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RESEARCH METHODS NOTES

Research is a systematic, scientific, controlled and empirical process.
Research is a scientific inquiry aimed at learning new facts, testing ideas, etc.
Method is a particular procedure for accomplishing or approaching something.
Research Methods-It is the systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data to generate
new Knowledge and answer a certain question or solve a problem.
Systematic step by step
Scientific logical steps to follow
Controlled covers a limited area (scope)
Time
Geographical coverage/area
Respondents
Contents (various)
Empirical evidence-based data.
From The Above Outline the Following Facts Can Be Deduced
1. Research is a process of investigation or search
2. Research is for something that is not known
3. The known fact usually refers to as a problem
4. The purpose of the research is to provide solution to the problem, without the problem there will
be no meaningful research.
Characteristics of research
 It demands a clear statement of the problem
 It requires a plan (it is not aimlessly “looking” for something in the hope that You will
come across a solution) it builds on existing data, using both positive and negative
findings
 New data should be collected as required and be organized in such a way that they answer
the research question(s)
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH. (Significance or value)
1) Generate Knowledge --- to come up with new knowledge, new facts that have never been in
existence. E.g., the effect of sand or the growth of hybrid beans.
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2) Validate Knowledge --- prove or disprove existing knowledge. E.g., the chemical content of
Coca-Cola.
3) Refine Knowledge --- to improve existing knowledge. E.g., the effect of apples on the taste of
Coca-Cola.
4) Is a tool for building knowledge and for facilitating learning.
5) Means to understand various issues and increase public awareness.
6) Away to prove lies and to support truths.
7) It is a seed to love reading, writing, analyzing and sharing valuable information.
8) Nourishment and exercise for the mind.
PURPOSE OF RESEARCH. (Objective or goal)
The main purpose of research is to inform action, to prove a theory and contribute to developing
knowledge in a field or study.
1) To discover new knowledge that is facts and methods of practice, etc.
2) To describe a phenomenon (something that exits and can be seen e.g., child abuse.) identify
characteristics or events. E.g., size, age, weight, attitude, perception, color, etc.
3) To predict phenomena or predict the effect of behavior is to estimated interaction of
phenomena. E.g., the movement of the earth and the sun help to predict seasons.
4) To control phenomena is to regulate a given event of phenomena.
N.B. Control and prediction are related and are both vital characteristics of experimental
studies and both are used mainly to generate knowledge.
5) To explain phenomena accurate observation and measurement of a given phenomenon.
Studies whose purpose is to explain are mainly validating knowledge.
6) To explore or enable theory development formulating laws concepts and generalization about a
given phenomena.
SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE IN SOCIAL RESEARCH.
• Intuition. The first method of knowing is intuition. (When we use our intuition, we are relying
on our guts, our emotions, and/or our instincts to guide us. Rather than examining facts or using
rational thought, intuition involves believing what feels true)
• Authority. Perhaps one of the most common methods of acquiring knowledge is through
authority. (One of the most common methods of acquiring knowledge is through authority. This
method involves accepting new ideas because some authority figure states that they are true.
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These authorities include parents, the media, doctors, Priests and other religious authorities, the
government, and professors.)
• Rationalism. - the philosophical view that knowledge is acquired through reason, involves using
logic and reasoning to acquire new knowledge. Using this method premises are stated and logical
rules are followed to arrive at sound conclusions.
• Empiricism. -involves acquiring knowledge through observation and experience. For centuries
people believed the world is flat because it appears to be flat.
• The Scientific Method-The scientific method is a process of systematically collecting and
evaluating evidence to test ideas and answer questions.
Challenges faced by Researchers.
1. Lack of finances. (funding)
2. Choosing the right topic.
3. Lack of skills.
4. Low demand for researcher by policy makers.
5. Lack of motivation by researchers.
TYPES OF RESEARCH.
1. Primary research.
2. Secondary research.
Primary research.
1. Primary research is research you conduct yourself (or hire someone to do for you.) It
involves going directly to a source – usually a client and prospective client in your target
market – to ask questions and gather information. Examples of primary research
interviews etc.
Secondary research.
2. Secondary research is a research method that involves using already existing data.
Existing data is summarized. Examples: Published books and articles, academic reviewed
journals, Government agencies.
Persons and organizations that carry out research.
1. Academic research for pure academics
2. non-governmental organizations for health purposes
3. Government institutions (e.g., hospitals etc.)
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4. Parastatals.
CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH
1) Research According to Subject
a) Social/Behavior Sciences Research is a study of human society or behavior in such
disciplines as education, law and management. Social or behavior sciences research
means that research involving behavior of human beings as friends sharing resources of
this planet.
b) Natural Sciences Research deals with material phenomena and based mainly on
observation; experiments and induction. Thus, when we talk of pure or basic or natural
sciences research, we are referring to research usually carried out in artificial or
laboratory setting in such subjects as physics, chemistry and biology.
2) Research According to Scope
a) Micro Research where the researcher examines in individual (small) units. E.g., staff and
students.
b) Macro Research where the researcher examines in group (large) units. E.g., schools and
districts. N.B. as student it is better to use Micro Research on account of time, cost and
skill limitation.
3) Research According to Purpose
a) Basic/Pure/Academic Research the researcher does not intend to use findings
immediately after the study. It is also called Hypothetical or theoretical Research.
b) Applied/Problem Solving/Action Research the researcher has the attention to use the
finding immediately after the study. Research that is concerned with finding a solution to
an immediate problem is also called Applied Research.
i. Action Research to take an action toward something or somebody.
ii. Evaluation Research to check on performance of a project or program.
4) Research According to Approach
a) Quantitative Research where the researcher is interested in quantities or numbers. It is
based in variables measure using numbers.
b) Qualitative Research the data is basically descriptive in nature and this means that the
data to be obtained are ordinarily obtained in none numerical terms. It is based on ideas
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used words. N.B. Both quantitative and qualitative approaches appear in all researches
although one may dominate.
Persons and organizations that carry out research.
Scientists, college students, non-governmental hospitals like CDC, KEMRI. Etc.
COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL.
THE FIVE PHASES OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS
1) Conceptual Phase ------- Research Title.
2) Design and Planning Phase ------- Proposal.
3) Empirical Phase ------- Data Collection.
4) Analytical Phase ------- Data Analysis.
5) Dissemination Phase ------- Report Writing/ Final Thesis.
THE CONCEPTUAL PHASE OR RESEARCH TITLE.
Step One (1): Select an area of interest must be related to area of specialization.
Step Two (2): Identify a specific problem within the area of interest.
Step Three (3): Identify the possible causes to the problem.
Step Four (4): Link the cause to the problem.
Step Five (5): Refine the statement, remove biases, negatives and waste words.
Step Six (6): Modify the statement further, add:
Context --- Area of study.
Unit of Analysis --- Respondents/Units to be studied
Step Seven (7): Evaluate the title. It should reflect 3 major characteristics:
Variables --- Independent Variable (IV) --- Cause.
Dependent Variable (DV) --- Problem.
Context --- Area of study or environment.
Unit of Analysis --- Respondents/Units to be studied.
Step Eight (8): Define the Variables.
Standard Definition --- From text books/ internet.
Operational Definition --- From your own understanding.
NB. When identifying /searching for a research problem the following source can be utilized
1. Interest
2. Lecturers
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3. Past experience
4. Mass media
5. Scholarly literature
6. Consultation and practical issues
Evaluating the research problem: After finding a suitable and topic of your interest then we
have to also evaluate the problem via the following
1. Newness
2. Interest
3. Significance
4. Feasibility
5. Facility availability
THE DESIGN AND PLANNING PHASE OR PROPOSAL STAGE
Proposal-a plan or suggestion, especially a formal or written one, put forward for consideration
by others.
CONTENTS OF THE PROPOSAL
1) Preliminary Pages
2) Chapters
3) References
4) Appendices.
1) PRELIMINARY PAGES
Tittle page
Certification
Dedication
Acknowledgement
Abstract
Table of Contents
List of Tables ----- it depends (if you have tables or no)
Preliminary pages
2. Tittle page: this show the topic of the proposal, authors name, the department to which
the research is being submitted and the purpose for submission, e.g. A research proposal
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submitted to the department of health science in partial fulfillment for the a ward of a diploma in
community health.
EXAMPLE OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL TOPIC.
AN INVESTIGATION ON LIFESTYLE FACTORS AND HOW THEY INFLUENCE ON
MODERN FAMILY PLANNING METHODS AMONG THE COUPLES (AGE 20-35) IN
SEME VILLAGE, KISUMU COUNTY
3. Certification: this is more of a confirmation page stating in clear terms that, the work
belongs to the author and that he (the author) claim responsibility for any short comings thereof.
4. Dedication: this page in which names of the person to whom the work is dedicated to
must be stated in clear term, this is done with or without stating the reason for the author’s
choice.
5. Acknowledgement: is written to appreciate those who supported the author in writing
the report or the text. Such support may be in terms of financial, technical, moral and /or
psychological.
6. Abstract: is the summary of the various aspect of the study, the following issues are to
be addressed (briefly) in the abstract. (a.) statement of the introduction stating the objectives of
the study (b.) types of data used and collection techniques adopted (c.) statistical tools employed
in the data analysis (d.) major findings and recommendations, conscience (120 words
maximum.)
7. Table of contents: this is important in that it provides readers of the report with an
overview of all the major parts, section and subsections of the report and the pages where they
can be found. It also enables the readers to know all the topics contained in the report.
8. List of tables: and figures it is necessary to list the tables or figures in a table of contents
format. This is so especially when they are many that have been used in the body of the report.
2) CHAPTERS.
CHAPTER ONE: THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
1) Brief history of your IV and DV -----1 paragraph each -----1 page together.
Globally, Continental and National.
2) Define your variables --- IV and DV ---- 1 paragraph each.
Standard definitions and operational definitions.
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3) Give briefly information about the situation now ---- IV and DV.
The background of the study provides context to the information that you are discussing in
your paper. Thus, the background of the study generates the reader's interest in your research
question and helps them understand why your study is important. For instance, in case of your
study, the background can include a discussion on how socio-economic factors influence
learning patterns or the disparity in academic performance among learners of grade 12. However,
this is just an example, and you will be the best person to judge what information you would like
to include in the background of your study.
Typically, the background of a study includes a review of the existing literature on the area of
your research, leading up to your topic. Once you have discussed the contribution of other
researchers in the field, you can identify gaps in understanding, that is, areas that have not been
addressed in these studies. You can then explain how your study will address these gaps and how
it will contribute to the existing knowledge in the field.
PROBLEM STATEMENT ---- Not more than 2 paragraphs
1) Mention the specific problem
2) mention the indicators (signs or symptoms) of the Problem.
3) Mention the defers (negative consequences or effect) of the problem.
4) Mention the possible causes of the problem.
5) Mention the cause which your study is going to examine and why (gap)?
Example:
1.3 Statement of the problem
Family planning is fundamental in the effort to reduce the Total Fertility Rate and the
consequential maternal mortality and morbidity as well as contributing to improvement in infant
welfare. Kenya’s unmet need for family planning stands at 34%. Currently married women with
contraceptive prevalence rate stands at 24% for all women (UNFPA 2012). There is poor
contraceptive utilization mainly due to poor male participation in family planning. Men’s fertility
intentions, reproductive preferences and their attitudes towards family planning influence the
fertility behavior of their wives and their attitude towards use of contraceptives. Hence in order
to increase the use of modern contraceptives, family planning programs need to target men
specifically at all levels of the program. In order to promote reproductive health through
increased use of modern contraceptives, family planning programs need to target men
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specifically at all levels of the program. It is therefore against this backdrop that the aim of this
research is to assess the effect of awareness on modern family planning methods and help
identify underlying factors responsible for the poor participation in family planning in Seme
village, Kisumu County.
Why is it important to state and define the problem well?
Because a clear statement of the problem:
a) Is the foundation for the further development of the research proposal (research
objectives, methodology, work plan, etc.);
b) Makes it easier to find information and reports of similar studies from which your own
study design can benefit;
c) Enables the researcher to systematically point out why the proposed research on the
problem should be undertaken and what you hope to achieve with the study results.
Points that need to be considered for justifying the selected research problem
A health problem selected to be studied has to be justified in terms of its:
Being a current and existing problem, which needs solution
Being a widely spread problem affecting a target population
Effects on the health service programs
Being a problem, which concerns the planners, policy makers and the communities at large.
c) Information included in the statement of a problem
• A brief description of socioeconomic and cultural characteristics and an overview of
health status.
• A more detailed description of the nature of the problem- basic description of the research
problem
- the discrepancy between what is and what should be
- its size, distribution, and severity (who is affected, where,
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY ------- Can be 1 paragraph or 2.
1) Identify the strengths and weakness in the causes and the Problem.
2) Testing hypotheses relevant in the study.
3) Validating the theory on which the study is based.
4) Identify the gaps.
5) Contribute to knowledge generation.
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EXAMPLE 3
1.6 Significance/Purpose of the study.
The study will identify perceived risk and benefits towards family planning and relationships that
affect the attitude and willingness of men towards family planning. These relationships can be
influenced to increase involvement and uptake family planning among men and women in Seme
village, Kisumu County. The study will contribute towards maternal health improvement in seme
village.
The findings will be relevant and useful to the planners of reproductive health services for
appropriate and effective interventions. This study will assist in giving inputs to the policies and
strategies that would be put in place and would be evidence based. Furthermore, the study will
provide more information on efficient and effective utilization of the scarce resources available
for health to address the use inadequacy in the use of family planning methods.
3.5 Exercises
1. Why do we need to analyze the research problem?
2. What are the points required to justify the selected research problem?
3. What information should be included in the statement of a problem?
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY: GENERAL OBJECTIVES.
After completing this chapter, the student should be able to:
1. Describe the need for the development of research objectives
2. Differentiate between general and specific objectives
3. Formulate specific objectives and hypotheses.
Introduction
Having decided what to study, and knowing why s/he wants to study it, the investigator can now
formulate his study objectives. Objectives should be closely related to the statement of the
problem. For example, if the problem identified is low utilization of health stations in a rural
district, the general objective of the study could be to assess the reasons for this low utilization.
If we break down this general objective into smaller and logically connected parts, then we get
specific objectives.
Definitions
General objectives: aim of the study in general terms
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Example: In a study on missed opportunities for EPI in the republic of Kenya the general
objective was: “to assess missed opportunities for EPI in Kenya”.
Specific objectives: measurable statements on the specific questions to be answered. Unlike the
general objectives, the specific objectives are more specific and are related to the research
problem situation. They indicate the variable to be examined and measured. Example: In the
study of missed opportunity for EPI in Kenya the specific objectives could be:
- To find out the magnitude of missed opportunities for children who attend OPD, MCH,
- CDD, etc. in Addis Ababa,
- To examine the reasons for children not being immunized while attending the OPD,
MCH, CDD, etc. services.
Formulation of the research objectives
The formulation of objectives will help us to:
• Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials)
• Avoid collection of data that are not strictly necessary for understanding and solving the
identified problem
• Organize the study in clearly defined parts.
How should we state our objectives?
We have to make sure that our objectives:
• Cover the different aspects of the problem and its contributing factors in a coherent way and in a
logical sequence
• Are clearly expressed in measurable terms
• Are realistic considering local conditions
• Meet the purpose of the study
• Use action verbs that are specific enough to be measure Examples of action verbs are:
- to determine
- to compare
- to verify
- to calculate
- to describe
- to find out
- to establish
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OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY:

