Heliyon 8 (2022) e12262

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Heliyon
journal homepage: www.cell.com/heliyon

Research article

Assessment of livestock greenhouse gases in Colombia between 1995

and 2015
Ang
elica P. Garrido a, b, Fredy Tovar Bernal a, b, *, Jos
e D. Fontanilla a, b,
Yiniva Camargo Caicedo a, b, Andr
es M. V
elez-Pereira c, d
a
Programa de Ingeniería Ambiental y Sanitaria, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad del Magdalena, Carrera 32 No. 22-08, 470004, Santa Marta, Colombia
b
Grupo de Investigaci

on en Modelaci
on de Sistemas Ambientales-GIMSA, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad del Magdalena, Santa Marta, Colombia
c
Departamento de Ingeniería Mec
anica, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Tarapac
a, Arica, Chile
d

Laboratorio de Investigaciones Medioambientales de Zonas Aridas, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de Tarapac

a, Arica, Chile

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The livestock sector in Colombia significantly participates in national economic dynamics but makes significant
Climate change worldwide contributions to greenhouse gas emissions. Hence, climate change mitigation in this sector is essential.
Enteric fermentation This study aims to assess the greenhouse gas in the livestock sector. The results are reported in methane emissions
Greenhouse gases
(CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) from enteric fermentation, and N2O by manure management based on the in-
Livestock sector
Manure management
formation from the Emission Database for Global Atmospheric Research (EDGAR), in all cases expressed as di-
Methane oxide of carbon (CO2eq). The emissions obtained from the EDGAR database for 2015 were proportional to the
values of the National Inventory of Greenhouse Gases published by the Institute of Hydrology, Meteorology, and
Environmental Studies (IDEAM) in 2016. Colombia is the 12th on global, 4th in America and 2nd in South
America position by livestock GHG emission, and is the dominant source in all economic sector. The results
showed higher records for CH4 emissions during the years 2010 and 2015, while the N2O emissions were higher
during 2015. The regions with the highest emissions of CH4 and N2O corresponded to the northwestern area of
Colombia. The Spearman correlation test showed a positive correlation between the CH4 emissions, and the age
groups studied. The post hoc analysis of the Kruskal–Wallis test showed a more significant influence on CH4
emissions.

1. Introduction agricultural and livestock practices (Jose et al., 2016; EPA, 2020a,b). The
most important GHG are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous
The increase in anthropogenic activities has contributed to the vari- oxide (N2O), and fluorinated gases, such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),
ation in greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere; glob- perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), whose effects on
ally, between 1990 and 2010, net GHG increased by 35%, causing a climate change depend on three variables: concentration, lifetime in the
positive climate forcing or warming effect, reflected in changes in ocean atmosphere, and the global warming potential (GWP) of each gas (EPA,
temperature, with increases from 0.65
C to 1.06
C, the melting of 2020a,b; Minanmbiente, 2020a,b).
glaciers and Arctic thaw, an increase in warm days and nights, an in- In this context, CH4 and N2O play an important role in total GHG,
crease in the frequency of heat waves in Asia, Europe, and Australia, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
variability in the distribution of rainfall, and an increase in the occur- CH4 contributes 15–20% of the total global emissions, and N2O con-
rence of extreme meteorological phenomena (Jose et al., 2016). From tributes 6% (Cheewaphongphan et al., 2019; Parra-Cort
es et al., 2020;
1990 to 2015, the total warming effect of GHG from human activities EPA, 2020a,b). Published records show increases in the concentrations of
increased by 37% (Jose et al., 2016; EPA, 2020a,b). CH4 in the atmosphere, largely attributed to anthropogenic emissions
GHG are derived from natural and anthropogenic processes such as arising from livestock production, rice cultivation, and biomass burning
the burning of fossil fuels, changes in land use, deforestation, anaerobic (Jose et al., 2016).
decomposition of organic waste in landfills, biomass combustion, and

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (F. Tovar Bernal).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e12262
Received 20 July 2022; Received in revised form 14 November 2022; Accepted 2 December 2022
2405-8440/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
A.P. Garrido et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e12262

