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© Sam obare 25-Mar-21

2. EVOLUTION
• Organic evolution is the emergence THEORIES THAT EXPLAIN THE
of complex life forms from pre-existing ORIGIN OF LIFE.
simple life forms gradually over a long A. Special creation theory- it
period of time. explains that the whole universe and
• It also refers to progressive all it contains was created by action
development of complex organisms of a supreme being (God).
from simple pre-existing life forms over • It holds the following views on the
a long period of time. origin and nature of life:
Importance of organic evolution. 1. Life was brought into existence by a
• It provides a scientific explanations for supreme being.
the great diversity/ variation observed 2. Life forms were created in a perfect
in organisms and in their similarities in form and have remained unchanged
structure and function. over time.
• It enables organisms to change and 3. This knowledge is based on faith and
adapt to their environment. These cannot be disputed. It cannot be
adaptations help them to survive and contradicted/ proved by science
breed passing these adaptations to the because it is not scientifically
young one. testable.
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© Sam obare 25-Mar-21

B. CHEMICAL EVOLUTION • Chemical theory holds the following

THEORY. views about origin and nature of life;
• It explains that life occurred/ 1. Life came into existence through
originated when simple chemical combinations of chemical substances.
compounds reacted to form simple life 2. The initial life forms were simple and
forms/ first living organisms. have changed over the years to form
• It explains that life began by a catalytic present day complex organisms.
effect of lightning or some other 3. Scientific experiments, artifacts and
catalysts bringing together elements ( fossil records provide evidence/ proof
Hydrogen, Oxygen and nitrogen) to to this theory.
form simple molecules e.g. water
(H2O), Ammonia (NH3) and Methane
(CH4).
• Further, combinations of such
compounds possibly resulted in the
formation of complex self-replicating
molecules (DNA) which forms the
genetic material of living cells.
• Successive replication of these
molecules and further development led
to formation of simple forms of the
living cells.
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© Sam obare 25-Mar-21

Differences between special creation theory and

chemical evolution theory.
Special creation theory Chemical evolution theory
1. Life was brought into existence 1. Life came into existence
by a supreme being. through combinations of
chemical substances.
2. Life forms were created in a 2. The initial life forms were
perfect form and have simple and have changed over
remained unchanged over the years to form present day
time. complex organisms.
3. It cannot be contradicted/ 3. Scientific experiments, artifacts
proved by science because it is and fossil records provide
not scientifically testable. evidence/ proof to this theory.
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EVIDENCE FOR ORGANIC

EVOLUTION.
• They include: 1. FOSSIL RECORDS.
1. Fossil records. • Fossils are remains of ancestral
forms that were accidentally
2. Geographical preserved in some naturally
distribution of occurring materials e.g.
organisms. sedimentary rocks, plant resins
3. Comparative and amber. The study of fossils
embryology. is called Palaentology.
• The fossils arte arranged from
4. Comparative anatomy. the oldest to the latest. The age
5. Cell biology. of t he fossils are determined
6. Comparative serology. through radioactive carbon
dating.
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Methods of fossil formation. © Sam obare 25-Mar-21

Importance of fossils.
a) Petrification/
1. They give direct evidence of the type of
permineralization- process by animals and plants that existed at a certain
which hard parts e.g. bones, teeth, geological age. By comparing the fossils of
shells and woody parts of plants are different organisms it is possible to tell the
converted into rock/ stones phylogenetic relationships between the
b) Preservation of entire organisms.
organisms or its parts in amber, • Example- Fossils show that the different
groups of organisms arose at different times
plant resins and ice. on earth e.g. earliest fossils are for Monera,
c) Impressions such as moulds and followed by Protoctista and then Fungi.
casts- If an organism is totally Plantae and animalia appeared later.
dissolved or liquefied in sedimentary 2. They also show gradual increase in
rock, it my leave behind impressions complexity from simple organisms to more
of its outer surface in the rock complex organisms. The older rock strata at
known as moulds. If the mould is lower layers contain fossils showing simple
structures while the younger rock strata at
filled with other minerals it is called upper layers contain fossils showing more
a cast. complex structures.
3. They show phylogenetic relationship of
organisms.
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Features of Homo sapiens/