GENERAL OBJECTIVES
1) To correlate the cause (IV) and the Problem (DV) in your study context.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
1) To determine the profile of respondents in terms of: -- age, gender, education, etc.
2) To determine the level of cause (IV).
3) To determine the level of problem (DV).
4) To determine if there is a significant difference in the level of IV and DV.
5) To determine if there is a significant relationship between the level of IV and DV.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1) What is the profile of the respondents in terms of: --- age, gender, education, etc.?
2) What is the level of
3) What is the level of
4) Research questions should co-relate with the same number of the objective
HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis is defined as a presumptive statement of a preposition or a reasonable guess based
on available evidence that the researcher intends to check for example a hypothesis can be stated
as: student taught using lecture method learn significantly more than those taught by
discussion method.
There are barriers to the implementation of basic hygiene practices among primary school
children.
Hypothesis is a tentative answer to a problem. They are not all truth and not all researchers need
hypothesis for example descriptive studies (Amin2005). Simply put hypothesis is a preposition
or statement of generalization which has no supporting evidence until a systematic investigation
is carried out to establish its validity. It must be noted however that hypothesis are subject to
empirical proof, one of the two possibilities is inevitable: it is either confirmed or rejected.
statistically tested at a later stage. In order to measure the relationship among variables to be
studied the It specifies the relationship among variables. These variables are to be dependent and
independent variables need to be identified. A few examples are given below:
1. The health of children living in rural villagization projects is better than those living in
traditional rural communities.
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2. To examine whether there is any significant difference between district “A” and district
“B” with respect to their malaria prevalence rates.
3. An increase in the frequency of face washing is followed by a reduction in trachoma
Prevalence.
Forms of Hypothesis
i. Null hypothesis (Hₒ)
ii. ii. Alternate hypothesis (Hᴀ)
Null hypothesis is a negative statement which state that there is no significant difference between
the variable being tested and hence, any difference observed as existing occurred merely by
chance. If the null hypothesis is unattainable, it must be rejected. The Alternative hypothesis is
then accepted.
Alternative hypothesis: this is the opposite of the null hypothesis, also known as the positive
hypothesis it is represented by the symbol (Hᴀ) (Ibid)
NULL HYPOTHESES
Ho --- 1= There is no significant difference in the level of IV and DV according to profile of
characteristics of respondents.
Ho --- 2= There is no significant relationship between the level of IV and DV.
Exercises
1. Define general objectives, specific objectives and hypotheses by giving your own examples.
2. The objectives of a study should be written after the statement of the research problem and
before the methods section. Does this statement sound true? Justify your answer.
3. List the characteristics of research objectives.
4. Comment on the statement: “A question well-stated is a question half-answered”.
5. Mention some of the problems that may arise as a result of having too many objectives.
SCOPE
Geographical Area --- Place
Theoretical Stage
Content Scope --- Variables (IV & DV)
Time Scope
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
1. Who are the beneficiaries of the study?
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2. How will they benefit from the study?