The global emissions of CH4 by enteric fermentation and manure

Table 1. Global warming potential. management from 2008 to 2017 were estimated to be in the range of
Greenhouse GWP 106–116 Tg CH4yr1, equivalent to almost one-third of the global total
gas anthropogenic emissions (Saunois et al., 2020). Approximately 12.5% of
AR2 1995 AR3 2001 AR4 2007 AR5 2014
(IPCC, 1995) (IPCC, 2001) (IPCC, 2007) (IPCC, 2014) global GHG comes from the livestock sector, and 80% of emissions from
CH4 21 23 25 28
agriculture are associated with the livestock sector. Around 36% of the
global emissions of CH4 and 64% of those of N2O are attributed to the
N2O 310 296 298 265
livestock production process (Nieto et al., 2014; Vac et al., 2013; Jose
Data source: IPCC, 1995; IPCC, 2001; IPCC, 2007; IPCC, 2014. et al., 2016).
The bovine livestock is responsible for 28% of emissions, of which
The livestock sector is considered one of the main contributors to 95.46% of the CH4 emissions by enteric fermentation correspond to cattle
climate change. Therefore, the mitigation of climate change is highly farming. Publications indicate that cattle production emits 81.77% of
priority for the agriculture sector worldwide (Balezentis et al., 2022). In direct N2O emissions from grazing cattle and 80% of indirect N2O
livestock production systems, the sources of GHG come from land use, emissions from soils through cattle manure (Nieto et al., 2014). On the
enteric fermentation, manure management, processing, and transport other hand, CH4 emissions by cattle represent 43% of the total emissions
(Vac et al., 2013; Jose et al., 2016; Peng et al., 2016; Parra-Cort
es et al., in various dairy and beef supply chains worldwide (Gerber et al., 2013).
2020). Enteric fermentation is a process that occurs in the digestive Latin America and the Caribbean contribute approximately 9% of
system of certain animals and generates CH4 as a byproduct. Of the total GHG's total global anthropogenic emissions, producing 14% of the global
CH4 produced in the livestock sector, 95% is excreted by eructation, 89% CH4 emissions. Publications indicate that Brazil (44.7%), Mexico
is made in the digestive tract and eliminated by respiration, and 11% is (22.8%), Argentina (13.7%), and Colombia (7%) contribute large vol-
eliminated via the anus (Ribeiro et al., 2015). umes of GHG (IDEAM, 2016; Benaouda et al., 2017).
Regarding the indirect contribution of livestock to manure manage- In Colombia, the livestock sector is crucial for socioeconomic devel-
ment, CH4 emissions occur due to the anaerobic microbial decomposition opment (Anaya et al., 2010; IDEAM, 2016) and represents 88% of the
of solid and liquid fecal matter and depend on factors such as the type of national agricultural industry. At the national level, the agricultural
treatment or storage facility, environmental conditions, and manure sector contributes 6% of the gross domestic product (GDP), and livestock
composition (Opio et al., 2013). In general, animal waste generates farming contributes 1.4% of the GDP (FEDEGAN, 2018). The Colombian
10–15% CH4 (IDEAM, 2016), with cattle and pig manure having the livestock inventory between 2015 and 2019 showed an increase of
highest emission potential (Centella et al., 2001). 16.09%, represented by a growth of 4,383,380 heads of cattle (FEDE-
Regarding N2O emissions, the organic waste (feces and urine) GAN, 2018).
generated by livestock production is responsible for approximately 18% Within the framework of the Paris Agreement and the process of
of the total emissions of this gas worldwide (Pattey et al., 2005). Direct updating the contribution determined at the national level of Colombia,
deposition of manure and urine of grazing animals in pastures (Berra where the goal for reducing GHG in Colombia will be 51% by 2030
and Finster, 2002) and indirect deposition from the volatilization of (Minanmbiente, 2020a,b), it is important to assess the emissions asso-
nitrogen excreted by animals (Blanco et al., 2011; Gerber et al., 2013) ciated with the livestock sector. Even more when according to Wilkes
occur. et al. (2020) affirmed that global scientific expertise in livestock GHG

Figure 1. Emission of greenhouses gases during 1995–2015 in Colombian of CH4 by emissions from enteric fermentation (blue line) and manure management (green
line); and N2O by manure management (purple line).

