crystals

Communication
Optoelectronic Simulations of InGaN-Based Green
Micro-Resonant Cavity Light-Emitting Diodes
with Staggered Multiple Quantum Wells
Tsau-Hua Hsieh 1,2,† , Wei-Ta Huang 3,4,† , Kuo-Bin Hong 4 , Tzu-Yi Lee 3 , Yi-Hong Bai 3 , Yi-Hua Pai 3 ,
Chang-Ching Tu 4 , Chun-Hui Huang 2 , Yiming Li 1 and Hao-Chung Kuo 3,4, *

1 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Institute of Communications Engineering,

National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan
2 Technology Development Center, InnoLux Corporation, Hsinchu 35053, Taiwan
3 Department of Photonics, Institute of Electro-Optical Engineering, College of Electrical
and Computer Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan
4 Semiconductor Research Center, Hon Hai Research Institute, Taipei 11492, Taiwan
* Correspondence: [email protected]
† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Abstract: In this research, we compared the performance of commercial µ-LEDs and three-layered
staggered QW µ-LED arrays. We also investigated the self-heating effect. We proposed a green
micro-resonant cavity light-emitting diode (µ-RCLED) that consists of a three-layer staggered InGaN
with multiple quantum wells (MQWs), a bottom layer of nanoporous n-GaN distributed Bragg
reflectors (DBRs), and a top layer of Ta2 O5 /SiO2 DBRs. We systematically performed simulations
of the proposed µ-RCLEDs. For the InGaN MQWs with an input current of 300 mA, the calculated
wavefunction overlaps are 8.8% and 18.1% for the regular and staggered structures, respectively.
Furthermore, the staggered MQWs can reduce the blue-shift of electroluminescence from 10.25 nm,
obtained with regular MQWs, to 2.25 nm. Due to less blue-shift, the output power can be maintained
Citation: Hsieh, T.-H.; Huang, W.-T.;
even at a high input current. Conversely, by employing 6.5 pairs of Ta2 O5 /SiO2 DBRs stacks, the full
Hong, K.-B.; Lee, T.-Y.; Bai, Y.-H.; Pai,
Y.-H.; Tu, C.-C.; Huang, C.-H.; Li, Y.; width at half maximum (FWHM) can be significantly reduced from 40 nm, obtained with ordinary
Kuo, H.-C. Optoelectronic µ-LEDs, to 0.3 nm, and a divergence angle smaller than 60◦ can be obtained. Our simulation results
Simulations of InGaN-Based Green suggest that the µ-RCLEDs can effectively resolve the wavelength instability and color purity issues
Micro-Resonant Cavity of conventional µ-LEDs.
Light-Emitting Diodes with
Staggered Multiple Quantum Wells. Keywords: InGaN; light-emitting diode; resonant cavity; nanoporous DBR; micro-LED
Crystals 2023, 13, 572. https://
doi.org/10.3390/cryst13040572

Academic Editors: Daisuke Iida and

Zhe Zhuang 1. Introduction
InGaN-based light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are currently being considered a viable
Received: 3 March 2023
solution for a range of applications, such as light fidelity (Li-Fi) [1,2], underwater optical
Revised: 24 March 2023
Accepted: 26 March 2023
communication (UWOC) [3], smart displaying signboards [4], and indoor positioning [5].
Published: 27 March 2023
This is due to their low power consumption, long lifespan, high brightness, and superior
contrast [1,2,6]. The widespread use of LEDs in everyday life makes them an ideal platform
for visible light communication (VLC) and LED-based displays. Compared to laser diodes,
LEDs are more cost-effective and easier to manufacture. However, additional processing
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. steps are necessary for creating the active region responsible for stimulated emission in
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. lasers [7].
This article is an open access article For display applications, the major issues for LEDs are wavelength instability, broad
distributed under the terms and full width at half maximum (FWHM), and wide divergence angles. An unstable wavelength
conditions of the Creative Commons
and broad FWHM may lead to color variations across the display, making the image appear
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
less vibrant and less sharp. Furthermore, if the emission wavelength varies too much, it
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
can cause issues with the viewing angle of the display because the light beams may not
4.0/).