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE.
CONCEPTS, OPINIONS AND IDEAS FROM AUTHORS/EXPERTS
Learning objectives
After completing this chapter, the student should be able to:
1. Describe the reasons for reviewing available literature and other information during the
preparation of a research proposal.
2. Describe the resources that are available for carrying out such a review.
3. Record (organize) information obtained from literature on an index card.
At the outset of his/her study the investigator should be acquainted with the relevant Literature. It
is of minimal use to wait until a report is written.
Definition. A literature review is a comprehensive summary of previous research on a topic.
The literature review surveys scholarly articles, books, and other sources relevant to a particular
area of research. The review should enumerate, describe, summarize, objectively evaluate and
clarify this previous research.
A literature review is a descriptive, analytic summary of the existing material relating to a
particular topic or area of study.
Use of literature review
• It prevents you from duplicating work that has been done before.
• It increases your knowledge on the problem you want to study and this may assist youin refining
your "statement of the problem".
• It gives you confidence why your particular research project is needed.
• To be familiar with different research methods
• To help you understand a research topic
• To establish the importance of a topic
• To help develop your own ideas
• To make sure you are not simply replicating research that others have already successfully
completed
• To demonstrate knowledge and show how your current work is situated within, builds on, or
departs from earlier publications.
Sources of information
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Card catalogues of books in libraries

Organizations (institutions)
Published information (books, journals, etc.)
Unpublished documents (studies in related fields, reports, etc.)
Computer based literature searches such as Medline
Opinions, beliefs of key persons
Some examples of resources where information could be obtained are:
Clinic and hospital-based data from routine activity statistics
 Local surveys, annual reports
 Scientific conferences
 Statistics issued at region and district levels
 Articles from national and international journals (e.g., The Ethiopian Journal of Health
 Development, The Ethiopian Medical Journal, The East African Medical journal, The
Lancet, etc.)
 Internet
 Documentation, reports, and raw data from the Ministry of Health, Central Statistical
Offices, Nongovernmental organizations, etc.
After collecting the required information on index cards, the investigator should decide in which
order he/she wants to discuss previous research findings:
1. from global to local
2. from broader to focused
3. from past to current
In conclusion, while reviewing a literature, all what is known about the study topic should be
summarized with the relevant references. This review should answer How much is known?
What is not known?
What should be done based on what is lacking?
Overall, the literature review should be adequate, relevant and critical. In addition to this,
appropriate referencing procedures should always be followed in research proposals as well as in
research reports. While reviewing a literature give emphasis to both positive and negative
findings and avoid any distortion of information to suit your own study objectives. Finally, after
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an exhaustive literature review, summarize the findings and write a coherent discussion by
indicating the research gap which supports the undertaking of your study.
Referencing.
Referencing is a consistent method of acknowledging another person's ideas which you have
used in your own writing. You must reference all sources that you use in your work, including
words and ideas, facts, images, videos, audio, websites, statistics, diagrams and data.
The purpose of the reference list is to allow your sources to be found by your reader. It also gives
credit to authors you have consulted for their ideas. All references cited in the text must appear in
the reference list, except for personal communications (such as conversations or emails) which
cannot be retrieved.
Importance of project proposal.
• Helps examine what the researcher intends to do.
• Research proposal can serve as a document of contract for the project.
• The research proposal is able to give an overview of the research projects so that the other people
understand the scope of the research, the significance of the research as well as your proposed
methodology and chosen research method.
• To suggest the data necessary for solving the question.
• To present the question to be researched and its importance.
• To serve as a vehicle for feedback from client and sponsor.
• To demonstrate the feasibility of what you propose.
• To specify how the research will be undertaken and the time and other resources that will be
needed to achieve it.
• To justify these choices and establish your credibility and competence as a researcher.
Bias/prejudice in research.
Bias/prejudice - a strong inclination of the mind or a preconceived opinion about something or
someone. A bias may be favorable or unfavorable. Sometimes unreasoned judgment.
Example of prejudice articles; Women marry for financial stability.
How to reduce prejudice in our research projects.
• Cooperative learning.
• Avoid media and the printed word.
• Avoid being emotional.
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• Be conscious.
• Belief in intergroup contact. (Many people avoid such things)  Avoid perceived heterogeneity
of the out-group. i.e., you may have of:
-black people are so lazy.
-women are bad at mathematics.
-Asians are good at sciences.
Although it is highly unlikely for the entire group of people to possess a single trait.
FRAME WORKS.
Explains the path of a research and grounds it firmly in constructs.
There are two types of frame-works:
a) Conceptual framework.
b) Theoretical framework.
The overall aim of the two frameworks is
- To make research findings more meaningful, acceptable to the theoretical constructs in the
research field and ensures.
-They assist in stimulating research while ensuring the extension of knowledge by providing both
dependent and independent variable.
-Both the theoretical and conceptual frameworks give life to research.
a) Conceptual framework.
In short, a conceptual framework is a concise description (often accompanied by a graphic or
visual depiction) of the major variables operating within the arena of the problem to be pursued
together with the researcher's overarching view of how variables interact.
Figure 1 shows a conceptual framework on the factors influencing modern family planning
methods
Independent variables Dependent variables

FACTORS

 Mental health MODERN FAMILY

 Emotional health PLANNING METHODS

 Physical health
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Figure 1: Conceptual framework linking Factors to modern family planning methods