2
A.P. Garrido et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e12262

emissions has had limited engagement with public policy processes, EDGAR calculate the emissions using a technology-based emission
leaving a gap related to the support countries to improve measurement, factor approach consistently applied for all world countries, as summa-
reporting and verification of data or specific needs for information in this rized in the following formula:
sector. X
Therefore, the objective of this research is to assess the emissions of EMc ðy; xÞ ¼ ADC;i ðyÞ*TECHC;i;j ðyÞ*EOPC;i;j;k ðyÞ*EFC;i;j ðy; xÞ*
i;j;k
GHG such as CH4 and N2O in Colombia from the EDGAR v5.0 database  
and the national cattle inventory to generate of information that facili- 1  REDC;i;j;k ðy; xÞ
tates the achievement of the goals proposed at the national level to
combat climate change. where the emissions (EM) for a country C are calculated for each com-
pound x on an annual basis (y) and sector (for i sectors, multiplying on
2. Data and methods the one hand the country-specific activity data (AD), quantifying the
human activity for each of the i sectors, with the mix of j technologies
2.1. Database sources and study domain (TECH) for each sector i, and with their decrease percentage by one of the
k end-of-pipe (EOP) measures for each technology j, and on the other
Data collection for the research was performed through the consul- hand the country-specific emission factor (EF) for each sector i and
tation of national databases from The national bovine inventory was technology j with relative reduction (RED) of the uncontrolled emission
obtained from the National Agricultural Survey of the National Admin- by installed decrease measure k.
istrative Department of Statistics (DANE, for its acronym in Spanish) and According to IDEAM (2016), the guidelines of the IPCC in 2006
the Colombian Federation of Livestock Farmers (FEDEGAN, for its contemplate the methodological guidelines to develop estimates of direct
acronym in Spanish), these institutes provided the national bovine in- emissions of CH4 and N2O generated by activities in different economic
ventory for 1995–2015, except for 1998, where the National Agricultural sectors; therefore, the estimation of emissions according to the IPCC Tier
Survey was not carried out, indicated in File No. 2021313000576-1 of 2 methodology was performed by the conversion of GHG into equivalent
the DANE. In the same way, the data were downloaded from EDGAR emissions of CO2 (CO2-eq) using the GWP published in the IPCC climate
v5.0. Which provides records of CH4 by enteric fermentation and manure change assessment reports. The GWP corresponding to each study period
management, and N2O by management of manure worldwide. The study from 1995 to 2015 is listed in Table 1 (IPCC, 1995; IPCC, 2001; IPCC,
domain is the Colombian territory. 2007; IPCC, 2014).

Figure 2. (a) CH4 Emissions in 2015. (b) CH4 Emissions from Enteric Fermentation in 2015. (c) CH4 Emissions from Manure Management in 2015.

3
A.P. Garrido et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e12262

2.2. Statistical test The results show CH4 emissions in the range of 177,522–5.22  108
kg of CO2-eq. The areas of the country with the highest emissions records
Information from the EDGAR v 5.0 database and the national bovine correspond to the northern and central zone of Colombia. The areas with
census of the National Agricultural Survey were used to determine the the highest records of CH4 emissions are Atl
antico, C
esar, C
ordoba,
participation of the sources. The Shapiro–Wilk normality test was applied Antioquia, Valle del Cauca, Cundinamarca, Casanare, and Boyac
a. On the
for the identified age groups, males, and females, and CH4 emissions by other hand, the southern zone reports low emission values with respect to
enteric fermentation and manure management, and N2O emissions by the national total, as shown in Figure 2a.
manure management. The age groups of the study correspond to males The results from the 2015 report CH4 emissions by enteric fermen-
and females younger than 1 year, between 1 and 2 years, between 2 and 3 tation range from 105.63 to 3.03  107 kg of CO2-eq in the areas of
years, and older than 3 years from 1995 to 2015. As data did not follow a Magdalena, Cesar, Sucre, and C
ordoba. In the central zone, values lower
normal distribution, nonparametric tests were used. The Spearman cor- than those in the northern zone are found, while the southern zone re-
relation test was used to identify correlations in the variables, then the ports the lowest emission values according to Figure 2b. Likewise,
Kruskal–Wallis test was applied to identify the existence of statistically Figure 2c shows that the 2015 CH4 emissions by manure management
significant differences, and finally, a post hoc analysis was applied ac- range from 11.13 to 697884 kg of CO2-eq. The highest records occur in
cording to the methodology indicated in Field et al. (2012) to identify the northwestern area of Colombia, with higher values in the areas of
pairs of groups with differences. The statistical test was applied for two Sucre, C
ordoba, Antioquia, and Valle del Cauca. The southern zone
groups of data, Group 1 including the data from 1995 to 2005, and Group shows low emission values with respect to the total emissions recorded.
2 including the data from 2006 to 2015; due to 2006, the classification of Figure 3a shows that the 2015 emissions of N2O range from 87718.2 to
the survey included a new category, older than 3 years. Finally, the data 2.032  107 kg of CO2-eq. The areas with the highest records correspond to
were organized in a Microsoft Excel file and entered the ArcGIS program the northern zone, especially in the departments of Magdalena, Sucre,
to generated the Colombia's maps emission of GHG under studies. C
ordoba, and Cesar. The Department of Cundinamarca also reports high
values of N2O emissions. In general, the central zone reports lower emis-
3. Results sion values, and the southern zone reports the lowest emission values.
The records represented in the map of Figure 3b for 2015 show emis-
3.1. Emissions sions of N2O by manure management in the range of 0.0190858–927714
kg of CO2-eq. Taking account the largest contributions of GHG correspond
Figure 1 shows higher records of CH4 emissions in 2010 and 2015, to Methane by enteric fermentation. On a global scale, Colombia is among
decreases in 2011, and increases from 2013 to 2015. For N2O emissions the top 15 with the highest emissions worldwide, in the 12th position;
by manure management, an increase is observed in the records from likewise is 4th in America, and 2nd in South America. This denotes the
1995 to 2005, with marked increases from 2005 to 2015 and the highest importance of emissions associated with livestock (Figure 4a, b). To
emissions reported in 2015. another hand, comparative emissions at the national level by the different

