ESS-38-56

GE Gas Turbine Engine Technology Evolution & History

Oluwatosin Okuwobi
Cranfield University, Cranfield, Bedfordshire MK43 0AL, United Kingdom, [email protected]

Abstract

This paper provides an extensive view of the historical development, innovations and accomplishments of the gas turbines
produced by one of the world’s leading gas turbine manufacturer; General Electric (GE) Company. Firstly, an historical de-
scription of how the gas turbine evolved over the years following its first jet-engine (I-A) produced in 1942 to power the
United States military aircraft, to its current range of turbines targeted for different applications in the air, land and water.
After which, the paper would explore the parameters driving GE’s gas turbine technology revolution and evolution. Finally,
GE’s future plans for its gas turbines in the fast-paced changing energy industry
GE collaborates with other gas turbine engine manufacturer to achieve its objectives of increased profitability and retain-
ing leadership in the highly competitive market. GE’s gas turbine technology advancement are reflected by its compressors’
higher pressure ratios, combustor designs for lower pollutant emissions, high performance materials, improved cooling sys-
tems to withstand higher firing temperature and the use of afterburners for greater thrust. As a result GE engines have greater
reliability, availability, operating range with reduced emissions and fuel consumption etc.

Keywords: GE Gas Turbines, Technology, History, Evolution.

Nomenclature:

GE General Electric
TET Turbine Entry Temperature
IGTs Industrial Gas Turbines
NOx Oxides of Nitrogen
DLE Dry Low Emission
DLN Dry Low NOx
SFC Specific fuel consumption
GT Gas Turbines
U.S. United States

1. Introduction

Man from ancient times sought efficient ways of pro-

ducing mechanical power; today, gas turbines have evolved
from technological advancements to become a well-known
reliable technology for various applications in transporta-
tion, power generation and other sectors of human life. The
gas turbine is an internal combustion engine related with
the spinning of fluids to provide either thrust or shaft pow-
er. Gas turbines operate based on thermodynamic brayton
Figure-1: Schematic of aero-jet engine (a); land gas turbine (b) [2]
cycle; involving the main processes of intake, compression,
combustion and expansion of gases [1]. These processes
The evolution and development of the gas turbine tech-
are achieved by coupling a compressor upstream to a tur- nology to its current state of high thermal efficiency, high
bine downstream of the engine through a rotating shaft, and specific power, low pollutant emissions, low specific
adding a combustor chamber in-between them; where weight, low specific fuel consumption and lower cost
heated gases are burnt to supply turbine energy for driving depending on intended application; is based on different
compressors and providing mechanical power output variables which determine engine performance, including
through the rotating shaft or thrust by expanding exhaust type of output (jet, fan, propeller, shaft) number of com-
gases velocity from nozzle [2]. pressor and turbine stages, combustor type and design,