Figure 1 show that factors is the independent variable while modern family planning is the
dependent variable. The elements of factors which are believed to affect modern family planning
methods are mental health, emotional health, and physical health.
Miles and Huberman (1994) defined a conceptual framework as a visual or written product, one
that “explains, either graphically or in narrative form, the main things to be studied—the key
factors, concepts, or variables—and the presumed relationships among them” Is primarily a
conception or model of what is out there that you plan to study?
It is usually drawn showing the dependent variables and independent variables.
b) Theoretical framework.
The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study.
The theoretical framework introduces and describes the theory that explains why the research
problem under study exists. The theoretical framework must demonstrate an understanding of
theories and concepts that are relevant to the topic of your research paper and that relate to the
broader areas of knowledge being considered.
1. An explicit statement of theoretical assumptions permits the reader to evaluate them critically.
2. The theoretical framework connects the researcher to existing knowledge. Guided by a relevant
theory, you are given a basis for your hypotheses and choice of research methods.
3. Articulating the theoretical assumptions of a research study forces you to address questions of
why and how. It permits you to intellectually transition from simply describing a phenomenon
you have observed to generalizing about various aspects of that phenomenon.
4. Having a theory helps you identify the limits to those generalizations. A theoretical framework
specifies which key variables influence a phenomenon of interest and highlights the need to
examine how those key variables might differ and under what circumstances.
CHAPTER 3 (RESEARCH METHODOLOGY)
The research methodology consists of: a) Research Design.
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b) The Sample and Sample Size.

c) Sampling Procedures.
d) Data Collection Methods.
e) Validity and Reliability.
f) Data Analysis Plan.
a) Research Design.
Definition of research design
Kerlinger, N.F (1986) defines research design as
“The plan and structure of investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to research questions.
The plan is overall scheme or program of the research.
Therefore, a research design is the strategy for a study and the plan by which the strategy is to be
carried out. It specifies the methods and procedures for the collection, measurement, and analysis
of data.
A study design is the process that guides researchers on how to collect, analyze and interpret
observations. It is a logical model that guides the investigator in the various stages of the
research.
Research design could be:
a) Exploratory
b) Descriptive.
c) Analytical.
a) Exploratory research design.
An exploratory study is a small-scale study of relatively short duration, which is carried out
when little is known about a situation or a problem. It may include description as well as
comparison.
For example:
A national AIDS Control Programme wishes to establish counseling services for HIV positive
and AIDS patients, but lacks information on specific needs patients have for support. To explore
these needs, a number of in-depth interviews are held with various categories of patients (males,
females, married and single) and with some counselors working on a programme that is already
under way.
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When doing exploratory studies, we describe the needs of various categories of patients and the
possibilities for action. We may want to go further and try to explain the differences we observe
(e.g., in the needs of male and female AIDS patients) or to identify causes of problems. Then we
will need to compare groups.
Its immediate purpose is to develop hypotheses or questions for further study.
If the problem and its contributing factors are not well defined it is always advisable to do
an exploratory study before embarking on a large-scale descriptive or comparative study.
a) Descriptive studies.
It is research that is concerned with finding out who, what, where, when, or how much.
Descriptive studies may be defined as studies that describe the patterns of disease occurrence and
other health-related conditions by person place and time.
It is a research method that describes the characteristics of the population or phenomenon that is
being studied. (Descriptive research primarily focuses on describing the nature of demographic
segment without focusing on “why” certain thing occurs)
Personal variables include: basic demographic factors, such as age, sex marital status or
occupation, as well as the consumption of various types of food or medication use.
Characteristics of place refer to the geographic distribution of disease, including variation
among countries or within countries, such as between urban and rural areas.
Uses of descriptive studies
They can be done fairly quickly and easily.
Allow planners and administrators to allocate resources
Provide the first important clues about possible determinants of a disease (useful for the
formulation of hypotheses)
Types of descriptive studies.
a) Case reports and case series.
b) Ecological studies.
c) Cross-sectional studies
c) Cross-sectional studies
A cross-sectional (prevalence) study provides information concerning the situation at a given
time. In this type of study, the status of an individual with respect to the presence or absence of
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both exposure and disease is assessed at the same point in time. usually involve collection of new
data.
In general, measure prevalence rather than incidence not good for studying rare diseases or
diseases with short duration; also not ideal for
studying rare exposures.
d) Ecological studies: data from entire populations are used to compare disease Frequencies
between different groups during the same period of time or in the same population at different
points in time.
Example: Countries with low cigarette consumption have lower lung cancer rates than
those countries with high cigarette consumption.
Ecological studies are usually quick and easy to do and can be done with already available
information.
since ecological studies refer to whole populations rather than to individuals, it is not Possible
to link an exposure to occurrence of disease in the same person.
c) Cross-sectional studies
A cross-sectional (prevalence) study provides information concerning the situation at a given
time. In this type of study, the status of an individual with respect to the presence or absence of
both exposure and disease is assessed at the same point in time.
It is a type of observational study that analyzes data from a population or a representative subset
at a specific point in time.
Usually involve collection of new data.
In general, measure prevalence rather than incidence
Not good for studying rare diseases or diseases with short duration; also not ideal for studying
rare exposures.
For factors that remain unaltered over time, such as sex, blood group, etc., the cross-sectional
survey can provide evidence of a valid statistical association.
As can be noted from the above explanation, a cross-sectional study can be either analytical or
descriptive, according to its purpose.
c). Analytic studies
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Analytic studies may be defined as studies used to test hypotheses concerning the
relationship between a suspected risk factor and an outcome and to measure the magnitude of
the association and its statistical significance.
Analytical study attempts to quantify the relationship between two factors i.e the effect of an
intervention (I) or exposure (E) on outcome (O) Analytical observational studies include case
control studies.
Analytic study designs can be divided into two broad design strategies:
-Observational.
-intervention.
Observational studies
No human intervention involved in assigning study groups; simply observe the relationship
between exposure and disease.
Subject to many potential biases, but by careful design and analysis, many of these biases can
be minimized.
Examples of observational studies: comparative cross-sectional, cohort and case control
studies.
Intervention studies
In intervention studies, the researcher manipulates a situation and measures the effects of this
manipulation. Usually (but not always) two groups are compared, one group in which the
intervention takes place (e.g. treatment with a certain drug) and another group that remains
‘untouched’ (e.g. treatment with a placebo).
The two categories of intervention studies are:
• Experimental studies and
• Quasi-experimental studies
b) The Sample and Sample Size.
Population: It’s a complete set of individuals, cases or objects with some observable
characteristics.
A census is a count of all the elements in a population.
Sample: A sample is a subset of a particular population. The target population is that population
to which a researcher wants to generalize the results of the study. There must be a rationale for
defining and identifying the accessible population from the target population.
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Sampling; it’s the process of selecting a sample from a population.

Population- A number of characteristics within a group that statisticians use to draw conclusion
about the subjects in a study.
Target population-is the total group of individuals from which the sample might be drawn.
Sample size - Refers to a portion of the population. Key questions to answer:
1) How many will you select?
2) How do you arrive at that number?
Tools to use:
1) Tables for sample sizes ----- Krejcie & Morgan (1970).
2) Use of formula ----- Slovene’s.
Formula is: n= N.
1+N (e2)
Where; n = Sample Size N = Population Size
e = Level of significance = e = 0.05 = e2 = (0.05)2 =0.0025
For example, the target population of this study will be all small business owners in the nine
communities of Gombe state. According to the state ministry of commerce and industry, business
register (2013) there are over 11,003 small scale business owners in Gombe state of these,
majority 5,728 are in service based businesses, while over 5,275 are in the non-service-based
businesses. The sample size will be: n= N = 11,003 = 11,003 = 11,003 = 386
1+N (e2) 1 + 11,003 (0.05)2 1 + 11,003 (0.0025) 28.5075
Service Sector Non-Service Sector
5,728 x 386 = 200 5,275 x 386 = 186
11,003 11,003
TABLE 1: Category Population Sample
POPULATION Size
AND SAMPLE
SIZE No
1 Service Sector 5,728 200
2 Non-Service Sector 5,275 186
Total 11,003 386
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Reasons for sampling