Figure 3. (a) N2O Emissions in 2015. (b) N2O Emissions from Manure Management in 2015.

4
A.P. Garrido et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e12262

sectors (classified according to the IPCC), show that enteric fermentation of the IDEAM show for the year 2012 values of 20.7  109 kg of CO2-eq
is responsible for the highest methane emissions in the country over time and of 2.4  109 kg of CO2-eq for emissions of CH4 and N2O by manure
(Figure 4c). management, which suggests similar trends in the values obtained in the
study (IDEAM, 2016). However, the differences can be attributed to the
3.2. Statistical results accuracy of the sources of data collection for processing emissions and
the influence of external factors and variables in the measurements of
The correlation test shows all case has direct emission between the CH4 and N2O emissions.
emission of CH4 (Enteric fermentation and manure management) with all In Figure 1, the highest values of the emission sources are obtained for
age of bovine inventory, while the N2O emission shows an indirect CH4 emissions by enteric fermentation. These proportions correspond to
relation with all age of bovine inventory, except with group 1  2 years the results published by authors in several countries. Nieto et al. (2014)
(Table 2). However, in all cases, the coefficient is less than 0.7 (Table 2). found in their study that 74% of the emissions correspond to CH4 emis-
Now, when applying a post hoc test of the Kruskal-Wallis test, the results sions by enteric fermentation; additionally, various studies have
allow inferred that the age of bovine has a strong influence on the mentioned a more significant influence of CH4 emissions by enteric
emission of CH4 and N2O. Although, the latter GHG does not seem in- fermentation of food in the digestive tract of cattle (Morales-Velasco
fluence by bovines older than 2 years (Table 2). et al., 2016; Vac et al., 2013). The high and low spots in Figure 2b, c and
Figure 3a, b is according to the distribution of cattle of the National
4. Discussion Agricultural Survey (DANE, 2021). The behavior of N2O emissions in the
northern zone may also be due to dual-purpose livestock activity in the
According to Figure 1, there is a marked decrease in emissions from region and to the volatilization of N (Rosa et al., 2022). CH4 emissions
2011 to 2013 and an increase from 2013 to 2014, which coincides with result from the amount of CH4 excreted by cattle and depend on the diet,
indications by the FEDEGAN and the National Livestock Fund. The digestive system of the ruminant, quality, and digestibility of specific
reduction in livestock production in 2010–2012 occurred due to El Ni~ no components of the diet, and protein concentration and energy in the
and La Ni~na phenomena, which caused deaths and reproductive damage. rations (Murgueitio et al., 2014; Gonz
alez et al., 2015; Costantini et al.,
Similarly, there was an increase of approximately 1% from 2013 to 2014 2018). This is why the post-doc of the Kruskal-Wallis test shows that age
(FEDEGAN, 2019). influences CH4 emission. Likewise, Studies show that the inclusion of
Concerning the emission values obtained in 2015, values proportional grains in a ruminant diet decreases the acetic acid production in the
to the values of the National Inventory of GHG published by the IDEAM rumen, and a decrease in the amounts of CH4 emitted is achieved
in 2016 are found. The results of CH4 emissions by enteric fermentation (Parra-Cort
es et al., 2020).