Crystals 2023, 13, 572. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst13040572 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/crystals

Crystals 2023, 13, 572 2 of 12

be perceived as coming from a single point source as a result of spectral broadening. In

addition, the quantum confined Stark effect (QCSE) is a phenomenon that mainly arises
from the lattice mismatch within an InGaN/GaN quantum well [8]. The piezoelectric
field induced by the lattice mismatch tilts the band edge, causing spatial separation of
electrons and holes and thus reducing the electron-hole wavefunction overlap. Moreover,
the lack of inversion symmetry in the c-plane Wurtzite material gives rise to an intrinsic
spontaneous polarization, which enhances the QCSE [9]. The QCSE deteriorates the
performance of micro-LEDs (µ-LEDs) by lowering efficiency, particularly in the green
wavelengths (also known as the “green gap”), shifting the emission wavelength and
limiting the bandwidth for communication [10]. In addition, as the indium content in the
InGaN quantum well increases, the QCSE becomes more prominent, which further limits
the efficiency of green µ-LEDs.
Recently, several solutions have been developed to alleviate the QCSE, such as using
a strained-relaxed layer [8], a superlattice structure [11], a semipolar or nonpolar GaN
substrate [12], or a staggered quantum well structure [13]. Among these solutions, the
staggered quantum well structure is considered the most promising due to its ease of
fabrication and ability to effectively increase the wavefunction overlap through band edge
engineering [13]. In a typical staggered quantum well structure, the InGaN quantum wells
are positioned in a “staggered” arrangement, which reduces the overall piezoelectric field
in the quantum well and therefore suppresses the QCSE [13,14].
Resonant cavity light-emitting diodes (RCLEDs) have been proposed to resolve the
issue of wide divergence angles in LEDs. The concept of RCLEDs is based on confining light
within a resonant cavity to enhance the wavelength selectivity and decrease the divergence
angle. This can be achieved by placing two distributed Bragg reflectors (DBRs) on both
sides along the epitaxial direction. Each DBR consists of alternating layers of high and low
refractive index materials, such as AlGaAs and GaAs. When the emission wavelength of
the multiple quantum wells (MQWs) is precisely matched with the resonant wavelength
of the Fabry–Pérot cavity, the light extraction efficiency can be greatly increased and the
FWHM can be greatly reduced.
The first RCLED was proposed in 1994 by E. F. Schubert et al., where the DBRs were
formed by InGaAs/GaAs with an emission wavelength of 930 nm [15]. Later, in 1999, Y.-K.
Song et al. demonstrated the first InGaN-based RCLED, where the DBRs were formed
by HfO2 /SiO2 with an emission wavelength of 450 nm [16]. In 2006, R. H. Horng et al.
reported a green InGaN-based RCLED with dielectric TiO2 /SiO2 and silver mirrors, with an
emission wavelength of 525 nm [17]. In 2022, S. Zhao et al. demonstrated an InGaN-based
RCLED with single longitudinal-mode emission at 440 nm by using a Ta2 O5 /SiO2 DBR-
based filtering structure [18]. Finally, in 2022, K. B. Hong et al. proposed an InGaN-based
photonic crystal LED (PCLED) with a nanoporous (NP) DBR as the bottom reflector and a
strain-release layer [19].
In this paper, we first experimentally demonstrated a green InGaN-based c-plane
µ-LED with a three-layer staggered quantum well structure and compared its optical and
electrical properties to those of a commercial µ-LED. Then, we proposed and numerically
analyzed a green InGaN-based micro-RCLED (µ-RCLED) with a three-layer staggered
quantum well structure and a bottom NP DBR to address the issues of wavelength instabil-
ity, broad FWHM, and large divergence angle. These designs are beneficial for developing
µ-LED-based displays with high brightness, high contrast, and good color purity.

