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FORMULA
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12th
 ELECTROSTATICS
Coulomb force between two point charges

The electric field intensity at any point is the force experienced by unit

positive charge, given by

Electric force on a charge 'q' at the position of electric field

intensity 𝐸 produced by some source charges is

Electric Potential

Potential Difference between two points A and B is

VA – VB
Formulae of 𝐸 and potential V
(vii) Uniformly charged solid nonconducting sphere (insulating material)

Work done by external agent in taking a charge q from A to B is

The electrostatic potential energy of a point charge

U = qV
U = PE of the system =

1 2
Energy Density = 2
ε𝐸

Self Energy of a uniformly charged shell =

Self Energy of a uniformly charged solid non-conducting sphere

Electric Field Intensity Due to Dipole

Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole in External Electric Field:

Electric Dipole in Uniform Electric Field :

Electric Dipole in Nonuniform Electric Field:

Electric Potential Due to Dipole at General Point (r,θ) :

The electric flux over the whole area is given by

Flux using Gauss's law, Flux through a closed surface

Electric field intensity near the conducting surface

Electric pressure : Electric pressure at the surface of a conductor is given by

formula

where α is the local surface charge density

Potential difference between points A and B

 CAPACITANCE
1. (i) q∝V q = CV
q : Charge on positive plate of the capacitor
C : Capacitance of capacitor.
V : Potential difference between positive and negative plates.

(ii) Representation of capacitor

2
1 2 𝑄 𝑄𝑉
(iii) Energy stored in the capacitor : U = 2
𝐶𝑉 = 2𝐶
= 2

(v) Types of Capacitors :

(a) Parallel plate capacitor

A : Area of plates
d : distance between the plates( << size of plate )

(b) Spherical Capacitor :

Capacitance of an isolated spherical Conductor (hollow or solid )

Capacitance of spherical capacitor

 (c) Cylindrical Capacitor : l>> {a,b}

(vi) Capacitance of capacitor depends on

(a) Area of plates
(b) Distance between the plates
(c) Dielectric medium between the plates.
(vii) Electric field intensity between the plates of capacitor

(viii) Force experienced by any plate of capacitor

2. DISTRIBUTION OF CHARGES ON CONNECTING TWO CHARGED

CAPACITORS:
When two capacitors are C1 and C2 are connected as shown in figure

(a) Common potential :

 (c) Heat loss during redistribution :

The loss of energy is in the form of Joule heating in the wire.

3. Combination of capacitor :
(i) Series Combination

(ii) Parallel Combination :

Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 Q1: Q2 :Q3 = C1 : C2 : C3

4. Charging and Discharging of a capacitor :

(i) Charging of Capacitor ( Capacitor initially uncharged ):
 q0 = Charge on the capacitor at steady state
q0 = CV

(ii) Discharging of Capacitor :

5. Capacitor with dielectric

(i) Capacitance in the presence of dielectric :
6. Force on dielectric

(i) When battery is connected

* Force on the dielectric will be zero when the dielectric is fully inside.
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
1. ELECTRIC CURRENT

2. ELECTRIC CURRENT IN A CONDUCTOR

I = nAeV.

I = neAVd
3. CURRENT DENSITY

4. ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE

Dependence of Resistance on Temperature :

Electric current in resistance

5. ELECTRICAL POWER
P = VI

9. KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS

10. COMBINATION OF RESISTANCES

Resistances in Series:
R = R1 + R2 + R3 +................ + Rn (this means Req is greater then any
resistor) ) and
V = V1 + V2 + V3 +................ + Vn

2. Resistances in Parallel :

11. WHEATSTONE NETWORK : (4 TERMINAL NETWORK)

When current through the galvanometer is zero (null point or balance point)
𝑃 𝑅
𝑄
= 𝑆
, then PS = QR

13. GROUPING OF CELLS

13.1 Cells in Series :

13.2 Cells in Parallel:

15. AMMETER
A shunt (small resistance) is connected in parallel with galvanometer
to convert it into ammeter. An ideal ammeter has zero resistance

Ammeter is represented as follows -

If maximum value of current to be measured by ammeter is then
IG . RG = (I – IG)S

where = Maximum current that can be measured using the given

ammeter.

