Kahului Harbor, Island ofMaui

PART IV

COASTAL, ESTUARINE, AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Lahaina, Island ofMaui

 CHAPTER 167

DESIGN PROCEDURES FOR OCEAN OUTFALLS

by
JEFFREY A. LAYTON*

ABSTRACT

This paper discusses procedures for designing ocean outfalls and offers the
coastal engineer a practical design guide outlining the necessary steps required
to plan, design, and construct an outfall. The design steps reviewed in this
paper include site location considerations, environmental studies, outfall and
diffuser hydraulics, pipe materials selection, pipe support systems design, and
construction techniques.

INTRODUCTION

Wastewater disposal systems typically involve three components: collection,

treatment, and disposal. The design of collection systems for domestic sewage
and industrial wastes is generally a simple process. More difficult, but still
relatively routine, is the design of primary and secondary treatment facilities
to reduce the pollution impact of the wastewater. However, final disposal of
the collected and treated wastewater effluent is not a routine design problem.
Few disposal options are available; most are limited to land disposal, advanced
wastewater treatment (AWT), or discharge to a water body. Land disposal is
impractical in many regions due to poor soils and insufficient land availability.
AWT is costly and consumes much energy in the treatment process. Effluent
discharge to a water body, on the other hand, generally consumes little energy
and requires little land. Further, the natural assimilative capacity of many
water bodies is high enough to absorb wastewater discharges with no detrimental
consequences. Because of these advantages, effluent disposal to the marine
environment has become common practice.

Subaqueous effluent discharge occurs in four basic water bodies: river, lake,
estuary, or ocean. Of these, the ocean is the ultimate receiving water. An
outfall is a mechanism through which effluent is directly discharged to the
ocean. The complex process a coastal engineer employs to design and construct
an ocean outfall is described in this paper. The same process is applicable to
outfalls in rivers, lakes, and estuaries.

OUTFALLS AND DIFFUSERS

An outfall is an underwater pipeline that discharges wastewater into a receiving

water. Although the wastewater may have received extensive treatment, it is
still desirable, and often necessary, to disperse the effluent to minimize
possible impairment to the quality of the receiving waters near the point of
discharge. This is accomplished by using a diffuser.

A diffuser is a section of the outfall, usually the deepest, most seaward

portion, with relatively small holes or ports along its length (figure 1).
These ports discharge the wastewater in numerous small quantities, as opposed to
the entire flow being discharged at one point (figure 2). Diffuser ports may be

*Ocean Engineer, CH2M HILL, 1500 - 114th Avenue SE, Bellevue, Washington 98004

2919
2920 COASTAL ENGINEERING-1976

simple holes in the outfall pipe wall or short tubes (risers) extending from the
pipe. The type of port used depends on the particular conditions of the final
installation.

=fcfc«=fcA*=*=fcA3t=£AAA:fcA*Safc

Figure 1 Figure 2
Outfall D iff user Outfall Without D iff user

Designing an outfall diffuser system requires the same considerations as de-

signing other types of underwater pipelines. However, the mechanism of dis-
charging the effluent from the outfall to the receiving water requires addi-
tional design effort. The various elements of the outfall design process are
discussed below.

OUTFALL DESIGN PROCESS

The design of an ocean outfall system is not a simple process. The design
engineer must consider many factors to ensure that the outfall survives as a
structural system in the ocean environment and also meets water quality re-
quirements. The major components of the outfall design process are:

Site selection
Outfall hydraulics
Dilution and mixing
Diffuser port design
Pipe design
Pipe support systems
Construction methods

Each of the above components must be evaluated during the design of an outfall.
The design is normally phased into four elements: feasibility study, predesign,
preliminary design, and final design. Each phase addresses the above outfall
design components with increasing detail such that final design results in the
preparation of construction plans and specifications. A flow diagram illus-
trating how the various design components and phases are integrated is in
figure 3. Subsequent discussion will elaborate on each factor comprising the
design process.

Hydrographic Inspection
Q Prelim. . JGeotechnical -Prepare JLC
VAcceptabliy Outfall Hvd.^!L Prelim^ X Pi« Forces \I
t
* Const L ^*"
Documents
I \ Water Quality /
I • Raj act Site

^Feasibility Predesifln Study Preliminary Design Final Design t ^Construction^

Study

Figure 3
The Ocean Outfall Design Process
 OCEAN OUTFALLS 2921

Site Selection

A discharge point for an outfall is usually located in proximity to its com-

panion wastewater treatment plant. Therefore, the first step in the outfall
site selection process is to determine the feasibility of linking the treatment
plant to the nearest receiving water. This process consists of studying ex-
isting topographic maps and hydrographic charts, reviewing known literature
concerning coastal processes (tides, waves, currents, geology) characteristic to
the site, and obtaining available water quality data related to the proposed
receiving water. If the existing information suggests that, from a construction
cost and water quality viewpoint, one or more outfall routes is feasible, then
additional predesign engineering studies are commenced to select a final route.
If no routes are judged feasible, then relocation of the treatment plant or
alternative disposal systems must be considered.