Figure 4. (a) Comparative results of emission of CH4 by enteric fermentation during 1995–2015. A. Global-scale maps estimation, (b) value of the first 50 countries
with the highest emissions (c) historical records of CH4 for different sectors under IPCC classification in Colombia.

5
A.P. Garrido et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e12262

were obtained for CH4 by enteric fermentation. Concerning the spatial

Table 2. Statistical results of GHG emission and national livestock survey. distribution of emissions, the regions with the highest CH4 emissions
Bovine inventory variable GHG emission variable correspond to the northwestern area of Colombia and some regions of the
central area, while low emission values were recorded in the southern
CH4 N2O
area. With respect to N2O emissions, the highest records occurred in the
Enteric Fermentation* Manure northwestern part of the country.
Management
Statistically, the application of the Spearman correlation test of CH4
Group 1 BI <1 year
emissions by enteric fermentation and manure management and the age
96.8 76.8 56.8
groups of the bovine inventory for the years 1995–2015 showed a pos-
1–2 years itive correlation. The application of the Kruskal–Wallis test showed sta-
82.8 62.8 42.8 tistically significant differences, and the post hoc analysis determined
>2 years differences for the groups formed by CH4 emissions by enteric fermen-
60.4 40.4 20.4 tation and manure management and the age groups studied.
Group 2 BI <1 year The application of procedures for obtaining emissions in Colombia
49.8 39.8 29.8 from international databases showed agreement with the results pub-
1–2 years lished by other authors and with the records indicated by national
40.2 30.2 20.2 authorities.
2–3 years
47.0 37.0 27.0
Declarations
>3 years
Author contribution statement
36.4 26.4 16.4

* Variable with normal distribution. The number is the difference observed be- Fredy Arid Tovar Bernal: Analyzed and interpreted the data; Wrote
tween variables, and blond letter means significance with a level of 95%. Blue is a the paper.
direct correlation. Red an indirect correlation. Scale of Spearman correlation
Ang
elica Garrido Galindo: Contributed reagents, materials, analysis
value: ●  0.7, ● 0–7–0.5, ● 0.5–0.3, ● 0.2–0.1, ● 0.1.
tools or data; Wrote the paper.
Yiniva Camargo Caicedo: Conceived and designed the experiments;
Using images to represent emissions of CH4 and N2O in Colombia Performed the experiments; Analyzed and interpreted the data; Wrote
from database information may present variations in the data. According the paper.
to the literature, the variations are mainly attributed to the occurrence of Jos
e Fontanilla: Performed the experiments; Analyzed and inter-
phenomena such as El Ni~ no and La Ni~ na and the intervention of variables preted the data.
such as precipitation (Parker et al., 2018), and in the case of the use of Andr
es M. V
elez Pereira: Contributed reagents, materials, analysis
satellite images, variables such as cloud cover, during the imaging (Tello tools or data; Wrote the paper.
et al., 2020).
The results of the statistical tests allow the influence of the sources on Funding statement
the emissions of CH4 and N2O to be determined. The post hoc analysis
shows that CH4 emissions from enteric fermentation and manure man- This work was supported by Universidad del Magdalena, Colombia
agement have a greater influence than other activities that emit GHG. [FONCIENCIAS 2020].
This result coincides with the results published by Silva et al. (2013) and
Morales-Velasco et al. (2016), who indicate enteric fermentation and Data availability statement
manure management as the main sources of CH4, and by Carro et al.
(2018), who suggest that 67.2% of CH4 of livestock origin is from enteric Data included in article/supp. material/referenced in article.
fermentation and 32% is from manure fermentation. On the other hand,
the positive correlation between CH4 emissions by enteric fermentation Declaration of interest's statement
and manure management with the age groups of cattle suggests that the
increase in CH4 emissions is associated with livestock production for the The authors declare no conflict of interest.
age groups analyzed.
Finally, it is important to list below the main limitations in the Additional information
development of this study: (i) the availability of records in the EDGAR
database about GHG, which were available up to 2015 for Colombia; (ii) No additional information is available for this paper.
the access to information from the livestock census is laborious, and its
organization made complex the analysis for the purposes of this study. On Acknowledgements
the other hands, the results have allowed us to identify opportunities for
work on the impact of GHG emissions associated with livestock activity The authors thank to the Emission Database for Global Atmospheric
and future scenarios. Research (EDGAR), from which the time series data were downloaded.