16. VOLTMETER
A high resistance is put in series with galvanometer. It is used to measure
potential difference across a resistor in a circuit.

For maximum potential difference

V = IG . RS + IG RG

17. POTENTIOMETER

Potential gradient (x) Potential difference per unit length of wire

Application of potentiometer
(a) To find emf of unknown cell and compare emf of two cells.
In case ,
In figure (1) is joint to (2) then balance length = 1
 ε1 = xl1 ....(1)
in case ,
In figure (3) is joint to (2) then balance length = 2
ε2 = xl2 ....(2)

If any one of ε1 or ε2 is known the other can be found. If x is known then both ε1
and ε2 can be found

(b) To find current if resistance is known

VA – VC = xl1
IR1 = xl1

Similarly, we can find the value of R2 also.

Potentiometer is ideal voltmeter because it does not draw any current from
circuit, at the balance point.
(c) To find the internal resistance of cell.

Ist arrangement 2nd arrangement

(d)Ammeter and voltmeter can be graduated by potentiometer.
(e)Ammeter and voltmeter can be calibrated by potentiometer.

18. METRE BRIDGE (USE TO MEASURE UNKNOWN RESISTANCE)

If AB = l cm, then BC = (100 –l) cm.
Resistance of the wire between A and B , R∝l
[Specific resistance and cross-sectional area A are same for whole of the wire]

Applying the condition for balanced Wheatstone bridge, we get R Q = P X

Since R and are known, therefore, the value of X can be calculated

 MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT & MAGNETIC FORCE ON
CHARGE/CURRENT

1. Magnetic field due to a moving point charge

2. Biot-savart's Law

3. Magnetic field due to a straight wire

4. Magnetic field due to infinite straight wire

5. Magnetic field due to circular loop

6. Magnetic field on the axis of the solenoid

7. Ampere's Law

8. Magnetic field due to long cylinderical shell

B = 0, r < R

9. Magnetic force acting on a moving point charge

10. Magnetic force acting on a current carrying wire

11. Magnetic Moment of a current carrying loop

M=N·I·A

12. Torque acting on a loop

13. Magnetic field due to a single pole

14. Magnetic field on the axis of magnet

15. Magnetic field on the equatorial axis of the magnet

16. Magnetic field at point P due to magnet

 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

1. Magnetic flux is mathematically defined as

2. Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction

3. Lenz’s Law (conservation of energy principle)

According to this law, emf will be induced in such a way that it will oppose the
cause which has produced it.
Motional emf

4. Induced emf due to rotation

Emf induced in a conducting rod of length l rotating with angular speed about
2
its one end, in a uniform perpendicular magnetic field B is 1/2 B ω𝑙 .

1. EMF Induced in a rotating disc :

Emf between the centre and the edge of disc of radius r rotating in a
2
𝐵ω𝑟
magnetic field B = 2

5. Fixed loop in a varying magnetic field

𝑑𝐵
If magnetic field changes with the rate 𝑑𝑡
electric field is generated
𝑟 𝑑𝐵
whose average tangential value along a circle is given by E= 2 𝑑𝑡

This electric field is non conservative in nature. The lines of force associated
with this electric field are closed curves.

6. Self induction
 The instantaneous emf is given as
Self inductance of solenoid =

6.1 Inductor

It is represent by
electrical equivalence of loop

1
Energy stored in an inductor = 2
LI2

7. Growth Of Current in Series R–L Circuit

If a circuit consists of a cell, an inductor L and a resistor R and a switch
S, connected in series and the switch is closed at t = 0, the current in the

The quantity L/R is called time constant of the circuit and is denoted by τ.
The variation of current with time is as shown.

2. After one time constant , current in the circuit =63% of the final
current.
 3. More time constant in the circuit implies slower rate of change of
current.