For sites judged feasible, the following outfall siting criteria are considered
in detail in the predesign phase:

• Bottom topography and surf zone

• Physical oceanography
• Water quality
• Underwater soils and geology

Topography

A hydrographic survey of the general area of a proposed outfall alignment is

required. An electronic recording echo-sounding device coupled with a hori-
zontal positioning system (electronic or transit) usually produces a suffi-
ciently accurate bottom survey. Surveys within the surf zone, however, are
often difficult due to continuous wave action and often require special equip-
ment such as helicopters to act as sounding platforms.

When reviewing the sounding data, various profiles of the bottom topography are
plotted. Analysis of the profiles will reveal potential outfall routes. It is
desirable to have the outfall line on a continually declining grade. This
prevents potential sludge buildup in low points and accumulation of air at high
points, both of which can reduce the hydraulic capacity of the outfall.

There is no ideal slope for locating the diffuser; however, a relatively flat
slope is desirable. It is also desirable to have essentially equal discharge
from each of the diffuser ports to facilitate equal dilutions. With a density
difference between the receiving waters and the discharged effluent, a mild
slope is beneficial in achieving uniform port discharge. However, a long
diffuser on a steep slope can adversely modify the diffuser hydraulics. Not
only will the diffuser discharge unequally from all ports, but at low flows,
some ports will not flow at all.

If the topography is relatively steep, consideration must also be given to the

stability of the final system. The pipeline must be secured from sliding down
the slope, either slowly due to unstable soil conditions or suddenly due to
natural occurrences.
2922 COASTAL ENGINEERING-1976

Since it normally is not economically or technically feasible to significantly

modify the general underwater topography of an area, the outfall must be routed
and designed in accordance with the natural conditions.

Surf Zone

Penetrating the surf zone is often the most difficult and costly phase of
constructing an ocean outfall., The trauma of continuous wave attack in shallow
water usually limits construction to a short period during milder summer condi-
tions. Even then, sporadic storms can shut down construction operations or
damage the outfall pipe and construction equipment. Therefore, it is desirable
to select outfall sites with minimum surf action. Potential sites at headlands
or points of land jutting into the sea generally should be avoided because wave
refraction will concentrate wave energy on these features. To minimize working
in harsh conditions, surf zones extending more than about 1,000 feet offshore
should be avoided if possible. Coastlines with sharp bottom dropoffs are
preferable for outfall sites because the pipeline can be installed quickly in
the narrow surf zone.

Pnysi-cal Oceanography

Measuring water mass movements at a proposed outfall discharge site is required

early in the design process. This knowledge is important because it allows the
designer to predict effluent transport under all offshore current conditions.
Two methods are commonly employed to measure ocean current systems: drogues and
electronic current meters.

Drogues consist of a drag body positioned below the water surface with a line
attached to a surface float. Movement of drogues, and therefore currents, is
tracked by observing buoy movement. Current meters do not move with the water
but remain fixed at a point, measuring the rate and speed of water particles as
they flow past. Either system can be used to measure ocean currents, but for
most ocean outfall locations both techniques are used to complement each other.

Current measurements are normally conducted over a sufficient time period to

develop a comprehensive understanding of water mass movements over the outfall
discharge site. This knowledge is vital so the outfall designer can predict
where the effluent will be transported under all conditions. Specific moni-
toring periods can range from a few tidal cycles to long-term observations
covering several years at sites subject to seasonal current shifts and upwelling
of deep ocean waters. Careful consideration in developing a current monitoring
program must be given early in the design process to allow sufficient time to
conduct the studies and analyze the results.

During ocean current monitoring, physical properties of the water column, such
as temperature and salinity, are also measured to calculate water density as a
function of depth. Density profiles indicate the absence or presence of strat-
ification, which can affect the dilution performance of the diffuser.

In addition to the above physical oceanographic measurements, field studies

designed to measure the ocean water's natural diffusion characteristics are
 OCEAN OUTFALLS 2923

often conducted. Dye studies, usually employing a fluorescent tracer such as

Rhodomine WT dye, help determine the ability of a potential outfall site's
receiving waters to disperse and assimilate wastewater.

Measurements of ocean wave heights and periods are also desirable for outfall
sites. Knowledge of the frequency and amount of wave energy passing over the
pipeline route is vital to ensure its integrity as a structural system.
However, measurements of wave parameters are often difficult to obtain and
designers frequently rely on wave forecasting techniques to predict design wave
conditions.