Examples humans/ Advantages evolution
1. Increase in complexity of limbs has given man over other
of a horse. animals.
2. Human fossils show progressive 1. Ability to think/
increase in skull sizes to the rationalize/large brain
present age. capacity.
• Charles Darwin proposed that 2. Ability to communicate
human beings (Homo sapiens) through speech.
descended from ape-like 3. Upright posture/ ability to
creatures. walk on two hind limbs/bi-
• The order of evolution include pedal locomotion.
Proconsul, Homo habilis, Homo 4. Binocular vision.
erectus and Homo sapiens. 5. Modification of the limbs/
opposable thumb to
manipulate objects.
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© Sam obare 25-Mar-21

Structural differences between

Apes and Humans
Ape Human
1. Lower brain size. 1. Has larger brain capacity.
2. Has larger incisor and canine teeth 2. Has reduced incisor and canine
for defense and killing prey. teeth for defense and killing prey.
3. Has narrower and elongated pelvis. 3. Has broad and flattened pelvis.
4. Locomotion is quadruperal (on 4. Locomotion is bipedal (on two
four limbs). limbs)
5. Fore limbs are used for arboreal 5. Fore limbs are used for
locomotion and walking with manipulation with opposable
opposable thumb. thumb.
6. Hind foot has opposable toe for 6. The hind foot has non-opposable
grasping tree branches. thumb mainly for stability on the
ground.
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Differences between Homo © Sam obare 25-Mar-21

sapiens and Homo erectus Disadvantages/ limitations of

fossil records/ reasons why
Homo sapiens Homo erctus fossil records are incomplete.
1. Has higher brain 1. Has lower brain 1. Partial/ entire decomposition of
capacity. capacity.
dead organisms/ organic matter.
2. Has highly 2. Has less cultural
developed culture. development.
2. Some parts/ entire dead
organisms are eaten by
3. Has speech 3. Has rudimentary
vocalization. language.
scavengers.
4. Has reduced 4. Has prominent
3. Soft-bodied organisms do not
brow ridge/ flat brow ridge. fossilize.
face. 4. Natural disasters e.g.
earthquakes, earth movements,
faulting, mass movement,
folding.
5. Distortion due to sedimentation,
earth movement, earthquakes.
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Study question
• The diagram below illustrates the skulls of an adult human and chimpanzee.
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a) State one difference between the two skulls in the following

structures (3mks).
Structure Chimpanzee skull Human skill

i) Parietal bones - Less - More curved;

flatter/curved - More central;
- Located towards
the back - Larger;
-Smaller
ii) Mandible - Larger - Smaller;

iii) Brow ridge - Thicker/more - Less protruded;

protruding
- Conspicuous - Less
conspicuous;

b) State the significance of the evolution observed on the parietal bone

in the chimpanzee and human skulls. (1mk)
• Larger to accommodate large sized brain in humans
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2. Geographical distribution of
organisms. • This continental drift isolated organisms of
• This refers to the dispersion/distribution common ancestry causing the organisms to
of organisms on specific geographical evolve along different evolutionary lines.
locations due to geographical • This resulted in the formation of new
isolation. different species distinct from those found
Geographical distribution as in other climatically similar but separate
evidence/importance of continental regions.
drift. Examples
i. Llama of South America resembles the
• The theory of continental drift explains Camel of Africa and Asia and are
that in the past the present day continents thought to have originated from North
formed one large single land mass/pangea. America.
The animals migrated freely all over the ii. Tiger of Asia and leopard in Africa
land mass. resemble Jaquar of South America.
• The land mass later broke up into parts iii. Short-tailed monkey of Africa resemble
the long-tailed monkey of South
which drifted from one another forming
America.
the present day continents.
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Study question
• Below are photographs of two dogs.
Explain the possible reason for the
difference in length of their fur.
 Due to geographical
distribution, the animals
adapted to survive in their
environments (cold/ hot).
 Those having thicker fur were
adapted to colder/ cooler
region for insulation.
 The genes were passed from
parent to offspring.
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© Sam obare 25-Mar-21