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pressure ratios of compressors and fan, and Turbine entry 1946: J47 (5000Ib-thrust) engine is produced, it became
Temperature (TET) etc. [1]. the most produced jet-engine in history following great
The thermal efficiency of gas turbines is a function of its demand from the Korean War; over 35,000 deliveries were
gas properties, pressure ratio, and TET; advanced trend has made by 1950s ending [8]. U.S. Civil Aeronautics
been towards attaining higher pressure ratios and tempera- Administration certified its first turbojet for civil use by,
tures to produce higher specific power and thermal effi- incorporating electronically controlled afterburner for
ciency of over 40% for simple cycles [3]. However higher thrust boosting [8].
combustor temperatures lead to high NOx (oxides of nitro-
gen) emission which are harmful gases; the need to reduce 2.2. Military Engines
these emission has seen a trend towards better combustor
designs. Current turbines operate at temperature exceeding 1954: GE’s J79 military engine was introduced into U.S.
1650K, hence technological advancement in choice of first bomber B-58 Hustler operating over Mach 2 [10].
materials and cooling methods especially turbine blade 1955: GE introduced T58; its “400lb baby gas turbine"
cooling to avoid creep due to thermal stress [4]. Turbofans delivering 800hp for U.S. Navy Sikorsky HSS-1F helicop-
with greater thrust power and high bypass ratios lower ter. T58 developed, powering medium-size to large-size
specific fuel consumption in aircraft engines [5]. helicopters through T700/CT7 engines [8].
This paper focuses on gas turbines produced by General 1960: GE introduced J85 turbojet engine in augmented and
Electric (GE), and is sectioned into three parts. First, an non-augmented variants [10].
historical description of its engines following its first jet- 1964: TF39 became the first high-power, high-bypass
engine (I-A) produced to power the United States military engine; 8:1 bypass ratio, 25:1 compressor pressure ratio,
aircraft to its current range of turbines targeted for different 2,500°F TET with advanced cooling techniques, and thrust
applications in the air, land or water. Second, this paper reversers [10]. T64 introduced innovations such as high-
would explore the parameters driving GE’s gas turbine temperature and corrosion resistant coatings, film-air-
development revolution and evolution. Finally, GE’s future cooled turbine nozzles and blades and front-drive free
plans for its gas turbines in the fast-paced changing energy turbines [10].
industry. 1967: T700/CT7 (2000-shp) engine program were initiated;
incorporating lessons from helicopters operations in Vi-
2. GE Gas turbines Evolution and History etnam [10].
1970: F101 engine (30,000Ib-thrust) introduced for U.S.
2.1. Early years of General Electric Air Force B-1 bomber [10].
1971: 9000lb-thrust TF34 turbofan engine was introduced
Thomas Edison founded Edison General Electric Com- [10], CF34 became the commercial derivative for business
pany in 1890, later known as General Electric Company in and regional jet airliners [10].
1892 [6]. 1980: F404 is designed to replace J79 with same thrust
1917: The United States (U.S.) government awards GE the range (11000-18000lbs), but two third the size [10].
contract of developing the first aircraft engine "booster" 1986: 32,000Ib-thrust F110 engine is introduced based on
based on its success with the centrifugal compressor [6]. F101’s core design with addition of different fan and after-
1918: GE’s Engineer, Dr Sanford .A. Moss invention of burner to match performance for desired application, F118
turbosupercharger (exhaust driven booster) makes GE the is its non-afterburning variant [10].
main suppliers of turbosupercharger (356hp); giving U.S 1998: F414-GE-400 (22,000lb-thrust) turbofan is built on
pilots strategic advantage of higher, faster and more the excellent operability, readiness and dependability of the
efficient flights during World War I [7] F404 engine [10].
1942: GE’s agreement with U.S. Army Air Force (USAAF)
built U.S. first jet engine in 6months based on Frank
Whittle (W.1) turbojet engine; the I-A engine (1250lb-
thrust) powered U.S. first successful jet aircraft (Bell XP-
59) [8]. GE’s use of centrifugal compressors ended with the
J33 engine (4,000Ib-thrust) that powered USAAF’s first
operative jet fighter (P-80 Shooting star) to world record
speed of 620mph in 1947. GE began using axial
compressors for its gas turbine engines, starting with the
J35 [8]. Figure-3: J79 and F414-GE-400 engines [10]

Figure-2: U.S. First Jet Engine (I-A) [9]. Figure-4: GE Turboshaft Evolution [11]

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2.3. Commercial Engines

1971: GE’s journey as a commercial jet engine manufac-

turer began with 40,000lb-thrust CF6-6 engine [12].
1974: GE and Snecma 50/50 joint venture established
CFM International; to develop low-bypass engines for
short-medium class aircrafts [12].
1979: CFM56-2 (based on GE’s CF6 and Snecma’s M56
engines) was chosen to re-engine DC-8 Series-60 aircrafts
[12]. USAF chose CFM56-2 military version renaming it
F108 [8].
1985: Famous CF6-80C2 is introduced; powers Air Force
One aircraft [12].