5. Conclusions References

The results of GHG emissions obtained from the EDGAR v5.0 database Anaya, J.A., Chuvieco, E., Palacios, A., 2010. M
etodo basado en teledetecci
on para
estimar la emisi

on de gases efecto invernadero por quema de biomasa. Rev. Ing. Univ.
during 1995–2015 showed generally higher values during 2010 and
Medellín 10, 13–18.
2015 for CH4 emissions by enteric fermentation and CH4 emissions by Balezentis, T., Dabkiene, 
_ V., Streimikien _ D., 2022. Eco-efficiency and shadow price of
e,
manure management. N2O emissions showed an increase over time, with greenhouse gas emissions in Lithuanian dairy farms: an application of the slacks-
higher values in 2015. based measure. J. Clean. Prod. 356, 131857.
Benaouda, M., Gonz
alez, M., Molina, L.T., Castel
an, O.A., 2017. Estado de la investigaci

on
In Colombia, higher emissions of CH4 gas than N2O gas were ob- sobre emisiones de metano ent
erico y estrategias de mitigaci
on en Am
erica Latina.
tained. Considering the origin of CH4 emissions, the highest emissions Rev. Mex. Cienc. Agríc. 8, 965–974.

6
A.P. Garrido et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e12262

Berra, G., and Finster, L.: 2002 Emisi
on de Gases de Efecto Invernadero. Influencia de la mbiente.gov.co/index.php/noticias/4877-colombia-reducira-en-un-51-sus-emision
ganadería argentina, http://www.produccion-animal.com.ar/, last access: 06 es-de-gases-efecto-invernadero-para-el-ano-2030/, last accessed: 04 December 2020.
December 2020. Minanmbiente-Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible. Gases de Efecto