Water Quality

The purpose of an outfall diffuser is to disperse effluent to minimize the

pollution impact on the receiving water. No matter how efficient the diffuser
is in diluting effluent with ambient seawater, some change will occur in the
local marine environment around the diffuser. It is a vital element of the
outfall design process to accurately predict these changes, both short-term and
long-term. However, to predict water quality changes due to outfall discharges,
the existing water quality conditions of the receiving water must be known.

Establishing a baseline of water quality conditions within the receiving waters

of a proposed outfall often requires extensive environmental monitoring. During
the site selection process, it is typically found that the potential ocean
outfall site has, at best, a limited record of existing water quality data.
Thus, to establish a proper data bank of predischarge conditions, a water
quality monitoring program is required. Baseline monitoring programs can range
from a minimum of collecting one set of water samples at one location to sam-
pling multiple stations at weekly intervals for periods of 1 to 2 years. The
parameters sampled, which can also vary widely, mainly depend on composition of
the effluent. The minimum parameters that should be considered for a domestic
sewage outfall monitoring program are:

Water Column Benthic

Dissolved oxygen BOD/COD

pH Heavy metal content
• Conductivity/salinity Nutrient content
Temperature Biological organisms
Oil and grease
Fecal coliform bacteria
Nutrient content
Heavy metal content
BOD/COD

Location and number of sampling stations should be carefully established to

maximize data acquisition while minimizing costs. Results of physical ocean-
ographic studies should be used to establish sampling stations within the
expected water transport zones. A sampling station within the immediate dilu-
tion zone of the diffuser is a minimum requirement.
2924 COASTAL ENGINEERING-1976

Underwater Soils and Geology

Identifying the geological conditions and their uniformity along a proposed

outfall alignment is important since many of the criteria considered in outfall
design depend on geologic conditions and soil types. As with most underwater
soils investigations, gathering soils data for outfall design is difficult and
often costly. However, the investigation must be sufficient to develop design
criteria and identify the existing conditions.

Marine geophysical techniques, such as reflection and seismic profiling, are

commonly used to determine subbottom stratigraphy. However, interpretation of
this type of data is difficult. There is no substitute for obtaining in situ
soil samples for laboratory analysis. The best results usually are obtained
from barge-mounted drilling rigs, but soil sampling with remote or diver con-
trolled subsurface devices has been successful (Noorany, 1971).

Analysis of Site Selection Data

Upon completion of the basic studies outlined above, one particular outfall
site is normally chosen as most suitable. The next step in the outfall design
process is the preliminary hydraulic design of the pipeline, including diffuser
dilution and mixing characteristics.

Outfall Hydraulics

The hydraulic design of an outfall results in determining design flows, se-

lecting pipe diameters for the outfall conduit and diffuser sections, and
selecting diffuser port size and spacing.

Design Flows

Outfall design flows depend upon upstream conditions. Daily flow through a
domestic sewage treatment plant can vary considerably, while most industrial
discharges are more constant. Massive loads to sewer collection and treatment
facilities also occur during rainy periods when runoff enters the collection
system either directly (combined sanitary and storm sewers) or indirectly
throuqh infiltration (leakage at pipe joints and manhole covers). During either
event, flow to an outfall can be dramatically increased. If the outfall system
is not properly sized, the flow will be restricted, resulting in the backup of
effluent in the outfall and possible flooding of onshore facilities.

Ocean outfalls should be designed to discharge peak flows with a gravity system.
However, if the hydraulic head between the ocean and the outfall headworks is
minimal, discharge of design flows through the outfall may not be possible with
a gravity system. Consideration must then be given to the use of pump stations.
Unfortunately, pumped outfall systems present new problems—increased costs for
continual maintenance of pumps and perpetual use of energy for pumping. A
sometimes satisfactory solution to both problems is the combined use of gravity
and pump system. During normal flows, the gravity system handles the discharge,
while during peak flow periods a pumping system augments the gravity system.
 OCEAN OUTFALLS 2925

Piffuser Hydraulics

In conjunction with selecting conduit size for the outfall, the diffuser system
must also be designed. The size and spacing of the diffuser's ports are deter-
mined through a series of complex iterative hydraulic calculations based upon
the following parameters:

Design flows
Pipe diameter
Pipe slope
Frictional resistance of pipe material
Effluent density
Receiving water density
Discharge depth
Operating head

A computer program is typically employed to solve the manifold hydraulics

problem. The program takes into account the discharge characteristics of the
individual port and does a numerical integration of the hydraulic conditions
port by port with a trial and error optimization of port sizes considering the
various factors listed above. A complete description of diffuser hydraulic
design has been reported by Rawn, Bowerman, and Brooks (1961) and the basic
hydraulic requirements as reported in their paper are summarized below:

Flow Distribution. The division of outflow between the various ports should
be fairly uniform. For diffusers laid on a sloping sea bottom, uniform port
discharge for all rates of flow is impossible. In such cases, the diffuser
should be designed for uniform distribution at low to medium flows. For
higher flows, the deeper ports should be allowed to discharge more flow than
the average port to prevent possible clogging of the deep end of the diffuser.