 Cost
 Time: Greater speed of data collection
 Destructive nature of certain tests
 Greater accuracy of results
 Physical impossibility of checking all items in the population.
 Availability of population elements.
Characteristics of a good sample
 Accuracy: It’s the degree to which bias is absent from the sample. An unbiased sample is the one
in which the under estimators and the over estimators are balanced among the members of the
sample.
 Precision of estimate: Precision is measured by the standard error of estimate a type of standard
deviation measurement. The smaller error of estimate, the higher is the preciseness of the sample.
SAMPLING PROCEDURES
There are two major ways of selecting samples;
 Probability sampling methods.
 Non - Probability sampling methods.
1. PROBABILITY/ RANDOM/UNBIASED SAMPLING METHODS.
Samples are selected in such a way that each item or person in the population has a known
likelihood of being included in the sample.
a) Simple Random Sampling Method: is also called Rotary Method, every respondent has
equal probability or chance of being selected. E.g., Ratio of sample size to the population size. If
I have 11,003 target population and I want sample size of 386, thus, the ratio is 386/11,003 =
0.03 meaning in every 100 respondents you will take 3 respondents.
Conditions of Using Simple Random Sampling Method if you can access all respondents
gathered together. if you can access a list of all respondents.
Advantages
 Easy to implement with automatic dialing and with computerized voice response systems.
Disadvantages
 Requires a listing of population elements.
 Takes more time to implement
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 Uses larger sample sizes

 Produces larger errors
 Expensive
b) Systematic Random Sampling Method: is where a respondent is selected every after a
given equal interval. This interval is called systematic random number and it is given by the ratio
of the population size to the sample size, thus, the ratio is N/n ----- 11,003/386 = 28 meaning
every 100 respondents will be selected 1 respondent. N.B. Randomly selects the started number
or point.
Conditions of Using Simple Random Sampling Method If you can access all respondents
gathered together.
If you can access a list of all respondents. Advantages
 Simple to design
 Easier to use than the simple random.
 Easy to determine sampling distribution of mean or proportion.
 Less expensive than simple random. Disadvantages
 Periodicity within the population may skew the sample and results.
If the population list has a monotonic trend, a biased estimate will result based on the start point
c) Stratified Random Sampling Method: is where respondents are divided according to
characteristics of interest. The characteristics should be proved through observation or checking.
E.g., age, gender, education level, tribe, religion, etc.
N.B. Having you sample; you can use Simple Random or Systematic Random if you have the list
of all respondents.
Advantages
 Researcher controls sample size in strata
 Increased statistical efficiency
 Provides data to represent and analyze subgroups.
 Enables use of different methods in strata.
Disadvantages
 Increased error will result if subgroups are selected at different rates
Expensive especially if strata on the population have to be created
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d) Cluster Random Sampling Method: is where respondents are divided according to

geographical distribution then the researcher can use Simple Random or Systematic Random to
select from each cluster or can select a few clusters from which to select respondents.
Advantages
 Provides an unbiased estimate of population parameters if properly done.
 Economically more efficient than simple random.
 Lowest cost per sample, especially with geographic clusters.
 Easy to do without a population list.
Disadvantages
 More error (Lower statistical efficiency) due to subgroups being homogeneous rather the
heterogeneous.
DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS.
Generally, we have two types of data collection i.e., primary & secondary, an instrument is a tool
used to collect data. The following instruments are suitable for Quantitative Research.
i. Questionnaire
ii. Interview Guide
iii. Observation Guide or Checklist
iv. Record Sheet
v. Survey.
VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY.
Validity refers to the extent to which a given instrument can accurately measure what it is used
to measure. The question here is, is the instrument you are using the valid instrument to
measure what you are measuring?
To ensure validity, there are various methods used: One is used of expert’s judgment. The
researcher gives the instrument to experts in his/her field and they judge whether the instrument
is valid or not.
The researcher can compute the Content Validity from expert’s judgment is called Content
Validity Index (CVI).
CVI = Number of Question Declared Valid
Total Number of Questions
Minimum CVI to declare an instrument to be Valid is 0.70.
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Reliability refers to the extent to which an instrument is consistent in measuring what it is used
to measure by consistency, we mean that each time an instrument is used to measure, it will give
the same results.
One way to ensure reliability is through Test-Retest Method.
Here, the researcher administers the instrument to a few people and after a period of around two
weeks, you administer it to the same people. Results of the two tests are compared; if they differ
a lot then the instrument is not reliable.
QUESTIONNAIRES
Each item in the questionnaire is developed to address a specific objective, research question or
hypothesis of the study. The researcher must also know how information obtained from each
questionnaire item will be analyzed.
Types of questions used in questionnaires
1 Structured or closed-ended questions
They are questions, which are accompanied by a list of possible alternatives from which
respondents select the answer that best describes their situation.
Advantages of Structured or closed-ended questions
 They are easier to analyze since they are in an immediate usable form
 They are easier to administer
 They are economical to use in terms of time and money
Disadvantages of Structured or closed-ended questions
 They are more difficult to construct
 Responses are limited and the respondent is compelled to answer questions according to the
researcher’s choices.
2 Unstructured or open – ended questions
They refer to questions, which give the respondent complete freedom of response. The amount of
space provided is always an indicator of whether a brief or lengthy answer is desired.
Advantages of Unstructured or open – ended questions
 They permit a greater depth of response
 They are simple to formulate
 The respondent’s responses may give an insight into his feelings, background, hidden motives,
interest and decisions.
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Disadvantages of Unstructured or open – ended questions

 There is a tendency of the respondents providing information, which does not answer the
stipulated research questions or objectives.
 The responses given may be difficult to categorize and hence difficult to analyze quantitatively
Rules for constructing questionnaires and questionnaire items
 List the objectives that you want the questionnaire to accomplish before constructing the
questionnaire.
 Determine how information obtained from each questionnaire item will be analyzed.
 Ensure clarity and avoid ambiguity.
 If a concept has several meanings and that concept must be used in a question, the intended
meaning must be defined.
 Construct short questions.
 Items should be stated positively as possible.
 Double-barreled items should be avoided.
 Leading and biased questions should be avoided.
 Very personal and sensitive questions should be avoided.
 Simple words that are easily understandable should be used.
 Questions that assume facts with no evidence should be avoided.
 Avoid psychologically threatening questions.
 Include enough information in each item so that it is meaningful to the respondent.
 Responding to open ended questions is time consuming, which may put some respondent off.
Tips on how to organize or order items in a questionnaire.
1. Begin with non-threatening, interesting items.
2. It is not advisable to put important questions at the end of a long questionnaire.
3. Have some logical order when putting items together.
4. Arrange the questions according to themes being studied.
5. If the questionnaire is arranged into content sub-sections, each section should be introduced with
a short statement concerning its content and purpose.
6. Socio-economic questions should be asked at the end because respondents may be put off by
personal questions at the beginning of the questionnaire.
Presentation of the questionnaire
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1. Make the questionnaire attractive by using quality paper. It increases the response rate.
2. Organize and lay out the questions so that the questionnaire is easy to complete.
3. All the pages and items in a questionnaire should be numbered.
4. Brief but clear instruction must be included.
5. Make your questionnaire short.
Pretesting the questionnaire
The questionnaire should be pretested to a selected sample, which is similar to the actual sample,
which the researcher plans to study. This is important because: -
 Questions that are vague will be revealed in the sense that the respondents will interpret them
differently.
 Comments and suggestions made by respondents during pretesting should be seriously
considered and incorporated.
 Pretesting will reveal deficiencies in the questionnaire.
It helps to test whether the methods of analysis are appropriate.
Ways of administering questionnaires
Questionnaires are mainly administered using three methods:
i. Self-administered questionnaires
Questionnaires are sent to the respondents through mail or hand-delivery, and they complete on
their own.
ii. Researcher administered questionnaires
The researcher can decide to use the questionnaire to interview the respondents. This is mostly
done when the subjects may not have the ability to easily interpret the questions probably
because of their educational level.
iii. Use of the internet
The people sampled for the research receive and respond to the questionnaires through their web
sites or e-mail addresses.
The letter of transmittal / Cover letter
The letter of transmittal / Cover letter should accompany every questionnaire.
Contents of a letter of transmittal
 It should explain the purpose of the study.
 It should explain the importance and significance of the study.
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 A brief assurance of confidentiality should be included in the letter.