Figure-7: GENx [13]

2008: CFM International launched LEAP-X, standard

turbofan engine to drive future replacements of present
narrow-body aircrafts. CFM56 and GE90/GEnx engines
Figure-5: CF6-80C2 and CFM56 engines [12] contributed to the LEAP engine design [8].
1995: GE90 standard engine certified on the 777; world
record (122,965lb-thrust), GE90-115B is named "the world
most powerful jet engine" by Guinness Book of World
Records [8]. CFM56-5B became first engine to incorporate
double annular combustors for 35% emission reduction [8].

Figure-8: CFM LEAP-X [13]

Figure-6: GE90 [13]

1996: GE and Pratt Whitney 50/50 joint venture established

Engine Alliance; to develop innovative engines for the
high-capacity long range aircrafts [8]. Engine Alliance
GP7200 integrates the GE90 core with PW4000 low spool
heritage [8].
1998: CFM56 launched TECH56, to advance technological
upgrades to existing engines, the basis for new derivative
CFM56 engines [8].
1999: GE90-115B became exclusive engine for longer-
range Boeing 777-200LR, and -300ER in 2004 [8]
2006: Flight test began on GEnx engines (next generation
of GE’s turbofans); the power-plant for this century
medium-capacity, long-range aircrafts. GEnx built on
GE90 superior performance with innovative advancements Figure-9: Leap Technology Evolution [13]
in composite, compressor, combustor and turbine
technologies [12].

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2.4. Business and General Engines aeroderivative gas generators of the LM series such as
LM1600 and L2500 [17]. The trailer-mounted portable
2004: Small Cabin Business Aviation based on GE and version of the LM2500; known as the TM2500, produces
Honda 50/50 joint venture; GE-Honda Aero Engines [8]. over 21MW of power under short notice. It is very flexible
2006: GE-Honda HF120 turbofan engines introduced and and transported easily by air, ship or road to remote places
chosen to power Honda jet, and Spectrum Aeronautical in the world; TM2500+ produces over 27MW [17].
"Freedom" business jet [8].
2008: GE Aviation creates business and general aviation
division, acquires a small turbo-prop engines manufacturer;
Walter Engines [8]. H-80 derived from M601 was its first
engine to be introduced [8].
2009: GE named Power 90 its chosen engine conversion
for king Air 90 aircrafts [8].
2010: H80 engine first successful flight on the Thrush
510G aircraft. Large Cabin Business Aviation (aircrafts Figure-11: PGT 25+ and LM6000-PH Aeroderivatives [17]
that can travel 7,900 nautical miles with eight passengers).

2.5. Aeroderivatives

These aero-derivatives are used in land and marine applica-

tions (i.e. LM series); originated from aero-jet engine
designs during WWII [14].
1959: LM1500 aero-derivative of J79 is first installed
aboard a hydrofoil ship [8].
1968: 13.3MW LM1500, installed at Millstone Point Nu-
clear station, USA. LM2500 aero-derivative of TF39 and Figure-12: Trailer Mounted-TM2500+ [17]
CF6-6 engines is introduced [14].
1969: US Navy uses the LM2500 in marine application
1971: LM2500 is used for pipeline application [14]
1979: 20,515kW LM2500 is first installed in Norway.
LM500 a two-shaft aero-derivative of TF34 turbofan en-
gine incorporates materials from LM2500 has the greatest
fuel efficiency for its 6000shp output class [14].
1980: 8200Ib-sized LM1600 aero-derivative of F404 en-
gine introduced [14].
1990: LM2500+; 3rd generation improved version of
LM2500; LM2500+ incorporated zero stage compressor
blades 20% increased power, higher reliability and availa-
bility, 39% efficiency [15].
2005: LM2500+G4; 4th generation improved version of
LM2500, compared to LM2500+: 17% increased power,
high reliability and availability, 39.3% efficiency [15].

Figure-10: Evolution of LM2500 to LM2500+G4 [16]

LM6000 an aero-derivative of CF6-80C2 high bypass Figure-13: LMS100 Gas turbine [18]
turbofan engine, regarded for high fuel efficiency and
power delivery of over 40MW, with thermal efficiency
LMS100 became the first intercooled gas turbine system
over 40% [15]
for the power generation industry, incorporating the best of
PGT series (PGT16, PGT25, etc.); are GE industrial Oil
and gas power turbines coupled to their respective heavy-duty frame gas turbine (MS6001FA) and aero-

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engines (CF6–80E1 and CF6-80C2) technologies. Its 46%

thermal efficiency is 10% higher than GE's most efficient
simple-cycle gas turbines [18].