2. Experiments
In general, LEDs with smaller diameters or mesa sizes are beneficial for high-speed
visible light communication and high-resolution display applications, because smaller
LEDs can handle a higher current density with less self-heating effect [20]. In addition,
minimizing the electrode size through the µ-LED architecture allows for low RC time
constants. The design of a ring contact accompanied by a round mesa leads to better
current spreading and electrical performance. Similarly, the sidewall defects due to the
 minimizing the electrode size through the μ-LED architecture allows for low RC time con-
stants. The design of a ring contact accompanied by a round mesa leads to better current
Crystals 2023, 13, 572 spreading and electrical performance. Similarly, the sidewall defects due to the 3 of etching
12

process can be passivated by using atomic layer deposition (ALD), which further im-
proves the light extraction efficiency.
etching process and
The optical can be passivated
electrical by using atomic
performance layer deposition
of μ-LEDs (ALD), direct
devices under which current
further was
improves the light extraction efficiency.
measured using a spectrometer (Maya 2000 Pro), where the emitted light was collected by
The optical and electrical performance of µ-LEDs devices under direct current was
an measured
integrating sphere. Figure 1 summarizes the electric performance of the 50 μm × 6 μ-
using a spectrometer (Maya 2000 Pro), where the emitted light was collected by an
LED array with
integrating sphere.a three-layer staggeredthequantum
Figure 1 summarizes well structure
electric performance of thecompared
50 µm × 6 to that of a
µ-LED
commercial
array with a170 μm × 107
three-layer μm × 3quantum
staggered μ-LED array. The detailed
well structure compared fabrication
to that of aprocess
commercialof the 50
μm170× µm
6 μ-LED
× 107 µm × 3 µ-LED array. The detailed fabrication process of the 50 µm × 6 µ-LED 1a,c
array in this work can be found in our previous research [8]. Figure
show
arraytheinvoltage
this workascan
a function
be foundofincurrent density
our previous for the[8].
research commercial
Figure 1a,cμ-LED
show the and this work.
voltage
as a function
Figure 1b,d showof current
that thedensity for the EQE
maximum commercial
of the µ-LED and thisμ-LED
commercial work. Figure
array is1b,d showbefore
18.9%
thethat the maximum
efficiency droopEQE at a of theinjection
low commercial array is 18.9%
µ-LEDMoreover,
current. thebefore the efficiency
maximum EQE ofdroopthe 50 μm
at a low injection current. Moreover, the maximum EQE of the 50 µm × 6 µ-LED array
× 6 μ-LED array is 19.8% before the efficiency droop at a low injection current. However,
is 19.8% before the efficiency droop at a low injection current. However, the efficiency
the efficiency droop phenomenon occurs at low current density due to the QCSE in the
droop phenomenon occurs at low current density due to the QCSE in the polar c-plane
polar
GaN. c-plane GaN. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, this device stillthis device
suffers still suffers
less efficiency drooplesscompared
efficiencytodroop compared
commercial
to commercial
c-plane wafers due to the presence of a three-layer staggered quantum well structure, well
c-plane wafers due to the presence of a three-layer staggered quantum
structure, which improves
which improves conversion conversion
efficiency atefficiency at higher
higher injection injection
currents [13].currents [13]. the
Furthermore, Further-
more,
power thedensity
powerofdensity
the 50 µm × 6 50
of the μm array
µ-LED × 6 μ-LED
in this array
work is inalso
thisgreater
work than
is also
thatgreater
of the than
commercial
that µ-LED array.
of the commercial μ-LED array.

Figure
Figure1. Measured
1. Measured (a)(a)
voltage
voltage and
and(b)(b)
external
externalquantum
quantumefficiency
efficiency andand power
power density of the
density of the com-
mercial greengreen
commercial μ-LEDs withwith
µ-LEDs regular quantum
regular quantumwells
wells as aa function
functionofof current
current density,
density, the is
the inset inset
the is the
optical microscopic
optical microscopicview
viewofof the
the commercial μ-LED,
commercial µ-LED, where
where thethe scale
scale is 100
is 100 µm. μm. Measured
Measured (c) voltage
(c) voltage
andand
(d)(d)
external
externalquantum
quantum efficiency
efficiency andandpower
power density
density of μ-LEDs
of µ-LEDs withwith staggered
staggered quantum quantum
wells aswells
a as
a function
function ofof current density,
current density, thethe inset
inset is the
is the optical
optical microscopic
microscopic view ofview
the of the μ-LED
µ-LED in this work.
in this work.
Crystals 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 12
Crystals 2023, 13, 572 4 of 12