Velocity in Diffusers. The flow velocity in all ports of the diffuser should
be high enough to prevent gross deposition of sludge or grease. For settled
sewage, minimum velocities of 2 to 3 feet per second are required.

'Prevention of Seawater Intrusion. All ports should flow full to prevent

intrusion of seawater into the pipe.

Dilution and Mixing

A diffuser disperses wastewater by breaking it up into a number of smaller flows

and spreading it over a large area. In essence, a diffuser changes a point-
source discharge into a line-source discharge. The resulting discharge plume
mixes within the receiving water to produce a diluted effluent.

The processes that cause mixing and dilution when effluent is discharged by a
diffuser into receiving waters are complex, but primarily involve mixing due to
kinetic energy of the initial discharge velocity, mixing caused by buoyant
forces due to the density difference of the effluent and receiving waters, and,
finally, mixing caused by horizontal cross currents of the receiving waters
(Brooks and Koh, 1965). Normally, all three of the above processes act on the
discharged effluent to produce the overall mixing and dilution.
2926 COASTAL ENGINEERING-1976

Mixing caused by the kinetic energy occurs close to the point of discharge and
is primarily a function of discharge velocity. Due to the density and viscosity
of water, the energy is dissipated rapidly. Dilution is generally less than two
parts of seawater to one part of effluent and occurs within a few feet of the
point of discharge.

When the kinetic energy is dissipated, a mixture of effluent and receiving water
exists. If the density of the effluent is less than the density of the re-
ceiving water at the point of discharge, the mixture will also have a density
less than the surrounding receiving waters. This difference in density creates
a buoyant force that causes the effluent mixture to rise in the receiving
waters. As the mixture rises, it continues to mix with, and therefore be
diluted by, receiving water.

If the receiving water is of equal density at all depths, the mixture density
will always be less than the density of the surrounding waters and will continue
to rise and be diluted (figure 4). Under this condition, the dilution achieved
is a function of port.diameter, discharge velocity, relative density, and depth
of discharge.

If the density of the receiving water decreases with decreasing depth,

there will be a depth when the density of the rising effluent mixture is equal
to the density of the surrounding receiving waters and less than the density
of overlying waters. When this occurs, the effluent mixture will not rise
further and is considered trapped (figure 5). In this situation, the dilution
achieved is controlled by the height of rise that, in turn, is a function of the
density variations of the receiving waters. Entrapment of the effluent plume
below the surface is usually a desirable objective for ocean outfall design
because it helps prevent possible health and aesthetic problems common to dis-
charges rising to the water surface.

DISPLACEMENT

Figure 4 Figure 5
Effluent Plume Characteristics Effluent Plume Characteristics
for Nonstratified Water for Stratified Water
 OCEAN OUTFALLS 2927

The previous discussion assumes that there are no horizontal currents in the
receiving water. Horizontal currents will carry the effluent away from the
point of discharge and cause rapid mixing and dilution. Port diameter, dis-
charge velocity, and relative density will have little effect on the dilution
achieved (Roberts, 1976). The velocity of the horizontal currents will control
the dilution. Because the effluent is diluted and carried away rapidly, the
effluent mixture will have little opportunity to rise, regardless of the density
of the effluent or receiving waters.

Predicting diffuser plume characteristics is essential in outfall design.

.Computer programs are typically used to examine various discharge and receiving
water conditions and predict height of rise and associated dilution. Baumgartner,
Trent, and Byram (1971) have developed such a model which is used in outfall design.

Diffuser Port Design

Orientation
The flow direction of receiving water currents dictates the orientation of the
diffuser. There are three basic diffuser orientations (figure 6):

• Current parallel to shore

• Current perpendicular to shore
• Variable current direction

The diffuser should be located perpendicular to the net current to maximize

dilution. However, for currents that shift direction, "Y" shaped diffusers are
employed to offer the greatest chance for keeping the diffuser perpendicular to
the current.

Current
I
•A Diffuser
CURRENT PARALLEL TO SHORE

+—Current
"A
CURRENT PERPENDICULAR TO SHORE Diffuser

•A
VARIABLE CURRENT DIRECTION

Figure 6
Alternative Diffuser Arrangements
2928 COASTAL ENGINEERING-1976

Port Types
The two basic types of diffuser ports are pipe wall port and riser tube (fig-
ures 7 and 8). A pipe wall port system consists of holes in the wall of the
pipe, at or slightly above the pipe's spring line. To prevent the pipeline
filling with bottom sediments, this type of diffuser port requires that the pipe
be laid on the ocean bottom rather than buried.

