SOLUTIONS
Module #3
MIXTURES
made up of two or more components;
can be either homogeneous or heterogeneous.
Homogeneous - only one phase is visible.
Heterogeneous - a mixture having components
with different sizes and shapes
and containing two or more
visible phases.
SOLUTIONS
homogeneous mixtures composed of a solute
and a solvent;
Solute - the substance present in small amounts.
Solvent - the bulk or the medium in which the
solute is dissolved, mixed, or dispersed.
When two liquids are mixed in a solution, the
liquid present in the smaller amount is the solute.
Examples of Solutions:
Air - mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and
other trace gases.
Seawater - a mixture of Na+, Cl, and other
ions in water.
Jewelry - a mixture of gold, copper, or
silver.
Aqueous Solutions
solutions that use water as the solvent.
can be classified as electrolytes or nonelectrolytes,
depending on the presence of ions in the solution.
Electrolytes - those that can conduct electricity.
Ex.: sodium chloride
Nonelectrolytes - solutions that do not conduct
electricity.
Ex.: glucose or isopropyl alcohol
Solutions can also be subdivided depending on the phase of the
solute, the solvent, or the resulting solution.
Types of solutions according to their phase:
SOLUTE SOLVENT SOLUTION EXAMPLE(S)
Solid Solid Solid Jewelry, Steel, Brass
Solid Liquid Liquid Seawater
Liquid Liquid Liquid Gin, Alcohol
Gas Solid Solid Hydrogen in Platinum
Gas Liquid Liquid Carbonated Drinks
Gas Gas Gas Air
Common Solutions
There are several solutions that have become part of our lives
because of their uses.
1. Food and drinks such as fruit juices, concentrates or purees, coffee or
chocolate drinks, soda, sparkling water, peanut butter, and cheese spreads.
2. Personal effects such as jewelry.
3. Construction materials such as steel and galvanized iron sheets (iron
sheets passivated or coated with zinc).
4. Cleaning materials such as dishwashing detergents, liquid hand soaps,
shampoos, conditioners, bleaches (active ingredient is hypochlorite), and
muriatic acid (50% hydrochloric acid solution).
5. Disinfectants such as 70% isopropyl alcohol and hand sanitizers.
Energy of Solution Formation
We often prepare solutions daily. Examples of BIG IDEA
these include preparing our juice and coffee drinks
Solutions are important
and mixing our laundry detergents with water. in our daily lives. We have
to take note of the energy
In making solutions, energy change is also involved. changes involved in their
formation.
The formation of a solution can be divided into
three stages. The first stage is the disintegration of
the solute into individual components. This is then
followed by the interaction of the solvent
molecules with individual solute molecules.
Energy of Solution Formation
BIG IDEA
Solutions are important in
Effective encounters among solute and solvent our daily lives.
particles will result in solvation. This is when the We have to take note of
the energy changes
solute particles eventually drift into the solution.
involved in their formation.
Energy absorption is sometimes necessary to break
down the solute and solvent particles and overcome the
respective intermolecular forces of attraction. This
process is termed as endothermic.
On the other hand, in some instances, energy is released
during interaction between solute and solvent molecules.
This release of energy is referred to as exothermic.
The heat of solution (ΔHsoln) accounts for the overall
change in the energy associated with the formation of the
solution. This is taken as the sum of the energy change
derived from each stage. The heat of solution may give either
a positive sign or a negative sign, as shown in figure 3.1.
Fig. 3.1 (Left) Diagram of an exothermic reaction in a
solution (right) Diagram of an endothermic reaction in a
solution.
Generally, a more negative value of (ΔHsoln) or a favorable
dissolution process, is influenced by the following factors:
Strong solvent-solute attractions
Weak solute-solute interactions
Weak solvent-solvent interactions
The dissolution of a solid solute in a liquid solvent is strongly
dependent on the crystal lattice energy. The lattice energy is
the energy change accompanying the formation of one mole
of solid from gaseous reactants. This process is always
exothermic; therefore, the lattice energy is always negative.
BIG IDEA - Understanding the concentration of solutions
relates to health and safety concerns. We need to know
how to properly consume, use, and dispose of household
products, which are mostly solutions.
Another contributing factor to the dissolution of a solid solute
in a liquid solvent is the interaction of the solvent molecules
with the solute particles. This is expressed through hydration
energy. Hydration refers to the interaction of water
molecules with solute particles.
BIG IDEA - Understanding the concentration of solutions
relates to health and safety concerns. We need to know
how to properly consume, use, and dispose of household
products, which are mostly solutions.