Aeoderivative Rating Application

LM1600 13700KW/ Military combatants, high speed ferries and luxury
19120shp yachts
LM2500 25000KW/ Coast guard cutters, Fast ferries, Supply and cruise
33,600shp ships
LM2500+ 30200KW/ Military Amphibious Ships, Military Combatants, Figure-14: MS5001 Gas turbine [19].
40500shp Cruise Ships, High Speed Ferries
LM2500+G4 35323KW/ French and Italian frigates of the FREMM (Frigate 2003: Introduction of H-system (advanced combined-
47370shp European Multi-Mission) program, New Engine
cycle); capability is over 60% efficiency. H-system’s high
Being Proposed for Military Ships
LM6000 42,750KW/ FPSO and Offshore platforms in marine efficiency and output in its 50Hz and 60Hz configurations
57330shp environments , power generation for peak load or reduce electricity cost. Its DLN combustors can achieve
combined cycle or combined heat and power to be low NOx between 50% and 100% load [19]
used in Industrial plants, Independent power
plants,and others such as airports and hospitals Combined-Cycle 60Hz 50Hz
LMS100 100000KW High efficiency Simple cycle power generation Performance at (7H) (9H)
with flexible power for base, mid-range and peaking Rated Conditions
loads. Plant Output 400M W 520M W
Heat Rate 5690 Btu/KWh 5690Btu/KWh
Table-1: Aero-derivatives and their applications [14] (6000KJ/KWh) (6000KJ/KWh)
Plant Efficiency 60% 60%

2.6. Heavy-Duty Gas Turbines

Table-2: GE H-system [19]
1949: 3,500kW gas turbine was installed at Belle-Island,
U.S. [14].
1949: GE’s first gas turbine locomotives were introduced
into U.S. railroads; the 3500KW turbines were modified
[14].
1950s: GE frame gas turbines introduced with 16,000kW
and 23,200kW ratings [14].
1958-1961: locomotives now rated 8,500hp (6340kW);
were substituted by more-efficient diesel locomotives and
later stopped operating by 1970 [14].
1967: GE first combined-cycle plant; at Ottawa 11MW-
FS3 and Wolverine-Electric 21MW-FS5 [14].
Figure 15: S109FA combined-cycle [20]
1970: First gas turbine powered aluminium smelter at
Aluminium Smelter Bahrain (ALBA); used 24MW Frame
Small-Heavy-Duty Gas turbines by GE include: GE10-1
5 (F5), later 25 F5 machines were installed to 1 line [14].
used for power generation whose design minimizes size
1970: Introduced F7 gas turbine with 47.2MW rating and
and cost, while GE10-2 is used for mechanical-drive appli-
TET of 900oC [14].
cations. Compactness makes maintenance possible in any
1972: Introduced F7B with 51.8MW rating [14].
location [21].
1975: EDF Paris installed GE & Alstom first 80.7MW F9
following its joint venture to develop F9 single-shaft ma- Mechanical Drive (ISO conditions - Natural gas - Shaft output)
chine operating at 50Hz [14]. ISO Rated Power Heat Rate Efficiency Pressure Turbine Exhaust Exhaust
Model Speed Flow Temperature
1979: 5units of F9B installed for Dubai Aluminium Smel- (KW) (SHP) (KJ/KWh) (%) Ratio
(rpm) (Kg/sec) (°C)
Heavy-

ter for base load [14].