Section AA

Figure 7
Pipe Wall Port Diffuser

9g^!Mozzle

Riser

Flanged Outlet \
B

Section BB

Figure 8
Riser Port Diffuser
 OCEAN OUTFALLS 2929

Riser tubes are used when the diffuser pipeline must be buried (usually to
prevent damage by wave action). Riser tubes project upward from the crown of
the buried pipe, penetrating above the ocean bottom. The small, cross sectional
area of the risers minimizes exposure to waves and current forces. However,
because the riser tubes project above the bottom, they can become vulnerable to
impact forces. A typical hazard common to risers—breaking of the rigid tube
due to impact forces and subsequent filling of outfall pipe with bottom soils—
is shown in figure 9. A satisfactory solution to this problem is the use of
flexible riser tubes (figure 10). The rubber pipe wall section allows the tube
to absorb impact through deflection. If the impact force is too great, the
rubber section fails before the steel, allowing the pipe tube to shear off above
the mud line. This type of failure minimizes the chances of filling the pipe
with bottom soils and results in simple repair work.

Steel Riser-^ Failure occurs

at flanged fitting
between riser and
outfall pipe
resulting in
severe pipe damage-
pipe can now
become filled with
soil during low flow.

BEFORE IMPACT AFTER IMPACT

Figure 9
Rigid Diffuser Riser

Rubber flange fails

damage minor
break occurs above
mud line. Soil does
not enter pipe

BEFORE IMPACT AFTER IMPACT

Figure 10
Flexible Diffuser Riser
2930 COASTAL ENGINEERING-1976

Onshore/offshore and longshore drift of bottom soils must also be considered in

diffuser port designs. Pipe wall ports and riser tube ports must be of suffi-
cient height above the bottom to prevent filling of the diffuser with shifting
bottom materials during low flows.

Pipe Design

Completion of the site selection process and preliminary hydraulic design re-
sults in establishing the basic outfall pipe parameters—alignment, slope, pipe
length and diameter, and diffuser port sizes and spacing. The next element of
the design process considers the final design of the pipeline. For ocean out-
falls, the following final pipe design components must be considered:

Foundation requirement
Pipe forces
Hydraulic flow properties
Corrosion resistance
Pipe material selection
Pipe anchoring
Construction methods

Foundation Requirements

Much of the actual pipe design itself depends on the soil conditions. The
amount of support along the length of a pipe will influence the type of pipe
that is to be used. A change in the support along a pipe will also change the
type of pipe used. Some types of pipe can tolerate substantial settlement while
other pipes, perhaps with closely spaced joints, would come apart if the set-
tlement is excessive, although soft sediments most often contribute to pipe
settlement, scour and erosion from beneath a pipe can also contribute to loss of
support. The support along a pipe in an ocean outfall needs to be continuous
just as it does for pipes on land. Since pipes laid on rock under water may
not have continuous support beneath them, the pipe may actually span two points
on the rock. This can also occur in gravelly soils. Under some conditions,
shifting ocean bottom materials (longshore drift) and sedimentation can con-
tribute to the actual load on top or along the side of the pipe. In addition,
consideration must be given to outfalls penetrating the surf zone where seasonal
changes in beach profile will alternately scour and fill bottom materials over
the pipe.

Exoavation and Backfill

Outfall pipes generally need to be buried for at least part of their alignment.
This requires that the conditions of excavation and backfill be evaluated. The
difficulty of excavation, depth of excavation, stability of the open trench, and
difficulty of actually placing the pipe in the trench all must be considered in
the excavation phase. Many times the excavation must continue through a soft
layer down to a firm layer. This requires that the depth of the soft layer be
known and that the uniformity of the depth along the alignment be known. The
disposition of the excavated material can sometimes be a problem. Most often,
it will have to be loaded aboard barges and disposed of, perhaps at some dis-
tance from the excavation. It is seldom that the excavated material can also be
 OCEAN OUTFALLS 2931

used for backfill. Trenches excavated in loose sands or granular material often
will not stand open for a long period of time since the sides will slough and
material will be brought into the trench by currents and waves. In firm gran-
ular material, the trenches generally stand open well and narrow trenches can be
used. Support for the pipe along the trench is important. Uniform support-'is
often provided by placing a layer of coarse gravel in the bottom of the trench.
Unless the excavated material is exceptionally clean, backfill material will
usually have to be imported. Generally, coarse granular material is used for
backfilling. Any material with a majority of fines in it will generally cause
turbidity problems and be unsuitable. Generally, only the larger particles will
reach the trench.