 If the study is affiliated to a certain institution or organization, it is advisable to have an
endorsement from such an institution or organization.
 In sensitive research, it may be necessary to assure the anonymity of respondents.
 The letter should contain specific deadline dates by which the completed questionnaire is to be
returned.
INTERVIEWS
An interview is an oral (face to face) administration of a questionnaire or an interview schedule.
To obtain accurate information through interviews, a researcher needs to obtain the maximum
co-operation from respondents. Interviews are particularly useful for getting the story behind a
participant's experiences. The interviewer can pursue in-depth information around a topic.
Interviews may be useful as follow-up to certain respondents to questionnaires, e.g., to further
investigate their responses. Usually, open-ended questions are asked during interviews.
Guidelines for preparation for Interview
1. Choose a setting with little distraction. Avoid loud lights or noises, ensure the interviewee is
comfortable (you might ask them if they are), etc. Often, they may feel more comfortable at their
own places of work or homes.
2. Explain the purpose of the interview.
3. Address terms of confidentiality. Note any terms of confidentiality. (Be careful here. Rarely can
you absolutely promise anything. Courts may get access to information, in certain
circumstances.) Explain who will get access to their answers and how their answers will be
analyzed. If their comments are to be used as quotes, get their written permission to do so.
4. Explain the format of the interview. Explain the type of interview you are conducting and its
nature. If you want them to ask questions, specify if they're to do so as they have them or wait
until the end of the interview.
5. Indicate how long the interview usually takes.
6. Tell them how to get in touch with you later if they want to.
7. Ask them if they have any questions before you both get started with the interview.
8. Don't count on your memory to recall their answers. Ask for permission to record the interview
or bring along someone to take notes.
Types of Interviews approaches
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(a) Informal, conversational interview - no predetermined questions are asked, in order to remain as
open and adaptable as possible to the interviewee's nature and priorities; during the interview, the
interviewer "goes with the flow".
(b) General interview guide approach - the guide approach is intended to ensure that the same
general areas of information are collected from each interviewee; this provides more focus than
the conversational approach, but still allows a degree of freedom and adaptability in getting
information from the interviewee.
(c) Standardized, open-ended interview - here, the same open-ended questions are asked to all
interviewees (an open-ended question is where respondents are free to choose how to answer the
question, i.e., they don't select "yes" or "no" or provide a numeric rating, etc.); this approach
facilitates faster interviews that can be more easily analyzed and compared
Closed, fixed-response interview - where all interviewees are asked the same questions and
asked to choose answers from among the same set of alternatives. This format is useful for those
not practiced in interviewing.
Immediately After Interview
 Verify if the tape recorder, if used, worked throughout the interview.
 Make any notes on your written notes, e.g., to clarify any scratching’s, ensure pages are
numbered, fill out any notes that don't make senses, etc.
 Write down any observations made during the interview. For example, where did the interview
occur and when, was the respondent particularly nervous at any time? Were there any surprises
during the interview? Did the tape recorder break?
Problems likely to be encountered during personal interviews In personal interviews, the
researcher must deal with bias and cost.
Biased results are as a result of three types of errors:
(a) Sampling error
It’s the difference between a sample statistic and its corresponding population parameter. The
sampling distribution of the sample means is a probability distribution of possible sample means
of a given sample size.
(b) Non-response error
This occurs when the responses of participants differ in some systematic way from the responses
of non-participants. It occurs when the researcher:
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 Cannot locate the person to be studied

 Is unsuccessful in encouraging that person to participate
Solutions to reduce errors of non-response are
 Establishing and implementing callback procedures
 Creating a non-response sample and weighting results from this sample  Substituting another
individual for the missing non-participant.
(c) Response error
Occurs when the data reported differ from the actual data. It can occur during the interview or
during preparation of data analysis.
 Participant-initiated error occurs when the participant fails to answer fully and accurately either
by choice or because of inaccurate or incomplete knowledge. Can be solved by using trained
interviewers who are knowledgeable about such problems.  Interviewer error can be caused
by:-
- Failure to secure full participant cooperation
- Failure to consistently execute interview procedures
- Failure to establish appropriate interview environment
- Falsification of individual answers or whole interviews
- Inappropriate influencing behavior
- Failure to record answers accurately and completely -Physical presence bias.
Advantages of Personal interviews
 Good cooperation from the respondents
 Interviewer can answer questions about survey, probe for answers, use follow-up questions and
gather information by observation.
 Special visual aids and scoring devices can be used.
 Illiterate and functionally illiterate respondents can be reached
 Interviewer can prescreen respondent to ensure he / she fits the population profile.
 Responses can be entered directly into a portable microcomputer to reduce error and cost when
using computer assisted personal interviewing.
Disadvantages of Personal interviews
 High costs
 Need for highly trained interviewers
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 Longer period needed in the field collecting data

 May be wide geographic dispersion
 Follow-up is labor intensive
 Not all respondents are available or accessible
 Some respondents are unwilling to talk to strangers in their homes
 Some neighborhoods are difficult to visit
 Questions may be altered or respondent coached by interviewers.
Telephone interviews
People selected to be part of the sample are interviewed on the telephone by a trained
interviewer.
Advantages of Telephone interviews
 Lower costs than personal interviews
 Expanded geographic coverage without dramatic increase in costs
 Uses fewer, more highly skilled interviewers
 Reduced interview bias
 Fates completion time
 Better access to hard-to-reach respondents through repeated callbacks
 Can use computerized random digit dialing
 Responses can be entered directly into a computer file to reduce error and cost when using
computer assisted telephone interviewing.
Disadvantages of Telephone interviews
 Response rate is lower than for personal interview
 Higher costs if interviewing geographically dispersed sample
 Interview sample must be limited
 Many phone numbers are unlisted or not working, making directory listings unreliable
 Some target groups are not available by phone
 Responses may be less complete  Illustrations cannot be used.
 Respondents may not be honest with their responses since it is not a face-to-face situation
Rules pertaining to interviews
The interviewer must
 Be pleasant
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 Show genuine interest in getting to know respondents without appearing like spies.
 Be relaxed and friendly.
 Be very familiar with the questionnaire or the interview guide.
 Have a guide which indicates what questions are to be asked and in what order.
 Interact with the respondent as an equal.
 Pretest the interview guide before using it to check for vocabulary, language level and how well
the questions will be understood.
 Inform the respondent about the confidentiality of the information given.
 Not ask leading questions
 Remain neutral in an interview situation in order to be as objective as possible.
An interview schedules
It’s a set of questions that the interviewer asks when interviewing. It makes it possible to obtain
data required to meet specific objectives of the study.
Note taking during interviews
It refers to the method of recording in which the interviewer records the respondent’s responses
during the interview.
Advantages
 It facilitates data analysis since the information is readily accessible and already classified into
appropriate categories.
 If taken well, no information is left out.
Disadvantages of note taking
 It may interfere with the communication between the respondent and the interviewer.
 It might upset the respondent if the answers are personal and sensitive.
 If it is delayed, important details may be forgotten.
 It makes the interview lengthy and boring.
Tape recording
The interviewer’s questions and the respondent’s answers are recorded either using a tape
recorder or a video tape.
Advantages
 It reduces the tendency for the interviewer to make unconscious selection of data in the course of
the recording.
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 The tape can be played back and studied more thoroughly.