Expressing the Concentrations
of Solutions
The concentration of solution pertains to the amount of solute
and solvent particles present in the solution. It can also be
defined as the relative numbers of solute and of solvent particles
in a solution. We need to know the concentrations of solutions for
the following reasons:
BIG IDEA - Higher concentrations of the solute (or
solvent) in a solution indicate greater amounts of the
solute (or solvent) present.
Expressing the Concentrations
of Solutions
1. To determine the colligative properties of solutions, such
as the boiling and the freezing points of a solution.
2. To determine the stoichiometry of reactions in solutions
3. To interpret the results obtained from several analyses.
In your everyday life, knowing the concentration of solutions is
also important. The strength of a solution is directly
proportional to its concentration. For example, pouring
several sachets of instant coffee into a mug of hot water will
impart a strong bitter taste due to the very high concentration
of coffee. So many people would just use one or two sachets
of instant coffee. Also, knowing the concentration of solutions
is highly useful in the safe handling, staorage, and disposal of
some corrosive solutions such as muriatic acid (hydrochloric
acid) and bleach (hypochlorite solution).
For example, in handling highly acidic or highly basic
solutions, you need to wear gloves to prevent these
substances from being in direct contact with your skin. You
must also wear a mask to prevent inhalation of toxic fumes. In
addition, highly acidic or highly basic waste solutions must be
neutralized first prior to disposal. If this is not possible, these
substances must be diluted with water.
Percentage Composition :
Percent by Mass
The percentage composition is taken from the mass of one
substance as a percent (%) of the total mass of the solution:
% by mass of X solute = mass of X solute
x 100%
mass of solution
Equation 3.1
Percentage Composition :
Percent by Mass
where the mass of the solution is equal to the sum of the mass of
solute X and the mass of solvent Y.
mass of solution = mass of solute X + mass of solvent Y
Equation 3.2
Percentage Composition :
Percent by Mass
For example, the concentration of iron in iron ore is usually expressed as a
percent by mass, that is, 50% by mass of iron. Percent by mass is generally
used to express the concentration of major constituents of various samples of
some solutions. In some cases wherein the mass of the solute is small, the
concentration can be expressed as parts per million by mass (ppm by mass)
using the formula.
% by mass = ppm by mass
10 000
Equation 3.3
Percentage Composition :
Percent by Mass
where the ppm by mass is equivalent to a milligram (mg) of solute
X per kilogram (kg) of sample.
For example, if percent by mass is 0.005%, you express it as 50
ppm by mass, which is equal to 50 mg solute X per kilogram of
sample. Another representation for ppm is microgram (ug) of
solute X per gram (g) of sample.
Percentage Composition :
Percent by Volume
A liquid solution is conveniently prepared by measuring the
volumes of both solute and solvent. Its concentration may be
expressed as percent by volume, which is the volume of the solute
as a percentage of the volume of the solution.
% by volume = volume of solute
volume of solution Equation 3.4
Percentage Composition :
Percent by Volume
EXAMPLE:
Determine the volume/volume percent solution made
by combining 25 mL of ethanol with enough water to
produce 200 mL of the solution.
Percentage Composition :
Percent by Volume
Expressing the alcohol content of alcoholic beverages is usually
by volume percentage. Some red wines have an alcohol content of
12.5% by volume. This means that it contains 12.5 milliliters (mL) of
alcohol per 100 mL of red wine. If a locally-made gin contains 40%
alcohol by volume, then it means that for every 100 mL of gin,
there is 40 mL of pure ethanol.
Percentage Composition :
Percent by Volume
Some alcoholic drinks express their alcohol content by proof. The
proof of alcohol is just twice the percent by volume of alcohol. In
the previous example, a gin contains 40% of alcohol by volume.
This is translated as 80 proof.
Percentage Composition :
Percent by Volume
Concentration may also be expressed as parts per million by
volume (ppm by volume) for small volumes of solutes present in a
solution. Specifically, ppm can be expressed as a microliter of
solute per liter of sample (uL/L). Another representation for ppm
indicating weight-volume relationship is the microgram of solute
per milliliter of sample (μg/mL).
Mole Fraction
Mole - the unit of measurement for the amount of
substance
Mole Fraction - the ratio of moles of one
substance in a mixture to the total number of
moles of all substances. It is a unitless expression
because it represents a ratio.