Pipe Forces

Outfalls must be designed to resist both internal and external forces. The
internal forces are a result of hydraulic pressure imposed on the line through
flow of liquid. Operating pressures in outfalls are typically low and seldom
affect the structural design of the pipe. Further, since outfalls dis-
charge at depth, there is no requirement to design the pipe to resist the
hydrostatic head of the water column above the pipe. External forces include
the dynamic action of waves, force from currents, impact from foreign bodies,
and overburden support.

The flow of fluid around a cylinder, such as an exposed pipeline, will induce
drag forces on the pipe (Priest, 1974). See figure 11. The resultant force can
displace an unanchored pipe horizontally, creating large bending and shear
stress within the pipe and at its connection with the shore. If the pipe is
anchored or pile supported, the horizontal drag force will then be transmitted
to the pipe anchor. Close spacing of the supports may be required to prevent
pipe overstress due to bending. Also, closer spacing of supports may be re-
quired to eliminate vertical pipe oscillations resulting from the resonate
response of the pipe to the current.

The passage of a wave over the pipe can develop large dynamic pressures
on the pipeline when it is supported above the botton (figure 12). The
pressures result from drag forces as well as inertial or impact forces caused by
the moving fluid. Dynamic pressure can be minimized by locating the pipe in
water deep enough so that it is not significantly influenced by the orbital
motion of waves. However, the pipe should be buried in the surf zone to a depth
sufficient to protect the line from damage.

Impact forces resulting from foreign objects striking the pipeline must also be
considered. Impact from a ship's anchor and commercial fishing gear (figure 13)
can result in severe damage to an outfall. Locating outfalls in anchorage zones
or bottom trawling fishing grounds should be avoided. However, if the outfall
alignment must be located in regions with a high probability of occurrences such
as dragging anchors, the pipeline should be buried. The minimum pipe cover
should be in excess of plow depth of the anchors.

Even though the main pipeline is protected from impact damage, the diffuser
riser must extend above the mud line and become exposed. In such cases, the
flexible riser systems should be considered as discussed above (figures 9 and 10).
 2932 COASTAL ENGINEERING-1976

Hydraulic Properties

Direction of Current An important characteristic

of a pipe is its ability to
transport the fluid. Various
pipe materials can have sub-
stantially different fric-
tional characteristics. Some
materials, such as cast iron
and steel, are subject to
internal corrosion that will
increase the friction and
Accretion Causing Rpartinn
Reac,lon thus reduce the flow-carrying
Active Soil Pressure
Erosion (Scour) capacity over a period of
Reducing Resistance time.
to Sliding
Figure 11
Current Forces The range of friction factors
normally applied to pipe mate-
rials commonly used for out-
Direction of Wave Propagation^ fall construction is not
sufficient to control the
selection of materials or
allow a reduction in outfall
diameter. Since the pipeline
materials cost is usually a
small part of total project
costs, a conservative selec-
tion of friction factors and
pipe diameters is the normal
procedure.
Fd = Drag force F| = Lift Force Fj = Inertial Force Corrosion Resistanoe
Figure 12
Wave Forces Saltwater can be a corrosive
element for some pipe mate-
rials. The bottom sediments
may also exhibit a corrosion
potential so that the combina-
tion can be devastating. The
technology exists to protect
almost any material from ex-
cessive corrosion. The pro-
tection provided should be
consistent with the design
life of the facility and the
protection provided associated
structures. The costs for
this protection are usually
minimal. Therefore, corrosion
is normally not a controlling
Figure 13 factor in the selection of
Impact Forces outfall pipe materials.
 OCEAN OUTFALLS 2933

Pipe Material

A variety of pipe materials are available for ocean outfalls (table 1):

• Reinforced concrete • Cast iron

• Steel • Ductile iron
• Concrete cylinder • Fiber-reinforced plastic
• Corrugated metal • High-density polyethylene

The most common pipe material used on ocean outfalls is reinforced concrete
pipe, which is a heavy and rigid pipe material that is capable of supporting
large overburden loads and resisting current and wave movements. Corrosion
resistance of reinforced concrete is good in the saltwater environment.

Pipe Joints

A variety of pipe joints ranging from welded to dresser couplings are available
for linking outfall pipe sections together. Probably the most common is bell
and spigot with a retained rubber gasket. Normally, up to 3 to 5 degrees of
deflection are allowed. For greater deflections (up to 15 degrees), ball and
socket joints can be used.

Outfall pipe joints are typically equipped with thrust-ties to secure the pipe
joint from displacement. A bolted connection at the pipe spring line links
each pipe section and restrains the joint from separating due to external forces.
Stainless steel bolts are usually used in saltwater. Metallic bond straps
electrically linking each pipe section together are also common features of an
ocean outfall joint. Bond straps allow external electric currents to be applied
to the entire pipeline to control electrolysis.