8 Decay of current in the circuit containing resistor and inductor:

Let the initial current in a circuit containing inductor and resistor be I0.

9. Mutual inductance is induction of EMF in a coil (secondary) due to

change in current in another coil (primary). If current in primary coil is I,
total flux in secondary is proportional to I, i.e. N (in secondary) I.

The emf generated around the secondary due to the current flowing
around the primary is directly proportional to the rate at which that
current changes.

10. Equivalent self inductance :

1. Series combination :
L = L1 + L2 ( neglecting mutual inductance)
L = L1 + L2 + 2M (if coils are mutually coupled and they have
winding in same direction)
L = L1 + L2 – 2M (if coils are mutually coupled and they have
winding in opposite direction)

2. Parallel Combination :

For two coils which are mutually coupled it has been found that M
≤ 𝐿1𝐿2 or M =k 𝐿1𝐿2 where k is called coupling constant and
its value is less than or equal to 1.
12. LC Oscillations
2 1
ω = 𝐿𝐶

ALTERNATING CURRENT
1. AC AND DC CURRENT :
A current that changes its direction periodically is called alternating cur-
rent (AC). If a current maintains its direction constant it is called direct
current (DC).

3. ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE:

Root Mean Square Value of a function, from t1 to t2, is defined as

4. POWER CONSUMED OR SUPPLIED IN AN AC CIRCUIT

Here cosϕ is called power factor.

5. SOME DEFINITIONS:
The factor cosϕ is called Power factor.
Im sinϕ is called wattless current
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
Impedance Z is defined as Z = 𝐼𝑚
= 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
6. PURELY RESISTIVE CIRCUIT:

7. PURELY CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT

 ELECTRO MAGNETIC WAVES
Maxwell's equations

𝑈
p= 𝑐
energy transferred to a surface in time t is U, the magnitude of the
total momentum delivered to this surface (for complete absorption) is p
 Electromagnetic spectrum

Type Wavelength Production Detection

range
Radio > 0.1m Rapid acceleration and Receiver's aerials
decelerations of
electrons in aerials
Microwave 0.1m to 1mm Klystron value or Point contact
magnetron value diodes
Infra-red 1mm to Vibration of atoms and Thermopiles
700nm molecules Bolometer,
Infrared
photographic
film
Light 700nm to Electrons in atoms emit The eye, photocells,
400nm light when they move Photographic film
from one energy level
to a lower energy
Ultraviolet 400nm to 1nm Inner shell electrons in photocells
atoms moving from one photographic
energy level to a lower film
level
X-rays 1nm to 10–3 nm X-ray tubes or inner Photograpic film,
shell electrons Geiger tubes,
lonisation chamber
Gamma < 10–3nm Radioactive decay of do
rays the nucleus
 RAY OPTICS
1. Reflection of Light

1.3 Characteristics of image due to Reflection by a Plane

Mirror:
(a) Distance of object from mirror = Distance of image from the mirror.
(b) The line joining a point object and its image is normal to the
reflecting surface.
(c) The size of the image is the same as that of the object.
(d) For a real object the image is virtual and for a virtual object the image
is real

2. Relation between velocity of object and image

From mirror property : xim = - xom, yim = yom and zim = zom
Here xim means ‘x’ coordinate of image with respect to mirror.
Similarly others have meaning.

Differentiating w.r.t time , we get

v(im)x = -v(om)x ; v(im)y = v(om)y ; v(im)z = v(om)z ,

3. Spherical Mirror

x co–ordinate of centre of Curvature and focus of Concave

mirror are negative and those for Convex mirror are positive.
In case of mirrors since light rays reflect back in - X direction,
therefore -ve sign of v indicates real image and +ve
sign of v indicates virtual image
(b) Lateral magnification (or transverse magnification)
 2
𝑑𝑣 𝑣
(d) On differentiating (a) we get 𝑑𝑢
− 2
𝑢
2
𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑑𝑢
(e) On differentiating (a) with respect to time we get 𝑑𝑡
− 2 𝑑𝑡
is
𝑢
𝑑𝑢
the velocity of image along Principal axis and 𝑑𝑡
is the velocity of object
along Principal axis. Negative sign implies that the image , in case of
mirror, always moves in the direction opposite to that of object.This
discussion is for velocity with respect to mirror and along the x axis.