 A person other than the interviewer can evaluate and categorize responses.
 It speeds up the interview.
 Communication is not interrupted.
Disadvantages
 It changes the interview situation since respondents get nervous.
 Respondents may be reluctant to give sensitive information if they know they are being taped.
 Transcribing the tapes before analysis is time consuming and tedious.
Advantages of interviews
 It provides in-depth data, which is not possible to get using a questionnaire.
 It makes it possible to obtain data required to meet specific objectives of the study.
 Are more flexible than questionnaires because the interviewer can adapt to the situation and get
as much information as possible.
 Very sensitive and personal information can be extracted from the respondent.
 The interviewer can clarify and elaborate the purpose of the research and effectively convince
respondents about the importance of the research.  They yield higher response rates
Disadvantages of interviews
 They are expensive – traveling costs
 It requires a higher level of skill
 Interviewers need to be trained to avoid bias
 Not appropriate for large samples
 Responses may be influenced by the respondent’s reaction to the interviewer.
OBSERVATION
Observation is one of the few options available for studying records, mechanical processes, small
children and complex interactive processes. Data can be gathered as the event occurs.
Observation includes a variety of monitoring situations that cover non-behavioral and behavioral
activities.
The observer-participant relationship
Interrogation presents a clear opportunity for interviewer bias. The problem is less pronounced
with observation but is still real. The relationship between observer and participant may be
viewed from three perspectives:
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 Whether the observation is direct or indirect

 Whether the observer’s presence is known or unknown to the participant
 What role the observer plays
Guidelines for the qualification and selection of observers
 Concentration: Ability to function in a setting full of distractions
 Detail-oriented: Ability to remember details of an experience
 Unobtrusive: Ability to blend with the setting and not be distinctive
 Experience level: Ability to extract the most from an observation study
Advantages of observation Enables one to:
 Secure information about people or activities that cannot be derived from experiment or surveys
 Reduces obtrusiveness
 Avoid participant filtering and forgetfulness
 Secure environmental context information
 Optimize the naturalness of the research setting
Limitations of observation
 Difficulty of waiting for long periods to capture the relevant phenomena
 The expense of observer costs and equipment
 Reliability of inferences from surface indicators
 The problem of quantification and disproportionately large records
Observation forms, schedules or checklists
The researcher must define the behaviour to be observed and then develop a detailed list of
behaviors. During data collection, the researcher checks off each as it occurs. This permits the
observer to spend time thinking about what is occurring rather than on how to record it and this
enhances the accuracy of the study.
DATA ANALYSIS. [CHAPTER 4]
DATA PREPARATION AND DESCRIPTION
Once the data begins to flow in, attention turns to data analysis. If the project has been done
correctly, the analysis planning is already done. Summarize the analysis tools you will use in
your study. These depend on your objectives and the nature of your variables.
ANALYSIS produces lists, frequencies, tables (cross tabulations), statistics and Graphs.
Data preparation
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This includes editing, coding and data entry. These activities ensure the accuracy of the data and
their conversion from raw form to reduced and classified forms that are more appropriate for
analysis.
Editing
Editing detects errors and omissions, corrects them when possible and certifies that minimum
data quality standards have been achieved. The editor’s purpose is to guarantee that data are:
 Accurate
 Consistent with intent of the question and other information in the survey
 Uniformly entered
 Complete
 Arranged to simplify coding and tabulation.
Data entry
 Data entry converts information gathered by secondary or primary methods to a medium for
viewing and manipulation. Data entry is accomplished by keyboard entry from pre-coded
instruments, optical scanning, real time keyboarding, telephone pad data entry, bar codes, voice
recognition, optical mark recognition (OMR) and data transfers from electronic notebooks and
laptop computers. Database programs, spreadsheets and editors in statistical software programs
e.g., SPSS and SAS offer flexibility for entering, manipulating and transferring data for analysis,
warehousing and mining.
 Data description
 The objective of descriptive statistical analysis is to develop sufficient knowledge to describe a
body of data. This is accomplished by understanding the data levels for the measurements we
choose, their distributions and characteristics of location, spread and shape. The discovery of
miscoded values, missing data and other problems in the data set is enhanced with descriptive
statistics.
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
1) Seek the consent of respondents before you involve them in the study.
2) All authors/academicians hose ideas are used in the study, are to be fully recognized.
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The things which may reduce validity of your findings are include the following:
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1) Intervening Variables: Variables beyond the control of the researcher. E.g. environmental and
emotional biases of respondents.
2) Questionnaire Retrieval: Not all questionnaires distributed will be returned.
Chapter Five 5.0 Summary and Conclusions
The summary is a brief statement of the essential findings. Sectional summaries may be used if
there are many specific findings. These may be combined into an overall summary. Conclusions
represent inferences drawn from the findings. Conclusions may be presented in a tabular form
for easy reading and reference. Summary findings may be subordinated under the related
conclusion statement.
Recommendations
There are usually a few ideas about corrective actions. In academic research, the
recommendations are often further study suggestions that broaden or test understanding of the
subject area. In applied research, the recommendations will usually be for managerial action
rather than research action. The writer may offer several alternatives with justifications.
References
The use of secondary data requires a reference or a bibliography. Proper citation, style and
formats are unique to the purpose of the report.
Appendixes
The appendixes are the place for complex tables, statistical tests, supporting documents, copies
of forms and questionnaires, detailed descriptions of the methodology, instructions to field
workers and other evidence important for later support. The reader who wishes to learn about
technical aspects of the study and to look at statistical breakdowns will want a complete
appendix.
Time schedule
It is a listing of the major activities and the corresponding anticipated time period it will take to
accomplish that activity. The time is usually given in months. Activities to be undertaken can
always overlap.
Budget
A budget is a list of items that will be required to carry out the research and their approximate
cost. It should be detailed enough and precise on items needed, prices per unit and total cost.
Details of requirements in each budget will be governed by the type of research.
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SUMMARY OF WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL AND REPORT.

REPORT WRITING TECHNIQUES
A quality presentation of research findings can have an inordinate effect on a reader’s or a
listener’s perceptions of a study’s quality. Recognition of this fact should prompt a researcher to
make a special effort to communicate skillfully and clearly. Research reports contain findings,
analysis, interpretations, conclusions and recommendations. Research reports differ depending
on their aims and their readership. Reports should be clearly organized, physically inviting and
easy to read. Writers can achieve these goals if they are careful with mechanical details, writing
style and comprehensibility.
Writing a research proposal and research reports
A proposal is a document, which details an intended activity. The formats for writing proposals
differ from institution to institution or from department to department. Generally, a research
proposal should include the following prefatory items; the title page, declaration, table of
contents, list of figures and tables, list of acronyms and abbreviations and an abstract. It will also
have chapter one: Introduction, Chapter Two: Literature review and Chapter Three:
Methodology. In addition, it will also have the references, time schedule, budget and any
appendices.
The final research report will have what is contained in the proposal (apart from the time
schedule and budget) and in addition dedication, acknowledgement, chapter four: Data analysis
and findings and chapter five: Summary, conclusions and recommendations.
Prefatory items
Prefatory items do not have a direct bearing on the research itself. They assist the reader in using
the research report. They can include: -
Title page:
The title page should include the title of the report, the date and for whom and by whom it was
prepared. The title should be brief but should include the variables included in the study, the type
of relationship among the variables and the population to which the results may be applied.
Declaration
This is whereby the researcher declares that the work s his/her original work.
Dedication
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Some researchers would always wish to dedicate their work to a person or persons they deem
special in their lives.
Acknowledgements
During the research process, the researcher may require help from other individuals or
organizations. It would be necessary if the researcher acknowledged received from these
individuals and organizations.
Table of contents and list of figures and tables
Any report with several sections that total more than six to ten pages should have a table of
contents. If there are many tables, charts or other exhibits, they should also be listed after the
table of contents in a separate list of tables or list of figures.
List of abbreviations and acronyms
All abbreviations and acronyms used in report should be explained. An abbreviation is a short
form of a word while an acronym is a contraction formed by taking the first letter of several
words.
Abstract
A proposal abstract is a summary of what the researcher intends to do. It should be brief, precise
and to the point. It should be one page or half page. An abstract should have the following parts:
Area of study, the topic, the objectives, tools to collect data, how you will analyze your data and
mention the dependent or independent variables.
Chapter One
1.0 Introduction
The introduction prepares the reader for the report by describing the parts of the report.
1.1 Background to the problem
In the background, the researcher should broadly introduce the topic under investigation. The
researcher introduces briefly the general area of study, and then narrows down to the specific
problem to be studied. The background enables the reader to have an idea of what is happening
regarding the area under investigation.
1.2 The problem Statement
The researcher states the problem under investigation. The researcher should describe the factors
that make the stated problem a critical issue to warrant the study. Relevant literature can be
referred to. It should be brief and precise.
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1.3 The objectives of the study