Pipe Support Systems

The wide range of pipe support systems available to the outfall designer is
illustrated in figures 14 through 20. The following is a summary of each
system.

Bottom Exposure. For environmental conditions with minimal current, wave, and
impact potential, the outfall pipe can be laid directly on the bottom (figure 14).
For this condition, only a bedding layer may be required to support the pipe.
Where some current or wave action exists, an exposed outfall can be secured to
the bottom with concrete anchor blocks or embedment anchors (figure 18).

Bottom Exposure With Armor. Where the pipe is subject to moderate wave attack
or strong currents, it is desirable to armor a pipe laid on the bottom. Ar-
moring usually consists of riprap and is designed in similar fashion as break-
waters (figure 15).

Buried Trench Section. Sites with heavy wave action usually require complete
burial of the outfall pipe. The trench must be deep enough to ensure that scour
action will not expose the pipe. Often, the pipe zone material is riprapped at
the surface to reduce scouring potential (figure 16).
2934 COASTAL ENGINEERING-1976

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 OCEAN OUTFALLS 2935

Outfall with
Concrete
Anchor Block

Figure 14
Bottom Exposure

Outfall with
Anchor Tie Down

Figure 18
Alternative Pipe Anchoring Methods

Tie-down Strap

Figure 15
Bottom Exposure With Armor
Figure 19
Pile-Supported Outfall

/-Buoyant
> Pipe
Material

_s*&5^S**t*'—" Rock Anchors -

Figure 20,
Floating Outfall -
Rough and Irregular Bottom

Figure 17
Shallow Trench
With Scour Mat
2936 COASTAL ENGINEERING-1976

For some locations, scour mats can be used to eliminate the need for deep
trenching. A scour mat consists of a pre-formed concrete mat that is laid over
the entire exposed pipe with sufficient width to prevent undermining at its
edges (figure 17).

Pile-Supported System. In some instances, the ocean bottom is composed of soft

sediments, providing little, if any, bearing support for the pipe. Laying a
rigid pipe material directly on the bottom in such conditions is hazardous
because of potential dissimilar settlements. A common solution is the use of a
pile-supported pipeline (figure 19). Piles are driven to firm bearing and a cap
is attached to the pile tops. The pile caps function as a cradle for the pipe,
while a tiedown strap prevents vertical pipe movements due to current-induced
oscillations or positive buoyance of the pipe such as air trapped in the
pipeline.

Semi—Floating Outfall. For some ocean sites, none of the previously mentioned
systems is practical. An example might be a site that has minimal current
action but a rough and irregular bottom (submerged coral reef). Furthermore,
environmental regulations could prevent blasting a trench into the bottom.
Laying the pipe directly on the bottom is not desirable because it would be
damaged by sharp projections. Driving piles may be prohibitively expensive.
However, floating the pipe above the bottom is a possible alternative (figure 20).
A semi-floating outfall can act as a suspension bridge in reverse, keeping the
pipe suspended above the problem area but below the ocean surface. Pipe mate-
rial should be lightweight or, at best, buoyant. Additional buoyance chambers
may be required to provide vertical uplift. Anchors and anchor cables should be
sized to secure the pipe from lateral and longitudinal movements due to minor
current or wave action.

Construction Methods

During the pipe design of the outfall, the designer must also consider the
various construction methods available to an offshore contractor. Failure of
the designer to understand outfall construction procedures can result in a
difficult and costly pipe installation.

For ocean outfalls, there are three different zones that the contractor must
contend with during construction: onshore, surf, and offshore. Each zone can
require different construction methods. The four commonly used construction
methods of outfall installation are barge lay, trestle lay, string float, and
bottom pull.

With the barge lay method, the pipe is laid in relatively short lengths from a
barge to the trench or bottom, similar to onshore sewer construction. The barge
lay method is generally used in the offshore zone. Divers must join each pipe
length to the previously installed pipe (figure 21). The cost of this method
increases tremendously with increase in water depth.

The trestle lay method involves the construction of a pier through the surf zone
(figure 22). The pier replaces the barge as a work platform, isolating the pipe-
laying equipment from wave action. Usually steel sheeting is driven into the
bottom to act as a cofferdam for the pipe trench. Pipe is laid in the trench
in a similar matter as a barge lay.
 OCEAN OUTFALLS 2937

John Goode Photograph

Figure 21. Diver Supervising Pipe Joint Assembly

During Barge Lay Operation.

CH2M HILL Photograph

Figure 22. Outfall Construction from Trestle

Through Surf Zone.
2938 COASTAL ENGINEERING-1976

Z
\
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ji*'

«ja

Figure 23. Launching Outfall by String Float Method.