Small

Duty

GE10-2 11982 16068 10822 33 16 7900 47 480

1980: Frame 9E introduced ratings above 100MW [14].
PGT16 14240 19096 9924 36 20 7900 47 491
1988: F7F introduced 147MW rating using 13.5 pressure PGT20 18121 24300 9867 37 16 6500 63 475
ratio and turbine inlet temperature of 1260oC [14].
Aeroderivative

PGT25 23266 31200 9548 38 18 6500 69 525

1990s: “E” ranges of machines were developed and popu- PGT25+ 31372 42070 8751 41 22 6100 84 500
lar but TET was around 1120oC [14]. PGT25+G4 34302 46000 8719 41 24 6100 90 510

1991: 9FA introduced 240MW based on the 1316oC TET LM6000* 43854 58809 8468 43 28 3600 125 455

of the “FA” range [14] LMS100 100200 - 8160 44 40 3600 207 417
MS5002C 28340 38005 12467 29 9 4670 124 517
F-class gas turbines were developed for combined cycles MS5002E* 32000 42912 10000 36 17 5714 102 511
Heavy duty

with cold-end drive for axial exhausts to heat recovery MS5002D 32580 43690 12235 29 11 4670 141 509
(HRSG), while older classes (B and E) were designed for MS6001B 43530 58380 10820 33 12 5111 140 544

simple-cycle with hot-end drive needing exhaust collectors MS7001EA 86226 115630 10920 33 13 3600 296 535
MS9001E 130140 174520 10397 35 13 3000 410 540
to the side or vertically [14].
(*) DLE Combustion

Table-3: GE’s Industrial gas turbines for Mechanical drive

applications [21]

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Generator Drive (ISO conditions - Natural gas - Electrical generator terminals)

ISO Rated Turbine Exhaust Exhaust
Heat Rate Efficiency Pressure
Model Power Speed Flow Temperature
(KJ/KWh) (%) Ratio
(KW) (rpm) (Kg/sec) (°C)
Heavy-
Small

Duty

GE10-1 11250 11489 31 16 11000 48 482

PGT16 13720 10295 35 20 7900 47 491

PGT20 17464 10238 35 16 6500 63 475
Aeroderivative

PGT25 22417 9919 36 18 6500 69 525

PGT25+ 30226 9084 40 22 6100 84 500
PGT25+G4 33057 9047 40 23 6100 90 510
LM6000* 42262 8787 41 28 3600 125 455
LMS100 98196 7997 45 40 3600 207 417
MS5001 26830 12687 28 11 5094 125 483
Heavy-Duty

MS5002E* 31100 10285 35 17 5714 102 511

MS6001B 42100 11230 32 12 5163 141 548
MS7001EA 85400 10990 33 13 3600 292 537 Figure-17: Modern Jet-engine [2]
MS9001E 126100 10650 34 13 3000 418 543
(*) DLE Combustion

Table-4: GE’s Industrial gas turbines for Generator drive

applications [21].

3. Gas Turbine technology development drivers

GE’s primary philosophy is to build efficient, reliable,

and cost-effective machine for its intended service [22].
The application of gas turbines affects their design limita-
tions [1].
 Industrial gas turbines are designed for long operational
life to the order of 100,000hours without any major
overhaul, however its not an expected requirement of Figure-18: Land gas turbine [2]
aircraft gas turbine.
 The limitation of weight and size is more important in 3.1. Cycles and Configurations
aircraft engines than other applications.
Engine cycles adapted by gas turbines are either open or
 Gas turbines for Commercial aircrafts are designed to closed cycles. The latter being more complex coupled with
achieve lowest specific fuel consumption with little low efficiencies and inlet temperatures its merit lies in its
specific thrust penalty[1]. full load efficiency over load range. Most engines todays
 Gas turbines for military aircrafts are designed to incorporate open cycles [14].
achieve maximum specific thrust with specific fuel IGTs have different configurations with certain additions
consumption penalty [1]. of exhaust heat recuperation (EHR) and/or inter-cooling to
maximize efficiency while ensuring economic viability.
Examples:
 Open Cycle single or double Shaft with or without
EHR
 Open Cycle single or double or triple Shaft with EHR
and Inter-cooling
 Closed Cycle Air or Helium gas turbines
 Combined Cycle Gas Turbines (CCGT) [14]

Figure-16: The Influence of application on engine design [5]

Although these requirement differences affect design

considerably, the fundamental engine theory still remains
the same [1].