Blanco, J., Alvarez, A., Morgan, H., 2011. Contribuci
on de la ganaderia a la Emisiones de Invernadero. https://www.minambiente.gov.co/index.php/component/content
Gases Efecto Invernadero. Cienc. Tecnol. Ganadera 5, 51–57. /article/462-plantilla-cambio-climatico-18/, last accessed: 22 November 2020.
Carro, M., Evan, T., Gonz
alez Cano, J., 2018. Emisiones de metano en los animales Morales-Velasco, S., Vivas-Quila, N., Teran-Gomez, V., 2016. Ganadería eco-eficiente y la
rumiantes: influencia de la dieta. Alb
eitar 220, 32–35. adaptaci
on al cambio clim
atico. BSAA 14, 135–144.
Centella, A., Llanes, J., Paz, L., 2001. Primera Comunicaci
on Nacional a la Convenci
on Murgueitio, E.R., Char
a, J.O., Barahona, R.R., Cuartas, C.C., Naranjo, J.R., 2014. Los
Marco de las Naciones Unidas sobre Cambio Clim
atico. Instituto de Meteorología y Sistemas Silvopastoriles Intensivos (SSPI), herramienta de mitigaci
on y
Grupo Nacional sobre Cambio Clim
atico, Cuba, p. 169. adaptaci
on al cambio clim
atic. Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems 17,
Cheewaphongphan, P., Chatani, S., Saigusa, N., 2019. Exploring Gaps between Bottom-Up 501–507.
and Top-Down emission estimates based on uncertainties in multiple emission Nieto, M.I., Guzm
an, M.L., Steinaker, D., 2014. Emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero:
inventories: a case study on CH4 Emissions in China. Sustainability 11, 2054. simulaci
on de un sistema ganadero de carne típico de la regi
on central Argentina. RIA
Costantini, A., Perez, G., Busto, M., Gonz
alez, F., Cosentino, V., Romaniuk, R., 40, 1.
Taboada, M.A., 2018. Emisiones de Gases de Efecto Invernadero en la Producci
on Opio, C., Gerber, P., Mottet, A., Falcucci, A., Tempio, G., MacLeod, M., Vellinga, T.,
Ganadera. Ciencia e Investigaci
on 68, 47–54. Henderson, B., Steinfeld, H., 2013. Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ruminant Supply
DANE-Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística. Inventario ganado bovino Chains – A Global Life Cycle Assessment. Food and Agriculture Organization of the
por rango de edad y sexo, según regiones y departamento 1995, 1996, 1997, 2000, United Nations (FAO), Rome, p. 214.
2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, Parker, R.J., Boesch, H., McNorton, J., Comyn-Platt, E., Gloor, M., Wilson, C.,
2014 y 2015. https://www.dane.gov.co/ last access: 20 November 2020. Chipperfield, M.P., Hayman, G.D., Bloom, A.A., 2018. Evaluating year-to-year
DANE-Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística, 2021. Radicado No. anomalies in tropical wetland methane emissions using satellite CH4 observations.
2021313000576-1, Respuesta a Derechos de Petici
on: solicitud de Encuesta Nacional Remote Sens. Environ. 211, 261–275.
Agro Pecuaria a~ no 1998, 2005 y 2010 radicados número 20203130297762 y Parra-Cort
es, R.I., Maga~na-Maga~ na, M.A., Pi~neiro-V
azquez, A.T., 2020. Intensificaci
on
29203130297892 y traslado UPRA No 2020-2-005159 con radicado DANE sostenible de la ganadería bovina tropical ambiental para Am
erica Latina. Revisi
on
20213130009152, de fecha 20 de enero de 2021. Bibliogr
afica, ITEA-Inf. Tec. Econ. Agrar.
EPA-Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions Data https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/g Pattey, E., Trzcinski, M.K., Desjardins, R.L., 2005. Quantifying the reduction of
lobal-greenhouse-gas-emissions-data/, last access: 22 November 2020b. greenhouse gas emissions as a result of composting dairy and beef cattle manure.
EPA-United States Environmental Protection Agency. Climate Change Indicators: Nutrient Cycl. Agroecosyst. 72, 173–187.
Greenhouse Gases. https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/greenhouse-gases/, last Peng, S., Piao, S., Bousquet, P., Ciais, P., Li, B., Lin, X., Tao, S., Wang, Z., Zhang, Y.,
access: 22 November 2020a. Zhou, F., 2016. Inventory of anthropogenic methane emissions in mainland China
Federaci
on Colombiana de Ganaderos-Fedegan, 2018. Ganadería Colombiana Hoja de from 1980 to 2010. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 16, 14545–14562.
Ruta 2018-2022. Colombia. 122 pp. Ribeiro, L.G., Machado, F.S., Campos, M.M., Guimaraes, R., Tomich, T.R., Reis, L.G.,
Federaci
on Colombiana de Ganaderos-FEDEGAN Inventario ganadero de Colombia creci
o Coombs, C., 2015. Enteric methane mitigation strategies in ruminants: a review. Rev.
1 % entre 2013 y 2014. https://www.fedegan.org.co/noticias/inventario-ganadero- Colombiana Ciencias Pecuarias 28, 124–143.
de-colombia-crecio-1-entre-2013-y-2014/, last access: 7 December 2020. Rosa, E., Arriaga, H., Merino, P., 2022. Strategies to mitigate ammonia and nitrous oxide
Field, A., Miles, J., Field, Z., 2012. Discovering Statistics Using R. Chennay, India, p. 958. losses across the manure management chain for intensive laying hen farms. Sci. Total
Gerber, P.J., Steinfeld, H., Henderson, B., Mottet, A., Opio, C., Dijkman, j., Facucci, A., Environ. 803, 150017.
Tempio, G., 2013. Enfrentando el Cambio Clim
atico a tr
avez de la ganadería. Una Saunois, M., Stavert, A.R., Poulter, B., Bousquet, P., Canadell, J.G., Jackson, E.B.,
Evaluaci
on Global de las Emisones y Oportunidades de Mitigaci
on, Roma, p. 153. Raymond, P.A., Dlugokencky, E.J., Houweling, S., Patra, P.K., Ciais, P., Arora, V.K.,
Gonz
alez, R., S
anchez, M.S., Ngonidzashe, C., Arango, J., Bolíva, D.M., Escobar, D., Bastviken, D., Bergamaschi, P., Blake, D.R., Brailsford, G., Bruhwiler, L.,
Tapasco, J., Barahona Rosales, R., 2015. Limitaciones para la implementaci
on de Carlson, K.M., Carrol, M., Castaldi, S., Chandra, N., Crevoisier, C., Crill, P.M.,
acciones de mitigaci
on de emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero (GEI) en sistemas Covey, K., Curry, C.L., Etiope, G., Frankenberg, C., Gedney, N., Hegglin, M.I.,
ganaderos en Latinoam
erica. Livestock Research for Rural Development 27. H€ oglund-Isaksson, L., Hugelius, G., Ishizawa, M., Ito, A., Janssens-Maenhout, G.,
Ideam, P.N.U.D., Mads, D.N.P., 2016. CANCILLER
IA, Inventario nacional y departamental Jensen, K.M., Joos, F., Kleinen, T., Krummel, P.B., Langenfelds, R.L., Laruelle, G.G.,
de Gases Efecto Invernadero – Colombia. Tercera Comunicaci
on Nacional de Cambio Liu, L., Machida, T., Maksyutov, S., McDonald, K.C., McNorton, J., Miller, P.A.,
Clim
atico, IDEAM, PNUD, MADS, DNP, CANCILLER
IA. FMAM, Colombia, p. 73. Melton, J.R., Morino, I., Müller, J., Murguia-Flores, F., Naik, V., Niwa, Y., Noce, S.,
IPCC, 1995. Climate Change 1995. The Science of Climate Change. Contribution of Working O’Doherty, S., Parker, R.J., Peng, C., Peng, S., Peters, G.P., Prigent, C., Prinn, R.,
Group I to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Ramonet, M., Regnier, P., Riley, W.J., Rosentreter, J.A., Segers, A., Simpson, I.J.,
Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, New York, NY, USA, p. 588. Shi, H., Smith, S.J., Steele, L.P., Thornton, B.F., Tian, H., Tohjima, Y., Tubiello, F.N.,
IPCC, 2014. In: Pachauri, R.K., Meyer, L.A. (Eds.), Cambio clim
atico 2014: Informe de Tsuruta, A., Viovy, N., Voulgarakis, A., Weber, T.S., vanWeele, M., van der Werf, G.R.,
Síntesis. Contribuci
on de los Grupos de trabajo I, II y III al Quinto Informe de Weiss, R.F., Worthy, D., Wunch, D., Yin, Y., Yoshida, Y., Zhang, W., Zhang, Z.,,
Evaluaci
on del Grupo Intergubernamental de Expertos sobre el Cambio Clim
atico Zhao, Y., Zheng, B., Zhu, Q., Zhu, Q., Zhuang, Q., 2020. The global methane Budget
[Equipo principal de redacci
on. IPCC, Ginebra, Suiza, p. 157. 2000–2017. Earth Syst. Sci. Data 12, 1561–1623.
IPCC, 2001. In: Houghton, J.T., Ding, Y., Griggs, D.J., Noguer, M., van der Linden, P.J., Silva, A., G