(f) Newton's Formula: XY = f2

X and Y are the distances ( along the principal axis ) of the object
and image respectively from the principal focus. This formula can
be used when the distances are mentioned or asked from the
focus.

1
(g) Optical power of a mirror (in Diopters) = 𝑓
f = focal length with sign and in meters

(h) If object lying along the principal axis is not of very small size, the
𝑣2−𝑣1
longitudinal magnification = 𝑢2−𝑢1
(it will always be inverted)

4. Refraction of Light

4.1 Laws of Refraction (at any Refracting Surface)

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
(b) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟
= Constant for any pair of media and for light of a given
wave length. This is known as Snell's Law. More precisely,

4.2 Deviation of a Ray Due to Refraction

5. Principle of Reversibility of Light Rays

 A ray travelling along the path of the reflected ray is reflected along the
path of the incident ray. A refracted ray reversed to travel back along
its path will get refracted along the path of the incident ray. Thus the
incident and refracted rays are mutually reversible.

7. Apparent Depth and shift of Submerged Object

At near normal incidence (small angle of incidence i) apparent depth (d)
is given by:

(
Apparent shift = d 1 −
1
𝑛𝑟𝑒𝑙 )
Refraction through a Composite Slab (or Refraction through a number
of parallel media, as seen from a medium of R. I. n0)
Apparent depth (distance of final image from final surface)

8. Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection ( T. I. R.)

(i) Conditions of T. I. R.
(a) light is incident on the interface from denser medium.
(b) Angle of incidence should be greater than the critical angle (i > c).

9. Refraction Through Prism

9.1 Characteristics of a prism

9.2 Variation of versus i

(1) There is one and only one angle of incidence for which the angle
of deviation is minimum.
(2) When δ = δmin , the angle of minimum deviation, then i = e and
r1 = r2, the ray passes symmetrically w.r.t. the refracting surfaces.
We can show by simple calculation that min = 2imin – A
where imin = angle of incidence for minimum deviation and r = A/2.

Also δmin= (n - 1) A (for small values of )

(3) For a thin prism (A≤10o) and for small value of i, all values of
10. Dispersion Of Light
The angular splitting of a ray of white light into a number of components
and spreading in different directions is called Dispersion of Light. This
phenomenon is because waves of different wavelength move with same
speed in vacuum but with different speeds in a medium.
The refractive index of a medium depends slightly on wavelength also.
This variation of refractive index with wavelength is given by Cauchy’s
formula.

Cauchy's formula where a and b are positive constants

of a medium.
Angle between the rays of the extreme colours in the refracted (dispersed)
light is called angle of dispersion.

11. Combination of Two Prisms

Two or more prisms can be combined in various ways to get different
combination of angular dispersion and deviation.
 (a) Direct Vision Combination (dispersion without deviation)
The condition for direct vision combination is :

b) Achromatic Combination (deviation without dispersion.)

12. Refraction at Spherical Surfaces

For paraxial rays incident on a spherical surface separating two media:

where light moves from the medium of refractive index n1 to the

medium of refractive index n2.
Transverse magnification (m) (of dimension perpendicular to principal
axis)

due to refraction at spherical surface is given by

OPTICAL INSTRUMENT

SIMPLE MICROSCOPE
 𝐷
Magnifying power : 𝑈0
𝐷
when image is formed at infinity 𝑀∞ = 𝑓
𝐷
When change is formed at near print D. 𝑀𝐷 = 1 + 𝑓

COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

Astronomical Telescope

Terrestrial Telescope
Galilean Telescope

Resolving Power

WAVE OPTICS
Interference of waves of intensity I1 and I2 :
resultant intensity, = 1 + 2 + 2 𝐼1𝐼2𝑐𝑜𝑠 (∆ϕ) where ∆ϕ= phase
difference.
2
For Constructive Interference : Imax = ( 𝐼1 + )
𝐼2
2
For Destructive interference : Imin =( 𝐼1 + 𝐼)
2
If sources are incoherent I= I1 + I2 , at each point.
YDSE :

where, fringe width

Here, λ= wavelength in medium.