Figure-19: CCGT Schematic [20]

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3.2. Power Output 3.4. Pressure ratio

Power is a function of inlet airflow (size) and thermal Aero-engines function at higher pressure ratios than in-
efficiency [20]. Specific power (power/inlet airflow rate) is dustrial engines; current turbofan engines function as high
critical to engine weight reduction and providing energy to as 44:1. Land based applications using Aero-derivatives
drive high bypass ratio fans that lead to higher propulsive also run high pressure ratios [14]. Pressure ratios increased
efficiency in turbofans. In practice, maximum firing tem- by nearly 2units every decade since 1940, however from
perature attains values of 2000K to 2100K; above these 1985 brought about convergence; most machines fell with-
NOx production rises rapidly as shown below [23]. in the same band, IGT pressure ratios progression is illus-
trated below [14]:

Figure-22: Technology Trend – Pressure ratio [14]

Figure-20: Core Specific Power Performance [23]
3.5. Overall Efficiency
Since GE introduced industrial gas turbines in1939 with
4000KW output, simple cycle IGTs outputs have increased Thermal efficiency is a function of cycle (pressure ratio
over 70 times i.e. 240,000kW by 1990s ending to over and TET), component efficiencies, cooling and sealing
300,000kW currently [14]. flows [20]. Mathematically is the ratio of power generated
by the core to amount of heat added, while propulsive
3.3. Turbine Entry Temperature efficiency is defined as aircraft velocity times its thrust
divided by the core power. The overall efficiency of a
Early gas turbines had TET at take-off of about 1000K;
turbojet/turbofan is the product of thermal and propulsive
while today’s advanced engines attain greater than 1700K
efficiencies [23].
[23]. For land based gas turbines such as marine
Early turbojets attained overall efficiencies of around
propulsion, power propulsion (combined cycles), and
20%. In the 1960s, Low bypass engines improved propul-
industrial applications (cogeneration and pumping) the
sive efficiency, and overall efficiency, to about 25%. Cur-
TET would remain at current levels at or below 1700K due
rent high bypass ratio turbofans, due to thermal and propul-
to the constraint imposed by Nox emissions [24].
sive efficiencies improvements; achieved overall efficien-
cies of over 35%. Future Ultra-high bypass ratio engines
e.g. advanced ducted propulsors and prop-fans could im-
prove overall efficiencies to 50% by the next twenty-five
years. However, high bypass ratio penalties include in-
creased engine drag and weight, limiting potential im-
provement of higher propulsive efficiency [23].

Figure-21: Evolution of High Temperature technology [23]

From above chart; large investments in high tempera-

ture technologies such as material improvements accounted
for about 300K increase from early engines, while blade
cooling introduced in 1960s, accounted for over 400K TET
increase [23]. Figure-23: Overall Efficiency[23]

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O. Okuwobi / GE Gas Turbine Engine Technology Evolution & History

When introduced in 1939, IGTs had thermal efficiency show that pressure ratios would increase to over 40 times
of 17-18% [14]. Today efficiency improvement of simple- of compression ratio implying higher temperatures, hence
cycle gas turbines reach 40% while combined cycles reach greater need for cooling [24]. In modern engines; about
60% within high firing temperatures limits placed by NOx 20% of compressed air is bled for cooling and sealing
emission [24]. purposes in turbine. Cooling prevents hot gas stream
absorption over the surfaces of the high stressed discs that
3.6. Specific Fuel Consumption turbine blades are attached to, while also controlling tip
clearances on turbine blades and to seal bearing chambers
SFC is the fuel required per unit output [5]; SFC is [27].
inversely proportional to propulsive efficiency and thermal The GE CF6 turbofan engine uses film cooling at
efficiency. Over the years higher by-pass engines have trailing-edge, augmented convective cooling with rib
increased propulsive efficiency, hence lower sfc. The turbulators for mid-chord region, film-cooling through gill-
cumulative effect of cycle, propulsive, and component holes and convective cooling in its leading-edge region
efficiencies has been about 50% sfc improvement over the [26]. The figure below describes the evolution of GE’s
past 50years [23]. cooling technology.