3. COMPARATIVE EMBRYOLOGY.
• Embryology is the study of the • This is described using
formation and development of the recapitulation theory which states
embryo that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny
• Vertebrate embryos are i.e. in the development from embryo
morphologically similar during their to adult, animal embryos go through
early stages of development stages resembling successive stages in
suggesting that they have a the evolution of their ancestral forms.
common/similar/same ancestry.
• Therefore, the closer the resemblance
between the embryos the closer the
evolutionary/ phylogenetic
relationship between organisms.
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Study question.
© Sam obare 25-Mar-21

• Below are diagrams representing a) State the evidence of evolution

developmental stages of different illustrated by the vertebrates in
vertebrates. the diagram. (1mk)
• Comparative embryology.
b) Suggest why the structure
labeled J has been retained
throughout the evolution of
fish. (2mks)
• Fish remained in water/
aquatic habitat and the well
developed tail is used for
propulsion/ movement..
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4. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
© Sam obare 25-Mar-21

• Anatomy is the study of structural

a) DIVERGENT EVOLUTION.
similarities/differences between
organisms. • This is a type of evolution where
• Some group of organisms show basic one basic structural form is
structural similarities suggesting that modified to give rise to various
they have common/ related ancestry. different forms.
• When anatomical structures show • The type of evolution where
many differences they have less organisms with the same embryonic
evolutionary relationship. origin become adapted to exploit
• There are three evidences under different habitats/ to a different
comparative anatomy namely: ecological niche in a given habitat is
a. Divergent evolution. called adaptive radiation.
b. Convergent evolution.
c. Presence of vestigial organs.
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• These organisms have homologous © Sam obare

structures. 2. Adaptations of beaks of birds to

• Homologous structures are structures different feeding modes e.g.
with similar/ common embryonic origin but a) Short stout beaks for seed
modified to perform different functions. eaters.
• Therefore organisms with b) Long slender beaks for nectar
homologous structures have the same feeders.
embryonic origin.
Examples of divergent evolution/ c) Large beaks for fruit eaters.
adaptive radiation. d) Strong hooked beaks for flesh
1. Pentadactyl limb- this is the limb that eaters/ carnivorous birds.
ends with five digits/fingers. These limbs 3. Adaptations/ modifications of
are modified to perform different foot structure in birds for
functions e.g. various functions and habitats
a) The forelimb of a bat is modified to form e.g.
a wing for flight. a) The webbed feet of ducks for
b) The fore limb of a horse is modified for swimming.
running.
c) The forelimb of a whale/ turtle is b) Heavy feet of eagles for grasping
modified for swimming. and tearing prey.
d) The forelimb of a lizard for walking.
e) Forelimb of human is modified for
grasping.
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4. In the family Diptera, the hind pair of
Study questions.
wings are modified into little rods called
1. During a lesson, students observed
halters, which serve as organs that
the structure of bat, cat and human
maintain balance during flight.
forelimbs to determine their
5. The pericarp/ ovary wall becomes evolutionary relationship.
modified after fertilization of the ovules a. State the name given to the structure
to assist in seed and fruit dispersal. of the limbs observed by the students.
Advantages/importance of divergent Pentadactyl limb/homologous structure.
evolution/adaptive radiation. b. Name the type of evolution
i. It reduces competition of organisms for illustrated by the structure of the
the available resources. limbs observed.
ii. It leads to formation of new species. Divergent evolution/adaptive radiation.
iii. Organisms are able to occupy new c. What evidence of evolution is
habitats. illustrated by the limbs?
Comparative anatomy.
d. State the significance of the type of
evolution illustrated by the limbs.
Allows organisms to exploit different
habitats/to reduce competition.
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2. The diagram below illustrate some
forms of beaks in birds.
b) Explain your answer in (a) above.
• Beak M is simpler/ basic/ original
hence likely to be original beak.The
birds separated to occupy different
niches and specialized for different
diets..
• This led to more complex/
developed beaks over time.
a) Which diagram represents the beak
from which others are likely to have
evolved?
• M
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Divergent evolution © Sam obare 25-Mar-21

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B) CONVERGENT EVOLUTION. Examples.