omez, A., Landazury, B., Preciado, B., 2013. Evaluaci
on de gases de efecto
Dai, X., Maskell, K., Johnson, C.A. (Eds.), Climate Change 2001: the Scientific Basis. invernadero (GEI) en sistemas ganaderos asociados con pasto kikuyo (Pennisetum
Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the clandestinum Hoechst Ex Chiov). Rev. Colomb. Ciencia Animal 6 (1), 36–43.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Tello, D., Pe~
na, K.T., Hern
andez, F.L., 2020. Estimaci
on de emisi
on de metano (CH4) en el
Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, p. 881. relleno sanitario Presidente por medio de im
agenes satelitales. Rev. Topogr. Azimut
IPCC, 2007. In: Solomon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen, Z., Marquis, M., Averyt, K.B., 11, 11–17.
Tignor, M., Miller, H.L. (Eds.), Climate Change 2007. The Physical Science Basis. Vac, S.C., Popiţa, G.E., Frunzeti, N., Popovici, A., 2013. Evaluation of greenhouse gas
Working Group I Contribution to the Fourth Assessment Report of the emission from animal manure using the closed chamber method for gas fluxes. Not
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Bot Horti Agrobo 41 (2), 576–581.
Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, p. 996. Wilkes, A., Wassie, S.E., Dijkman, J.A., 2020. Framework for identifying country-
Jose, V.S., Sejian, V., Bagath, M., Ratnakaran, A.P., Lees, A.M., Al-Hosni, Y.A.S., specific MRV improvement needs in the livestock sector: lessons from Kenya,
Sullivan, M., Bhatta, R., Gaughan, J.B., 2016. Modeling of greenhouse gas emission Ethiopia and Nigeria. In: CCAFS Working Paper No. 346. Wageningen, the
from livestock. Front. Environ. Sci. 4, 27. Netherlands: CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food
Minanmbiente-Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible. Colombia reducir
a en un Security (CCAFS) and Global Research Alliance on Agricultural Greenhouse Gases
51% sus emisiones de gases efecto invernadero para el a~ no 2030. https://www.mina (GRA).