Research objectives are those specific issues within the scope of the stated purpose that the
researcher wants to focus upon and examine in the study. The objectives should be specific,
measurable, achievable, and reliable and time bound. Objectives guide the researcher in
formulating testable hypotheses.
1.4 Research questions
These are the questions, which the researcher would like to be answered by undertaking the
study. They should be formulated from the objectives of the study that means now the number of
objectives should tally with the research questions.
1.5 Research Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a researcher’s prediction regarding the outcome of the study. It states possible
differences, relationships or causes between two variables or concepts. Hypothesis are derived
from or based on existing theories, previous research, personal observations or experiences. The
test of a hypothesis involves collection and analysis of data that may either support or fail to
support the hypothesis. If the results fail to support a stated hypothesis, it does not mean that the
study has failed but it implies that the existing theories or principles need to be revised or
retested under various situations.
1.6 Scope of the study
This section indicates the boundary of the study or area of study.
1.7 Significance / Justification of the study
The justification helps to answer the following questions. Why is this work important? What are
the implications of doing it? How does it link to another knowledge? How does it stand to inform
policy making? The significance must be strong enough to warrant the use of time, energy and
money in carrying out the research.
1.8 Assumptions and limitations of the study
An assumption is any fact that a researcher takes to be true without actually verifying it. It puts
some boundary around the study and provides the reader with vital information, which influences
the way results of the study are interpreted. A limitation is an aspect of a research that may
influence the results negatively but over which the researcher has no control. A common
limitation in social science studies is the scope of the study, which sometimes may not allow
generalizations. Sample size may also be another limitation.
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Chapter Two
1.0 Literature Review
The purpose of the literature review is to situate your research in the context of what is already
known about a topic. It need not be exhaustive; it needs to show how your work will benefit the
whole. It should provide the theoretical basis for your work, show what has been done in the area
by others, and set the stage for your work.
In a literature review you should give the reader enough ties to the literature that they feel
confident that you have found, read, and assimilated the literature in the field. It should probably
move from the more general to the more focused studies, but need not be exhaustive, only
relevant.
The literature review should clearly present the holes in the knowledge that need to be plugged
and by so doing, situate your work. It is the place where you establish that your work will fit in
and be significant to the discipline.
Chapter two should also include a frame work (either conceptual or theoretical frame work) it
usually shows the dependent and independent variables that guides the writer to build on when
writing the proposal.
Chapter Three
1.0 Research Methodology
This section should make clear to the reader the way that you intend to approach the research
question and the techniques and logic that you will use to address it.
1.1 Research design
The coverage of the design must be adapted to the purpose. In an experimental study, the
materials, tests, equipment, control conditions and other devices should be described. In
descriptive or ex post facto designs, it may be sufficient to cover the rationale for using one
design instead of competing alternatives. The strengths and weaknesses of the design can be
identified and the instrumentation and materials discussed.
1.2 The target population
The researcher should explicitly define the target population being studied.
1.3 Sampling strategy
Explanations of the sampling methods, uniqueness of the chosen parameters or other points that
need explanation should be covered with brevity.
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1.4 Data Collection Tools and Techniques

This part of the report describes the specifics of gathering the data. Its contents depend on the
design. This might include the data that you anticipate collecting and a description of the
instruments you will use. Detailed copies of the data collection tool e.g., questionnaires,
interview schedule or observation schedule should be attached as an appendix.
1.5 Data Analysis
This section summarizes the methods used to analyze the data. It describes data handling,
preliminary analysis, statistical tests, computer programs and other technical information. The
rationale for the choice of analysis approaches should be clear. A brief commentary on
assumptions and appropriateness of use should be presented.
Chapter Four
1.0 Data analysis and Findings
The objective is to explain the data rather than draw interpretations or conclusions. When
quantitative data can be presented, it should be done as simply as possible with charts, graphics
and tables. The data need not include everything collected. Only material important to the
reader’s understanding of the problem and the findings should be included. Both findings that
support or do not support the hypothesis should be included.
Chapter Five
5.1 Summary and Conclusions
The summary is a brief statement of the essential findings. Sectional summaries may be used if
there are many specific findings. These may be combined into an overall summary. Conclusions
represent inferences drawn from the findings. Conclusions may be presented in a tabular form
for easy reading and reference. Summary findings may be subordinated under the related
conclusion statement.
Recommendations
There are usually a few ideas about corrective actions. In academic research, the
recommendations are often further study suggestions that broaden or test understanding of the
subject area. In applied research, the recommendations will usually be for managerial action
rather than research action. The writer may offer several alternatives with justifications.
References
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The use of secondary data requires a reference or a bibliography. Proper citation, style and
formats are unique to the purpose of the report.
Appendixes
The appendixes are the place for complex tables, statistical tests, supporting documents, copies
of forms and questionnaires, detailed descriptions of the methodology, instructions to field
workers and other evidence important for later support. The reader who wishes to learn about
technical aspects of the study and to look at statistical breakdowns will want a complete
appendix.
Time schedule
It is a listing of the major activities and the corresponding anticipated time period it will take to
accomplish that activity. The time is usually given in months. Activities to be undertaken can
always overlap.
Budget
A budget is a list of items that will be required to carry out the research and their approximate
cost. It should be detailed enough and precise on items needed, prices per unit and total cost.
Details of requirements in each budget will be governed by the type of research.
Characteristics of a Good Proposal:
 The need for the proposed activity is clearly established, preferably with data.
 The most important ideas are highlighted and repeated in several places.
 The objectives of the project are given in detail.
 There is a detailed schedule of activities for the project, or at least sample portions of such a
complete project schedule.
 Collaboration with all interested groups in planning of the proposed project is evident in the
proposal.
 The commitment of all involved parties is evident, e.g., letters of commitment in the appendix
and cost sharing stated in both the narrative of the proposal and the budget.
 The budget and the proposal narrative are consistent.
 The uses of money are clearly indicated in the proposal narrative as well as in the budget.
 All of the major matters indicated in the proposal guidelines are clearly addressed in the
proposal.
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 The agreement of all project staff and consultants to participate in the project was acquired and is
so indicated in the proposal.
 All governmental procedures have been followed with regard to matters such as civil rights
compliance and protection of human subjects.
 Appropriate detail is provided in all portions of the proposal.
 All of the directions given in the proposal guidelines have been followed carefully.
 Appendices have been used appropriately for detailed and lengthy materials which the reviewers
may not want to read but are useful as evidence of careful planning, previous experience, etc.
 The length is consistent with the proposal guidelines and/or funding agency expectations.
 The budget explanations provide an adequate basis for the figures used in building the budget.
 If appropriate, there is a clear statement of commitment to continue the project after external
funding ends.
 The qualifications of project personnel are clearly communicated.
 The writing style is clear and concise. It speaks to the reader, helping the reader understand the
problems and proposal. Summarizing statements and headings are used to lead the reader.
Guidelines for writing a good research report
 Break large units of text into smaller units with headings to show organization of the topics
 Relieve difficult text with visual aids when possible
 Emphasize important material and de-emphasize secondary material through sentence
construction and judicious use of italicizing, underlining, capitalizing and parentheses.
 Use ample space and wide margins to create a positive psychological effect on the reader.
 Choose words carefully, opting for the known and short rather than the unknown and long.
 Repeat and summarize critical and difficult ideas so readers can have time to absorb them.
 Review the writing to ensure the tone is appropriate  Proof read the final document to correct
any errors.
 Use short paragraphs
 Indent parts of text that represent listings, long quotations or examples.
 Use headings and subheadings to divide the report and its major sections into homogeneous
topical parts.