CH2M HILL Photograph

Figure 24. Offshore Tug Preparing for Bottom

Pull of Outfall.
 OCEAN OUTFALLS 2939

The string float method involves floating the entire pipeline into place on the
surface and then sinking the line into place on the bottom (figure 23). To
provide the buoyancy necessary to float the line, the pipe and diffuser are
temporarily sealed while full of air. When the line is floated into place on
the water surface, the air is replaced with water, causing the line to sink.
The rate of submergence can be controlled by the rate of air release.

This method is most commonly used with lightweight, flexible, plastic pipes.
Additional weight is added to these lines, usually by concrete ballast collars,
to provide the negative buoyancy needed to sink the line and hold it in place on
the bottom. The feasibility of using this method depends on many factors,
including weather and water conditions. Rough water or strong currents are of
particular concern.

The bottom pull method involves pulling the line into place along the ocean
bottom through the surf zone and offshore areas (figure 24). Large stresses are
placed on the joints and pipe and must be considered in design and materials
selection. The pipe is joined onshore and pulled seaward as assembly proceeds.
A specially constructed sled is used to allow the line to be pulled without
damaging the pipe material. In addition to providing a means of attaching the
pulling cables, the sled will also provide a grading effect on the soils.
Depending on the soils and topography, additional sleds or other supports may be
needed along the pipe.

All of the above construction methods will require underwater work during instal-
lation. In all cases, diver time is required for inspection of the final instal-
lation. To ensure proper monitoring of underwater construction, the use of
engineering divers as inspectors rather than commercial divers is recommended
(Layton, 1976).

The appropriate method of construction for an outfall line depends on many

factors, primarily soils, pipe material and size, environmental conditions,
depth of construction, contractor's available equipment, and final design con-
ditions. All of these factors are involved in determining the cost of the final
installation.

Perhaps the major factor relating to costs is the amount of underwater work
required, particularly work performed in deep water. Difficulty, time required,
and, therefore, costs increase greatly as the depth of water increases.

OUTFALL MAINTENANCE

During the design of an outfall, provisions for inspection and maintenance of the
diffuser should be considered. Even carefully designed diffusers will require
occasional cleaning to remove accumulated grease, slime, and grit (Rawn, Bowerman
& Brooks, 1961). These accumulations can reduce flow by increasing frictional
resistance. Cleaning can be accomplished by flushing or by pulling a ball through
the line.

In addition to cleaning operations, an annual diving inspection of the outfall is

recommended. The purpose of the inspection is to check the outfall for structur-
al damage to pipe and diffuser risers, pipe corrosion, changes in biological ac-
tivity around diffuser, and plugging of diffuser ports due to longshore drift.
2940 COASTAL ENGINEERING-1976

Further, it is recommended that an inspection hatch be built into the end of the
outfall diffuser to facilitate flushing operations and allow divers access to the
outfall's interior for removing obstructions. Also, for long outfalls, several
inspection hatches should be located along the conduit and diffuser sections for
easy diver access.

SUMMARY

This paper discusses the major components of the complex ocean outfall design
process: site selection, outfall hydraulics, dilution and mixing, diffuser port
design, pipe design, pipe support systems, and construction methods. All of
these components must be evaluated throughout the design process to provide a
structurally sound outfall system that meets water quality requirements.

REFERENCES ' •

Baumgartner, D. J., Trent, D. S., and Byram, K. V., "User's Guide and Documenta-
tion for Outfall Plume Model," Working Paper No. 80, Environmental Protection
Agency, Corvallis, Oregon, May 1971.

Brooks, N. H., and Koh, R. C. Y., "Discharge: of Sewage Effluent from a Line
Source into a Stratified Ocean," International Assoc. for Hydraulic Res.,
Proc. XI Congress, Leningrad, September 1965, Paper 2.19.

Layton, J. A., "Underwater Reconnaissance and Construction Inspection by the

Diving Engineer," Proceedings of the Fifteenth Coastal Engineering Conference,
ASCE, Honolulu, Hawaii, July 1976.

Noorany, I., "Underwater Soil Sampling and Testing: A State-of-the-Art Review,

Symposium for Underwater Soil Sampling, Testing, and Construction Control, ASTM,
Atlantic City, New Jersey, June 1971.

Priest, T. P., "Wave Forces on Pipelines," Pipelines in the Ocean, ASCE,

New York, New York, 1974.

Rawn, A. M., Bowerman, F. R., and Brooks, N. H., "Diffusers for Disposal of
Sewage in Sea Water," Trans. ASCE, Vol. 126, Part III, 1961.

Roberts, P. J. W., "Dispersion from Finite Length Outfall Diffusers", Proceedings

of the Fifteenth Coastal Engineering Conference, ASCE, Honolulu, Hawaii,
July 1976.