Figure 2 summarizes the optical performance of the 50 μm × 6 μ-LED array and a

commercialFigure1702 summarizes
μm × 107 μmthe ×optical
3 μ-LEDperformance of the2a,c
array. Figure 50 µmshow× 6the
µ-LED array and a
electroluminescence
commercial 170 µm × 107 µm × 3 µ-LED array. Figure 2a,c show the 2electroluminescence
(EL) emission spectra for increasing injected current from 5 A/cm to 200 A/cm2, showing
(EL) emission spectra for increasing injected current from 5 A/cm2 to 200 A/cm2 , showing
thethe
emission
emissionpeakpeak wavelength changing
wavelength changing from
from 527 527 nm
nm to to 508.6
508.6 nm and nm andnm
508.8 508.8 nmnm
to 498.3 to 498.3
nmforforthethe commercial μ-LED and this work, respectively, in the green spectral
commercial µ-LED and this work, respectively, in the green spectral region. More- region.
Moreover,
over, the the
peakpeak wavelength
wavelength shift isshift
18.4 is
nm 18.4
andnm10.5and
nm 10.5 nm
for the for the commercial
commercial and this
and this work,
work,
respectively, as shown in Figure 2b,d. Both the wavelength shift and FWHM of this workof this
respectively, as shown in Figure 2b,d. Both the wavelength shift and FWHM
show
work show better performance
better than the
performance thancommercial µ-LED due
the commercial μ-LEDto the
duebandgap engineering
to the bandgap of
engineer-
the staggered quantum well structure.
ing of the staggered quantum well structure.

Figure 2. 2.
Figure Measured
Measured(a)
(a)emission spectraand
emission spectra and(b)
(b)wavelength
wavelength shifts
shifts andand FWHMs
FWHMs of theofcommercial
the commercial
green
green µ-LEDs with regular quantum wells. Measured (c) emission spectra and (d) wavelength shifts shifts
μ-LEDs with regular quantum wells. Measured (c) emission spectra and (d) wavelength
andand
FWHMs
FWHMs ofofμ-LEDs
µ-LEDswith
with staggered quantum
staggered quantum wells.
wells.

Figure
Figure 3 3summarizes
summarizes the
the temperature-dependent
temperature-dependent wavelength
wavelengthas aas
function of current
a function of current
density. Under the same current density, the wavelengths of both µ-LEDs
density. Under the same current density, the wavelengths of both μ-LEDs exhibit exhibit a red shift a red
as the temperature increases. At 200 A/cm 2 , the redshift is 4.18 nm and 3.52 nm from 313 K
shift as the temperature increases. At 200 A/cm , the redshift is 4.18 nm and 3.52 nm from
2
to 373 K for the commercial µ-LED and the µ-LED from this work, respectively. The red
313 K to 373 K for the commercial μ-LED and the μ-LED from this work, respectively. The
shift in the wavelength is primarily caused by bandgap shrinkage due to heating [21,22].
redFurthermore,
shift in thethewavelength is primarily caused by bandgap shrinkage due to heating
difference in redshift may be attributed to the thermal resistance of the
[21,22].
µ-LEDs,Furthermore, the difference
which is caused in in
by variations redshift may be
the epitaxial attributed
structure to the thermal resistance
and packaging.
of the μ-LEDs, which is caused by variations in the epitaxial structure and packaging.
 Crystals
Crystals 2023,
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2023, 13,
2023,
13, x 572
13,
x FOR FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 5 of 12
5 of 12

Figure 3. Measured temperature-dependent wavelength as a function of current density.