• This is a type of evolution where i. Wings of birds and insects
structures with the different adapted for flight. The wings of
embryonic origin are modified to birds have pentadactyl structure
perform similar functions. while insect wings originate from
• These organisms have analogous the exoskeleton.
structures. ii. Eyes of vertebrates and thosse of
• Analogous structures are molluscs e.g. octopuses.
structures with different embryonic iii. Limbs of mammals and those of
origin but adapted to perform arthropods/ Jointed legs of
similar functions. This is due to insects and legs of vertebrates
exploitation of same kind of used for locomotion.
environment. iv. Presence of thorns in leaves and
• Therefore organisms with stem of a plant and spines on
analogous structures have the animals that perform t he same
different embryonic origin. function.
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Convergent evolution © Sam obare 25-Mar-21

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C. PRESENCE OF VESTIGIAL © Sam obare 25-Mar-21

STRUCTURES.
• They are structures that have ceased to be
functional in the course of time and therefore
become reduced in size/ are rudimentary.
Examples.
1. Appendix in man- it has no digestion
function in man but in herbivores it is well
developed and is used for cellulose
digestion.
2. Vestigial tail/coccyx in man but
functional in other primates e.g. monkey.
3. Nictating membrane in mammalian
eyes, but in birds and fish they move over
the eye and act as a third eye lid.
4. Reduced wings beneath the body
plummage in kiwi (flightless bird).
5. Rudimentary pelvic girdle in snakes
and whale reveal the original presence of
limbs.
6. Presence of hair in humans.
• Therefore, organisms with vestigial
organs and those with functional
organs are said to have the same
ancestral origin.
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5. CELL BIOLOGY. © Sam obare 25-Mar-21

• The cells of all higher organisms 6. COMPARATIVE SEROLOGY.

show basic similarities in their • Analysis of blood proteins and antigens
structure and function hence contain reveal phylogenetic/ evolutionary
cell membranes and organelles (e.g. relationships.
mitochondria, endoplasmic • Organisms that are closely related
reticulum, golgi bodies). contain more similar blood proteins.
• They also contain some biological Example.
chemicals e.g. ATP and DNA or • If human serum is injected into a rabbit,
the protein in the serum will act as
similar amino acid molecules hence antigens and the rabbit will produce
those organisms are said to have the antibodies against human proteins.
same embryonic origin. • When the blood with antibodies is
• Differences in structures and drawn from the rabbit and mixed with
chemical substances in plants and serum from other animals antigen-
animals e.g. presence of cell wall, antibody will take place leading to a
chloroplast, starch, chlorophyl in precipitate/agglutination.
plants and haemoglobin haemocycin • The greater the amount of
precipitate/agglutination formed the
and chlorocruorin in animals show closer the ancestral relationship e.g.
different ancestral origin. apes and chimpanzee produce a lot of
precipitate due to antigen-antibody
reaction hence closer evolutionary
relationship.
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MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION.
© Sam obare 25-Mar-21

• The following theories explain how evolution Reason why Lamarck’s theory
occurred: in unacceptable.
A. Lamarck's theory- Developed by Jean Baptise de
Lamarck in 1809. • Acquired characteristics are
B. Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection- not inherited.
developed in 1859. • Characteristics are determined
A. LAMARCK’S THEORY.
by genes found in reproductive
• It is based on the following principles:
1. Use and disuse of structures—he proposed cells only.
that when the environment demanded the need or Role of Lamarck's theory of
use of a particular structure in an organism, the evolution.
organism developed that structure in response to
the demand.
1. It explains the role of the
2. Acquired traits/characteristics are environment in directing
inherited- traits that are acquired by an phenotypic changes in an
individual during its lifetime were transmitted to individual.
their offspring and subsequent generations
2. It tries to explain the
resulting in the emergence of new forms/ species.
occurrence of vestigial organs.
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Examples. © Sam obare 25-Mar-21