-
Mole Fraction
Mass - the amount of matter in a particle or an
object
Molar Mass - the sum of total mass in grams of the
atoms present to make up a molecule. Can be
calculated by summing up the atomic masses of
all atoms in a molecule. UNIT : g/mol
Mole Fraction
The mole fraction of a solute (Nsolute) is the number of moles of
solute X relative to the total number of moles in a mixture. For a
nonelectrolyte solution, you may use
Nsolute = nsolute
total number of moles Equation 3.5
Mole Fraction
where the number of moles of solute (nsolute) can be obtained
using the formula
nsolute = mass of solute
molar mass of solute
Equation 3.6
Mole Fraction
and the total number of moles can be obtained by adding the
nsolute and the number of moles in the solvent (nsolvent) :
total number of moles = nsolute + nsolvent
Equation 3.7
Mole Fraction
Similarly, the mole fraction of the solvent is the number of moles
of solvent Y relative to the number of moles in a mixture:
Nsolvent = nsolvent
total number of moles
Equation 3.8
Mole Fraction
Where nsolvent can be solved using the formula:
nsolvent = mass of solvent (in grams)
molar mass of solvent
Equation 3.9
Mole Fraction
Example: 40 g of CH3OH (methanol) is dissolved in 200g
of water. Find the mole fraction of CH3OH?
1. Find the no. of moles of methanol(solute). To find the
no. of mole, you have to calculate the molar mass of
the solute.
Mole Fraction
Example: 40 g of CH3OH (methanol) is dissolved in 200g
of water. Find the mole fraction of CH3OH
1. Then, after calculating the molar mass of the solute,
divide the given mass which is 40g by the molar
mass of the solute which is 32 g/mol.
Mole Fraction
Example: 40 g of CH3OH (methanol) is dissolved in 200g
of water. Find the mole fraction of CH3OH
1. Repeat the process in the solvent.
Mole Fraction
Example: 40 g of CH3OH (methanol) is dissolved in 200g
of water. Find the mole fraction of CH3OH
1. After identifying the no. of moles of both
methanol(solute) and water (solvent). The mole
fraction can now be calculated.
In this case, the sum of the mole fractions for both solute and
solvent should be equal to 1:
Nsolute + Nsolvent = 1
The mole fraction is also the relative number of each
component
Na + Nb + Nc + … = 1
In the case of an electrolyte solution, the solute dissociates in the
solvent to form cations and anions; therefore, these cations and
anions are treated as individual particles. Hence, the mole fraction
of cations and anions can be calculated as
Ncations = ncations
Equation 3.10
ncations + nanions + nsolvent
Nanions = ncations
Equation 3.11
ncations + nanions + nsolvent
Similar to the previous illustration, the sum of the mole
fractions should be equal to 1:
Ncations + Nanions + Nsolvent = 1
Let's consider a solution made by dissolving potassium
iodide (KI) in water. When KI dissolves in water, it
dissociates into its constituent ions: potassium cations (K⁺)
and iodide anions (I⁻).
Suppose we dissolve 0.5 moles of KI in 1 liter of water. After
dissolution, the solution will contain both K⁺ and I⁻ ions, as
well as water molecules.
Let's calculate the mole fraction of K⁺ and I⁻ ions in the
solution, considering them along with the water molecules:
Given:
Moles of K⁺ ions = 0.5
Moles of I⁻ ions = 0.5
Moles of water molecules = approximately 55.6 moles
(assuming the density of water is 1 g/cm³ and its molar
mass is approximately 18 g/mol, so 1000 g of water is
approximately 55.6 moles)
Total moles of solute ions and solvent molecules = 0.5 (K⁺) +
0.5 (I⁻) + 55.6 (water) = 56.6
:
Molarity
The molarity of molar concentration (M) is expressed as the
number of moles of soluter per liter of solution (mol/L)
M = amount of solute (moles)
x 100%
volume of solution (liter)
Equation 3.12
Molarity
For example, a 250.0-mL solution was prepared by adding 10.0
mL of methanol in water. The formula mass of methanol is 32
g/mol, and its density is 0.7914 g/mL. Calculate the molarity of
the solution.
Molarity
Step 1 : Obtain the mass of methanol from the density
data.
density = mass of methanol
volume of methanol
mass of methanol = (0.7914 g/mL)(10.0 mL) = 7.91 g
Molarity
Step 2: Determine the molarity of the solution using the formula
molarity = mass of methanol / molar mass of methanol
volume of solution
molarity = 7.91g / 32 g/mL
(250.0 mL)(1L/1000mL)
= 0.989 mol/L
Molality
The molality of a solution is the number of moles of solute per
kilogram of solvent. The unit of molality is moles per kilogram
(mol/kg).
Molality = amount of solute
x 100%
mass of solvent
Equation 3.13