Figure
Figure 3. Measured
3. Measured temperature-dependent
temperature-dependent wavelengthwavelength
as a function as a function
of current of
density. current density.
To further investigate the effect of self-heating in μ-LEDs more thoroughly, the opti-
cal performance of both commercial
To further investigate the effect ofμ-LEDs andinμ-LEDs
self-heating µ-LEDs from this study the
more thoroughly, wasoptical
measured
under To further
different
performance ofduty
investigate
bothcycles
the μ-LEDs
(DC).µ-LEDs
commercial The effect ofwere
and µ-LEDs
self-heating
driven
from this
in
bystudyμ-LEDs
a pulse
wascurrent
more
measured
thoroughly,
source
under(LDP-
3811)cal performance
with
different a pulse
duty cycles of both
width
(DC). 100commercial
ofThe μs at duty
µ-LEDs μ-LEDs
cycles
were driven and
of a5%
by μ-LEDs
and
pulse 50%. The
current from this study
emitted
source was m
light was
(LDP-3811)
then under
with different
a pulse
collected width
by duty
of 100 cycles (DC).
µs atenergy
a photodiode duty Theofμ-LEDs
cycles
meter 5% and 50%.
(PD10-C). were
The driven
The emitted
results by
area pulse
light wascurrent
illustratedthen sour
in Fig-
collected by
with a photodiode
a pulse energy
width ofmeter
100 (PD10-C).
μs at duty The results
cycles are
of 5%illustrated
ure 4. Under pulse mode operation at the same current density, the results reveal that both l
3811) and 50%.in Figure
The 4.
emitted
theUnder
then pulse
commercial mode operation at the same current density, the results reveal that both
collected by aand
μ-LEDs photodiode
the μ-LEDs energy meter
from this work(PD10-C). The results
exhibit superior energyare density
illustrate
the commercial µ-LEDs and the µ-LEDs from this work exhibit superior energy density
at a ure
duty4. cycle
Under of pulse
5% compared to a duty cycle
mode operation of 50%, due to more effective thermal
at a duty cycle of 5% compared to a duty at theof
cycle same
50%,current density,
due to more the thermal
effective results reveal
management,
management, reduced
the commercial reduced thermal
μ-LEDs
thermal and stress,
stress,the resulting
μ-LEDs
resulting in improved
from this
in improved efficiency,
work exhibit
efficiency, higher peak higher
superior peak
power, energy
power, and decreased device degradation [20,23,24]. This emphasizes
at a duty cycle of 5% compared to a duty cycle of 50%, due to more effective
and decreased device degradation [20,23,24]. This emphasizes the importance the ofimportance
carefully of
carefully selecting
selecting the
the appropriate
management, appropriate
reducedduty cycle
thermalduty cycle
for pulse for pulse
moderesulting
stress, mode
operation to operation
inmaximize
improved to
energy maximize
density
efficiency, en-
high
ergy
anddensity
minimizeandself-heating,
minimize self-heating, ultimately
ultimately enhancing enhancing the
the performance andperformance
longevity of LED and lon-
power,
devices
andvarious
across
decreased device degradation [20,23,24]. This emphasizes the impo
applications.
gevity of LED devices across various applications.
carefully selecting the appropriate duty cycle for pulse mode operation to maxi
ergy density and minimize self-heating, ultimately enhancing the performance
gevity of LED devices across various applications.

Figure 4. Measures
Figure 4. Measuresoptical
opticalenergy
energy density atdifferent
density at differentduty
duty cycles
cycles (DC)
(DC) forcommercial
for (a) (a) commercial μ-LEDs
µ-LEDs
andand
(b)(b)
μ-LED from this work.
µ-LED from this work.

3. Simulated Method and Structure Definition

In this 4.
Figure study, systematic
Measures opticalnumerical studies
energy density at have beenduty
different performed by using
cycles (DC) for (a)the com-
commerci
mercial semiconductor
and (b) device
μ-LED from this work.simulation tool Crosslight. The settings of perfectly
matched layers (PML) at the lateral and bottom surfaces of the μ-RCLED were the critical
boundary conditions. A monitor for the far-field calculation was also set on top of the LED.
Crystals 2023, 13, 572 6 of 12