1. Development of present day B. CHARLES DARWIN'S THEORY

long-necked giraffes from short- OF NATURAL SELECTION.
necked ancestral forms. • Natural selection is the process
• Originally, all giraffes had short through which nature selects those
individuals/ organisms which are well
necks and fed on grass and other adapted and allows them to survive and
short shrubs. When low growing rejects those that are poorly adapted.
plants became scarce, the giraffes Favorable/advantageous characteristics
started to stretch their necks to are called adaptations.
reach taller plants and feed on • Main features of natural selection
leaves to avoid competition with theory:
other browsers. Their necks 1. It is observed that variations occur
stretched and became long and the within members of a population.
These variations arise by chance and
long necked trait was passed on from within the individual.
to the offspring. • Through sexual reproduction these
2. Appearance flightless birds e.g. characteristics are transmitted to
ostrich, kiwi. offspring/ inherited.
• The functionless wings resulted • Some of those variations offer an
from their disuse in an advantage to the individuals while
others are disadvantageous.
environment not requiring flight.
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2. The offspring outnumber the parents
but only a few survive to adulthood • In the struggle for existence, individuals
and reproduce. with advantageous variations are well
• This is due to environmental pressure adapted to the environment. Since they
e.g. predation, diseases and competition are suited to the environment, they are
for food and breeding sites. Therefore selected hence survive and reproduce.
the numbers of population remain Those that are poorly adapted perish and
relatively constant. do not transmit their characteristics. This
is called survival for the fittest.
• This means that the members of the
population are constantly competing Advantages of natural selection.
with each other in an effort to survive. 1. Elimination of disadvantageous
This is called struggle for existence. traits/characteristics and perpetuation
of beneficial ones.
2. Better adapted organisms are able to
survive adverse conditions in the
environment while poorly adapted
organisms are eliminated.
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How natural selection leads to Example © Sam obare 25-Mar-21

emergence of new species. • Variation existed in the giraffe in neck
• There is no natural selection without genetic length. The long necked giraffes were
variations. Individuals of the same favored as they were able to reach
species/population show variations/genetic higher branches while the short
differences. necked starved and died and became
• These variations are caused by extinct.
genes/mutations and arise by chance and Role of variation in evolution.
from within the individual.  Variation are raw materials for
• Individuals with beneficial variations are evolution i.e. they give direction to
better adapted to compete for resources natural selection. Advantageous
within the environment. They survive, variations are selected for and are
reproduce and transmit these variations to hence transmitted from one
their offspring. generation to the next. Over a long
• Those individuals with disadvantageous period of time, accumulation of such
variations are poorly adapted hence not able variations in the population lead to
to compete favorably hence are eliminated. emergence of new species, hence
The gradual accumulation of small variations evolution.
from generation to generation leads to
emergence of new species.
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Role of mutation in evolution. © Sam obare 25-Mar-21

• Mutation brings about variations in a species. Survival for the fittest.

Some of those variations are favorable/ • This is a situation where individuals with
advantageous making organisms survive in advantageous traits/ characteristics /variations
struggle for existence. These organisms survive and reach reproductive maturity and
reproduce and pass on the favorable mutations pass the traits to the young ones while those
to the offspring. poorly adapted die young and are eliminated.
Role of sexual reproduction in evolution.
• Meiosis leads to new recombination and
crossing over/exchange of genetic materials
resulting in variations which are
hereditary/inherited.
Study question.
Distinguish between struggle for existence
and survival for the fittest.
Struggle for existence.
• This is a situation where organisms tend to
produce more offspring than the environment
can support hence they struggle to exist.
• Individuals/organisms with favorable
characteristics will have a better chance of
survival in the struggle for food, breeding sites,
mates, struggle against predation, diseases.
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NATURAL SELECTION IN ACTION.

1. The peppered moth (Biston • After industrialization the tree trunks
betularia)(Industrial melanism). was darkened by soot. This caused the
• This is found in Britain and they are of two melanic forms to blend well/
types: Speckled white and black melanic. camouflage well with the background
• Before industrial revolution, the white than the lighter forms.
speckled form was well camouflaged against • This led to increase in population of
tree trunks with similar pattern and melanic forms while the lighter forms
colouration. were easily seen and eaten by predatory
• The white speckled moths/ forms were not leading to decrease in population.
easily seen and eaten by predatory birds Therefore dark colour became an
hence their population increased while the advantageous characteristic/ trait/
melanic forms were easily seen and eaten by adaptation which was passed to the
predatory birds hence their population offspring.
decreased in population.
• Therefore the white colour was an
advantageous characteristics/ trait/
adaptation hence it was transmitted to the
offspring leading to increase in number/
population.
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2. Resistance to drugs, pesticides and © Sam obare 25-Mar-21