Highest order maxima :

total number of maxima = 2nmax + 1

Highest order minima :

total number of minima = 2nmax.

2π
Intensity on screen : I= I1 + I2 +2 𝐼1𝐼2 cos (∆ϕ) where ∆ϕ= λ
∆𝑝

YDSE with two wavelengths λ1 & λ2:

The nearest point to central maxima where the bright fringes coincide:

The nearest point to central maxima where the two dark fringes
coincide,
Optical path difference

YDSE WITH OBLIQUE INCIDENCE

In YDSE, ray is incident on the slit at an inclination of θ0 to the axis of
symmetry of the experimental set-up

THIN-FILM INTERFERENCE
for interference in reflected light 2µd
 Polarisation
µ= tan .(brewster's angle)
θ𝑝 + θ𝑟 = 900(reflected and refracted rays are mutually perpendicular.)

Law of Malus.
I = I0 cos2
I = KA2 cos2

Diffraction
a sin θ= (2m+1)/2 for maxima. where m = 1, 2, 3 ......
𝑚λ
sin θ = 𝑎
, m= ±1, ±2, ±3......... for minima.
2λ
Linear width of central maxima = 𝑎

Resolving power .

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter &

Atomic and Nuclear Physics
Work function is minimum for cesium (1.9 eV)
ℎ𝑐
work function W = hv0 = λ0

Photoelectric current is directly proportional to intensity of incident radiation.

(v– constant)

Photoelectrons ejected from metal have kinetic energies ranging from 0 to

KEmax
Here KEmax = eVs Vs - stopping potential
Stopping potential is independent of intensity of light used (v-constant)
Intensity in the terms of electric field is
1 2
I= ϵ
2 0
𝐸 c
ℎ
Momentum of one photon is λ
Einstein equation for photoelectric effect is

12400
Energy ∆E = 0 𝑒𝑉
λ(𝐴 )
Force due to radiation (Photon) (no transmission)
When light is incident perpendicularly

When light is incident at an angle with vertical.

De Broglie wavelength

Radius and speed of electron in hydrogen like atoms.

Energy in nth orbit

Wavelength corresponding to spectral lines

Wavelength corresponding to spectral lines

The lyman series is an ultraviolet and Paschen, Brackett and Pfund series
are in the infrared region.

Total number of possible transitions, is (from nth state)

If effect of nucleus motion is considered,
Here µ - reduced mass

Minimum wavelength for x-rays

Moseley’s Law

a and b are positive constants for one type of x-rays (independent of Z)

Average radius of nucleus may be written as

Binding energy of nucleus of mass M, is given by B = (ZMp + NMN

–M)C2
Alpha - decay process

Beta- minus decay

Beta plus-decay

Electron capture : when atomic electron is captured, X-rays are emitted.

In radioactive decay, number of nuclei at instant t is given by

λ-decay constant
Activity of sample :
Activity per unit mass is called specific activity.
Half life

Average life :

A radioactive nucleus can decay by two different processes having half

lives t1 and t2 respectively. Effective half-life of nucleus is given by
 PRINCIPLE OF COMMUNICATION
Transmission from tower of height h

the distance to the horizon dT= 2𝑅ℎ𝑟

Amplitude Modulation
The modulated signal cm (t) can be written as

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑘𝐴𝑚

Modulation index 𝑚𝑎 = 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐴𝑐

where k = A factor which determines the maximum change in the

amplitude for a given amplitude Em of the modulating. If k = 1 then

If a carrier wave is modulated by several sine waves the total modulated

2 2 2
index mt is given by mt = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 +.....................
Side band frequencies