`
Figure-24: SFC improvement in GE aircraft engines [25]
Figure-25: Advances in Turbine blade cooling [28]
3.7. Materials
3.9. Fan Technology
Gas turbine material development is very expensive and
time consuming [22]. The principal effect of material Fan blades used in high-bypass aero-engines were
advancement include: greater capability to withstand originally produced from solid titanium alloy forgings
elevated temperature during service, greater efficiency; and incorporating mid-span snubbers for vibration control.
weight reduction as a result of materials high temperature However, snubbers inhibited airflow, reducing aero-
strength to weight ratio [26]. Some high performance dynamic efficiency, and increasing fuel consumption.
materials include special steels, superalloys, and titanium Modern designs lower in weight have hollow construction
alloys; a large number of these materials undergo advanced and internal core; removed snubbers for better aerodynamic
processing techniques. Material coating gives greater efficient aerofoils, wider-blade chord for mechanical
mechanical properties and resistance to oxidation and stability, and reduced blade number by nearly one-third
corrosion in high operating temperatures [26]. [29].
Compressor: aero-engines compressor stages use titanium The growing airline industry requires higher, quicker
alloys for its high strength to weight ratio [26], while its and faster engines. Composite materials for the GE90 wide
blades use stainless steel to prevent corrosion from salt and chord fan blades made it lighter and more durable. The fan
acidic moisture deposits [22]. blade processing helped achieve 100% defect-free, carbon-
Combustor: use nickel based superalloys for its high reinforced epoxy blade without wrinkles/voids within its
temperature creep rupture strength & oxidation/corrosion fibers. GE90 fan blades performance makes it a benchmark
resistance, and thermal barrier coatings for higher firing for future high thrust engines for large and wide-body
temperatures [26]. aircrafts to deliver low cost, high level of efficiency, safety
Turbine: turbine disc use superalloys for its high and reliability [30]. GEnx would incorporate aerodynamic
temperature rupture strength and fracture toughness, while and composite improvements from GE90 fan blade,
turbine blades and vanes use cast superalloys to withstand making it the quietest engine GE would produce [12].
severe combination of temperature, stress and environment
[26].

3.8. Cooling Technology

Gas turbines used in aircraft propulsion and power

generation or industrial applications augmented their
thermal efficiency and power outputs by increasing turbine
firing temperatures even above that of the blade material’s
melting point; hence, the need to improve cooling
technology of gas turbines. Technology advancements
Figure-26: GE90 Composite Fan-Blades [12]

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3.10. Combustor designs for Emission Control

Figure-30: Combustors emission comparison in CFM56-7 engine

[32]
Figure-27: Combustor Types [20]
 Dry Low Nox (DLN) combustor: The first control for
 Low emission combustors(LEC): use current case and dry-low-Nox control integrated developing the first
fuel nozzle optimized mixing; lowering smoke and multi–nozzle quiet combustor in 1973. This design has
NOx, while controlling fuel cooling/spraying for UHC. evolved to reach current clean air requirements [33].
Incorporated in CF34, GE90 and GP7000 engine Methods used to reduce dry-low–NOx include: lean
families [31]. premixed combustion, lean diffusion flames, staged
combustion, rich combustion, and catalytic combustion
[33].

Figure-28: Comparison between LEC and Standard combustor

emission levels [31] Figure-31: Dry-Low-NOx combustor [33]