antibiotics. b) Mosquitos have a gene which make

• Drugs, antibiotics, and pesticides are them synthesize an enzyme against
chemicals used to kill pathogens and DDT (an insecticide that kills
pests respectively. mosquitos) hence making DDT
• Within the population some individuals ineffective in controlling such
possess the gene for resistance or acquire insects.
it through mutation hence survive the c) Control of malaria has become
chemical. difficult hence ever changing drugs
• Those that survive transmit this for malaria treatment.
characteristic (resistance to chemicals)  This is because malaria causing
to their offspring thus establishing a new pathogens/ plasmodium become
population of resistance forms. resistant to some malaria drugs over
• The attempts of man to control various time.
species of pathogens and pests has  This is due to gradual change in the
resulted in evolution. This evolution has genetic constitution due to mutation
been brought about by natural selection. which with time results in the
Examples. evolution and eventual perpetuation
a) If mutation occurs in a population of of the new strains of pathogens.
bacteria, the mutant bacteria produce  This necessitates the discovery of a
an enzyme that breaks down more effective drug to counter the
penicillin. Hence the continued use of new/ emerging strains.
penicillin fails to cure bacterial
diseases.
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e) Some strains of Mycobacterium © Sam obare 25-Mar-21

tuberculosis that cause TB have

developed resistance to the commonly Study questions.
used antibiotics against TB. 1. Why are some bacteria able to
resist the effect of antibiotics?
 This has made it difficult to cure and Why is it considered as an
eradicate TB in the population. This is example of the process of
because the mutant bacteria live long, evolution?
reproduce and multiply. • They have a gene for
f) The tick population has different strains. resistance/acquire it through mutation.
Some strains have a gene that makes The gene leads to production of an
them neutralize the effects of acaricide. enzyme which neutralize the antibiotic.
 This gives them a selective advantage which The resistant forms survive the
enables them to survive, reproduce and antibiotics hence transmit their
transmit the gene to their offspring. advantageous genes to the offspring.
Overtime, the population of the resistant From these few, a new population of
strain iincreases. resistant strains is established.
3. Sickle cell trait- there is high Accumulation of these variations over
frequency of this mutant gene in places many generations may result in
where malaria incidences is high. emergence of new species/ speciation.
 It has an advantage because individuals
have natural immunity against malaria
because plasmodium parasite does not
survive well in sickle celled red blood cells.
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© Sam obare 25-Mar-21

2. Using examples, explain how
natural selection takes place. • For example, some strains of
• Variations among living organisms plasmodium parasites have a gene
can be advantageous or that makes them resistant to some
disadvantageous. Organisms with antibacterial drugs. So these strains
advantageous variations enable them survive, reproduce and transmit the
to better exploit the environment. gene to the offspring.
Those organisms grow to maturity, • This causes an increase in the
reproduce passing on beneficial population of the drug resistant
variations to their offsprings hence strain. However, the strains without
offsprings produced are able to the gene for resistance are
survive. eliminated by the antimalarial drug
• Organisms with disadvantageous and do not survive to reproduce.
variations are less adapted and • This way, natural selection allows
therefore not able to exploit the advantageous variations to
environment. Therefore are not able propagate, while disadvantageous
to grow, reproduce and transmit their variations are eliminated.
characteristics hence they are
eliminated.
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3. Explain how the process of © Sam obare 25-Mar-21

evolution may lead to formation of a  This is repeated for several

new species/adaptation of species generations; leading to accumulation
to the environment. of favorable/ advantageous traits/
variations;
 Organisms that give rise to new offsprings
will always produce offsprings which  The individuals now present are well
outnumber their parents; the offsprings will adapted/ suited to the environment
have many variations; which arise from than the original parents;
genetically inherited material; or mutation;  Individuals with disadvantageous
these variations are either advantageous; or traits/ variations will die and perish/
disadvantageous to the offspring; wiped out by nature;
 In the environment there are scarce
resources e.g. sunlight, oxygen, water and
the individual will compete for these scarce
resources;
 Individual with advantageous traits/
variations will compete/ struggle better for
the resources; survive to reproductive
maturity and pass on the advantageous trait
to the young ones which are better adapted
to the environment;