Band width =(fc + fm) - (fc - fm) = 2fm

2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
Power in AM waves P: 𝑅

(i) carrier power Pc

𝑚𝑎𝐴𝑐 2

(ii) Total power of side bands Psb =

( ) 2 2
=
( )
𝑚𝑎𝐴𝑐

2 2
=
2 2
𝑚𝑎𝐴𝑐
𝑅 2𝑅 4𝑅

( )
2 2
𝐴𝑐 𝑚𝑎
(iii) Total power of AM wave PTotal = Pc + Pab = 2𝑅
1+ 2
 ( )
2 2
𝑃𝑡 𝑚𝑎 𝑃𝑠𝑏 𝑚𝑎/2
(iv) = 1+ and =
( )
2
𝑃𝑐 2 𝑃𝑐 𝑚𝑎
1+ 2

Frequency Modulation
𝐸𝑚
Frequency deviation δ= (fmax - fc) = fc - fmin = kf 2π
Carrier swing (CS) = CS = 2 × f
Frequency modulation index (mf)
δ 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑓𝑐 𝑓𝑐−𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑓−𝐸𝑚
=. mf = 𝑓𝑚
= 𝑓𝑚
= 𝑓𝑚
= 𝑓𝑚

Frequency spectrum = FM side band modulated signal consist of infinite

number of side bands whose frequencies are (fc ± fm), (fc ± 2fm), (fc ±
3fm).........
(∆𝑓)𝑚𝑎𝑥
Deviation ratio = (𝑓 )
𝑚
𝑚𝑎𝑥
(∆𝑓)𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
Percent modulation , m = (∆𝑓)𝑚𝑎𝑥

SEMICONDUCTOR
Conductivity and resistivity
−1 −1
P (π– m) ρ(π 𝑚 )
Metals 10–2 -10–6 102 – 108

semiconductors 10–5 -10–6 105 – 10–6

Insulators 1011 –1019 10–11 – 10–19

Charge concentration and current

[ ηn = ηe] In case of intrinsic semiconductors
P type ηn >> e
i = ie + ih
ηn = ηe=ηi2
Number of electrons reaching from valence bond to conduction bond.
η =A T3/2e–Eg/2kT (A is positive constant)
σ= e (ηeme + ηn µn)
for ρ hype ηn = Na >> e.
for η– type ηe = Na >> ηh
 ∆𝑉
Dynamic Resistance of P-N junction in forward biasing = ∆𝐼
Transistor
CB amplifier
𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑙𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (∆𝑖𝑐)
(i) ac current gain αc = 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑙𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (∆𝑖𝑒)
𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑖𝑐)
(ii) dc current gain αdc = 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑖𝑒)
value of αdc lies between 0.95
to 0.99
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (∆𝑉0)
(iii) Voltage gain AV = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (∆𝑉𝑓)

AV = aac × Resistance gain

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (∆𝑃0)
(iv) Power gain = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (∆𝑃𝐶)

Power gain = a2ac × Resistance gain

(v) Phase difference (between output and input) : same phase
(vi) Application : For High frequency

CE Amplifier
(i) ac current gain βac = ( ) ∆𝑖𝑐
∆𝑖𝑏
𝑉𝐶𝐸 =constant
𝑖
(ii) dc current gain βac= 𝑖𝑐
𝑏
∆𝑉
(iii) Voltage gain : AV = ∆𝑉0 =βac × Resistance gain
𝐼
∆𝑃0
(iv) Power gain = ∆𝑃𝐼
=β2ac × Resistance gain
(v) Transconductance (gm) : The ratio of the change in collector in
collector current to the change in emitter base voltage is called trans
∆𝑖𝑐 𝐴𝑉
conductance i.e. gm = ∆𝑉𝐸𝐵
. Also gm = 𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝐿 =Load resistance.
α β
Relation between α and β: β = 1−α 𝑜𝑟 α = 1+β