 Single Annular Combustor(SAC): burns rich and uses 4. GE Future Trends

geometries that are simpler, lighter, cost less, and easy
to cool [31]. 4.1. Emission Control for Environmental Sustainability
 Double Annular combustor(DAC): possesses two
GE has adopted the “Ecomagination” strategy to reflect
combustion zones, a rich pilot zone enhanced for
its commitment towards imagination and building
ignition and low power HC and CO emissions, then a
innovative solutions to overcome existing environment
lean main zone enhanced for lower Nox pilot main.
challenges while ensuring economic growth [34]. Some
Used in CFM56-5B [31].
ecomagination products include:
 Twin-annular-premixed-swirler(TAPS) combustor:
 CFM56 Tech Insertion aircraft engines: 28% lower Nox
evolved from the staged lean burn technology, with
emissions than CFM56-5B/P and -7B [34].
improved emission and performance compared to
 DLE (Dry-Low-Emission) combustion system for
DAC, over 50% Nox reduction [31].
industrial application meets emission requirements
without water or steam consumption [34].
 DLN1+ and DLN2.6+ combustors improve combustion
stability compared to standard combustors; DLN1+
combustors reduces 6B & 7EA Nox emission to 3-
5ppm of a standard combustor, while DLN 2.6+
reduces GE 9FA Nox emissions by 40-65% to 9-15ppm
with lower fuel burn and CO2 emissions compared to
the DLN2 [34].
 LM6000 PC aero-derivative with ethanol fuel flex kit
operates at 60Hz & ISO conditions, maintaining same
electricity output using sugarcane ethanol rather than
#2-diesel avoiding 6,500metric-tons or 6% CO2
emissions within its 4000hour peak period [34].
Figure-29: SAC-DAC-TAPS Combustor Evolution [32]

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38th Engine Systems Symposium – March 2013 ESS-38-56
O. Okuwobi / GE Gas Turbine Engine Technology Evolution & History

 GE-Passport engine (integrated propulsion system) was

launched to power ultra-long range business aircraft
with low emissions, cabin noise, and fuel consumption
[8].

Figure-35: Turbine airfoil material advancements [25]

4.2.2. Ceramics

Figure-32: Next-Generation Turbofans [11] Ceramics withstand higher temperatures and tolerate
contaminants such as vanadium and sodium present in low
cost fuels which are highly corrosive to current nickel-base
superalloys. Ceramics are 40% lighter and about 5% the
cost of superalloys; hence giving turbines greater power
and smaller size. However, brittleness limits its practical
application [26].

4.2.3. Intermetallics

Over 30 years, great efforts have gone into developing

intermetallic alloys for aircraft gas turbine engines;
primarily to replace nickel based alloys due to its lower
density hence saving weight. GE aircraft engines have
successfully demonstrated using γ-TiAl based alloys for
rotating and static engine components in compressors,
combustors, turbines and nozzles [26].

Figure-33: GE’s SFC forecast [11] 5. Conclusion

4.2. Improved Performance through Advanced Materials The changing energy scene due to fuel availability,
emissions and price fluctuations will require GE to make
GE’s huge investments in research and development efforts of adapting to even greater changes of future dec-
would lead to the inclusion of composites, ceramics and ades. GE versatile gas turbines now operate using various
inter-metallics for specific performance features [26]. fuels (i.e. liquid and gaseous) efficiently to produce power
needed for various application, while significantly reducing
4.2.1. Composites NOx, CO, and PM10 emission; also successful biofuel
testing have been conducted across the gas turbines to
Development of composites for its stiffness, high-
ensure energy sustainability [19].
strength and weight reduction capability; include polymer
matrix composites for low temperatures, titanium based
metal matrix composites for intermediate temperatures,
ceramic matrix composites for high temperatures while
others being researched for high temperature applications
include chromium, molybdenum and platinum based alloys
[26].

Figure-34: Ceramic matrix composite Vane and blade [25] Figure-36: Variety of fuels used in GE gas turbines [19]

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38th Engine Systems Symposium – March 2013 ESS-38-56
O. Okuwobi / GE Gas Turbine Engine Technology Evolution & History

Acknowledgement [22] Schilke, P.W., ( 2004), Advanced Gas Turbine Materials

and Coatings, GE Energy Schenectady, NY.
I would like to thank my sponsors NNPC/ESSO for the [23] Singh, R. (1996), "Fifty years of civil aero gas turbines",
Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology, vol. 68,
scholarship opportunity, also GE company for the articles
no. 4, pp. 3-19.
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and Mr. Suleiman Mohammed also helped me immensely. transfer and cooling technology, 2nd ed, CRC, USA.
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