric field is half of
what we got before.
! !
ε 0 ∫ E ⋅ dA = ε 0 2EA = σA

σ
E= Sheet of Charge
2ε 0

September 26, 2007

Two Parallel Conducting Plates
q When we have the situation shown in the left two panels (a positively
charged plate and another negatively charged plate with the same
magnitude of charge), both in isolation, they each have equal amounts of
charge (surface charge density σ) on both faces.
q But when we bring them close together, the charges on the far sides move
to the near sides, so on that inner surface the charge density is now 2σ.
q A gaussian surface shows that the net charge is zero (no flux through sides
— dA perpendicular to E, or ends — E = 0). E = 0 outside, too, due to
shielding, in just the same way we saw for the sphere.

September 26, 2007

 Parallel Conducting Plates
7. The sketch shows the case of two parallel conducting plates of equal
and opposite charge. If the positively charged plate has a greater
charge than the absolute value of the charge of the negatively
charged plate, what would be the direction of E in the two regions A
and B?
A. To the right in region A, and to the left in region B
B. To the left in region A, and to the right in region B
C. To the left in both regions.
D. To the right in both regions.
E. The field remains zero in both
A B
regions.

September 26, 2007

Two Parallel Nonconducting Sheets
q The situation is different if you bring two nonconducting sheets of charge
close to each other.
q In this case, the charges cannot move, so there is no shielding, but now we
can use the principle of superposition.
q In this case, the electric field on the left due to the positively charged sheet
is canceled by the electric field on the left of the negatively charged sheet,
so the field there is zero.
q Likewise, the electric field on the right due to the negatively charged sheet
is canceled by the electric field on the right of the positively charged sheet.
q The result is much the same as
before, with the electric field in
between being twice what it
was previously.

September 26, 2007

 Spherical Symmetry
Spherical shell
1q
E= (r ≥ R)
4πε 0 r 2
E=0 (r < R)

We earlier said that a shell of uniform charge attracts or repels a charged

particle that is outside the shell as if the shell’s charge were concentrated at
the center of the shell. We can now prove this using Gauss’ Law.
We also said that a shell of uniform charge exerts no electrostatic force on a
charged particle that is located inside the shell. Again, Gauss’ Law can be
used to prove this.

September 26, 2007

 Summary
q Electric flux is the amount of electric field passing through a closed surface.
q Flux is positive when electric field is outward, and negative when electric
field is inward through the closed surface.
q Gauss’ Law states that the electric flux is proportional to the net charge
enclosed by the surface, and the constant of proportionality is ε0. In
symbols, it is ε Φ = q
0 enc
! !
ε 0 ∫ E ⋅ dA = qenc
q There are three geometries we typically deal with:
Geometry Charge Density Gaussian surface Electric field

Linear λ = q/L Cylindrical, with axis E=

λ
2πε 0 r
Line of Charge
along line of charge
Sheet or σ = q/A Cylindrical, with axis E=
σ
E=
σ
ε0
Conducting 2ε 0
Nonconducting
Plane along E.
Spherical ρ = q/V Spherical, with center E=
q ⎛ q ⎞
E = ⎜⎜ ⎟r
4πε 0 r
r≥R 3 ⎟ r<R
on center of sphere ⎝ 4πε 0 R ⎠
2

September 26, 2007

 Summary, cont’d
q The electric field is zero inside a conductor.
q The electric field is zero inside a cavity within a conductor, unless there is a
charge inside that is not in contact with the walls.
q The electric field at the surface of a conductor is always perpendicular to
that surface.
q Note, none of this is true for insulators.

September 26, 2007

q Problem 1:
q The square surface shown in the figure measures 3.2 mm
on each side. It is immersed in a uniform electric field with
magnitude E = 1800 N/C. The field lines make an angle of
35°with a normal to the surface, as shown. Take that
normal to be directed “outward,” as though the surface
were one face of a box. Calculate the electric flux through
the surface.

September 26, 2007

 q Problem 2:
q You have four point charges, 2q, q, -q, and -2q. If
possible, describe how you would place a closed surface
that encloses at least the charge 2q (and perhaps other
charges) and through which the net electric flux is (a) 0,
(b) +3q/ε0, and (c) -2q/ε0.

q Problem 3:
q A point charge of 1.8 μC is at the center of a cubical
Gaussian surface 55 cm on edge. What is the net electric
flux through the surface?

September 26, 2007

q Problem 4:
q A uniformly charged conducting sphere of 1.2 m diameter
has a surface charge density of 8.1 μC/m2. (a) Find the
net charge on the sphere. (b) What is the total electric flux
leaving the surface of the sphere?

q Problem 5:
q An isolated conductor of arbitrary shape has a net charge
of +10 x 10-6 C. Inside the conductor is a cavity within
which is a point charge q = +3.0 x 10-6 C. What is the
charge (a) on the cavity wall and (b) on the outer surface
of the conductor?

September 26, 2007

q Problem 6:
q An infinite line of charge produces a field of 4.5 x 104 N/C
at a distance of 2.0 m. Calculate the linear charge density.

q Problem 7: The figure shows a section of a long, thin-

walled metal tube of radius R, with a charge per unit
length λ on its surface. Derive expressions for E in terms of
the distance r from the tube axis, considering both (a) r >
R and (b) r < R. (Hint: Use cylindrical Gaussian surfaces,
coaxial with the metal tube.)

September 26, 2007

q Problem 8: A very long conducting cylindrical rod of
length L with a total charge +q is surrounded by a
conducting cylindrical shell (also of length L) with total
charge -2q, as shown in the figure. Use Gauss' law to find
(a) the electric field at points outside the conducting shell,
(b) the distribution of charge on the shell, and (c) the
electric field in the region between the shell and rod.

September 26, 2007

q Problem 9: The sketch shows cross- sections through
two large, parallel, nonconducting sheets with identical
distributions of positive charge with surface charge density
σ. What is E at points (a) above the sheets, (b) between
them, and (c) below them?

September 26, 2007

Problem 10:

September 26, 2007

September 26, 2007