3. Simulated Method and Structure Definition

In this study, systematic numerical studies have been performed by using the com-
mercial
Crystals 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW semiconductor device simulation tool Crosslight. The settings of perfectly matched 6 of 12
layers (PML) at the lateral and bottom surfaces of the µ-RCLED were the critical boundary
conditions. A monitor for the far-field calculation was also set on top of the LED. The
three-dimensional (3D) schematic diagram of the proposed µ-RCLED is shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5. The epitaxial structure is composed of an undoped GaN layer, 11.5 pairs of
The epitaxial structure is composed of an undoped GaN layer, 11.5 pairs of GaN/NP-n-GaN
GaN/NP-n-GaN DBRs, an n-GaN layer, three pairs of InGaN/GaN MQWs as the active
DBRs, an n-GaN layer, three pairs of InGaN/GaN MQWs as the active region, a 100 nm
region, a 100 nm p-GaN layer, a 100 nm indium tin oxide (ITO) thin film as a current-
p-GaN layer, a 100 nm indium tin oxide (ITO) thin film as a current-spreading layer, and
spreading layer, and 6.5 pairs of Ta2O5/SiO2 DBRs. To mitigate the QCSE, the staggered
6.5 pairs of Ta2 O5 /SiO2 DBRs. To mitigate the QCSE, the staggered MQW structure was
MQW
applied structure was applied
in our design. in our design.
The symmetric The symmetric
staggered InGaN MQWs staggered InGaN MQWs
are established are
by three
established by three layers of In 0.155Ga0.845N (0.7 nm)/In0.335Ga0.665N (2.1 nm)/In0.155Ga0.845N
layers of In0.155 Ga0.845 N (0.7 nm)/In0.335 Ga0.665 N (2.1 nm)/In0.155 Ga0.845 N (0.7 nm) and
(0.7
the nm)
GaNand the GaN
barrier is 13 barrier
nm. Iniscomparison,
13 nm. In comparison,
the regularthe MQWsregularareMQWs
composedare composed
of 3.5 nm
of 3.5 nm In 0.27Ga0.73N QWs and a 13 nm GaN barrier. Both types of InGaN quantum wells
In0.27 Ga0.73 N QWs and a 13 nm GaN barrier. Both types of InGaN quantum wells have
have an emission
an emission wavelength
wavelength of 525of nm.
525 nm. Moreover,
Moreover, the strain-relaxation
the strain-relaxation of the
of the active
active re-
region
gion is accomplished
is accomplished by means
by means of theof epitaxial
the epitaxial NP n-GaN
NP n-GaN DBRDBR [12].[12]. To eliminate
To eliminate the the ran-
random
dom nature of the pores distributed in NP-GaN DBR, which raises
nature of the pores distributed in NP-GaN DBR, which raises questions regarding the questions regarding
the reliability
reliability of theof simulation,
the simulation, in work,
in this this work, we aimed
we aimed to achieveto achieve
resultsresults
that arethat are inde-
independent
pendent
of the simulation region size. Therefore, we set the NP-DBR as a bulk material withmaterial
of the simulation region size. Therefore, we set the NP-DBR as a bulk a given
with a given
refractive refractive
index, index, thusthe
thus eliminating eliminating
influence the influence
of the simulation of the simulation
region size. Theregion size.
refractive
The
indexrefractive index ofDBR
of the NP-GaN the NP-GaN
was estimated DBR was estimated
using the followingusing Equation
the following Equation (1)
(1) [25–27]:
[25–27]:  
n −GaN
Porosity(%) = 1− nNP  (1)
Porosity(%) = 1 − NP − GaN
nGaN  (1)
 nGaN 

Figure
Figure 5.
5. 3D
3D schematic
schematic of
of the
the InGaN-based
InGaN-based green
green μ-RCLED
µ-RCLED with
with regular
regular or
or staggered
staggered MQWs.
MQWs. The
The
mesa diameter and the total height of the μ-RCLEDs are 50 μm and 1 μm, respectively.
mesa diameter and the total height of the µ-RCLEDs are 50 µm and 1 µm, respectively.

A
A potential
potential fabrication
fabrication process
process for
for the
the μ-RCLED
µ-RCLED is is as
as follows:
follows: TheThenanoporous
nanoporousn- n-
GaN layer can be created through the following chemical etching process,
GaN layer can be created through the following chemical etching process, which involved which involved
making
making indium
indium contacts
contacts onon the
the n-GaN
n-GaN layer,
layer, immersing
immersing thethe n-GaN
n-GaN and and platinum
platinum targets
targets
into
into a nitride acid solution, applying a forward voltage, and then rinsing the
a nitride acid solution, applying a forward voltage, and then rinsing the finished
finished
product
product in indeionized
deionizedwater
waterfollowed
followedbybyblowing
blowing with N2Nto2 dry.
with An An
to dry. ITOITOlayer can can
layer be de-be
posited on on
deposited thethe
p-GaNp-GaNsurface using
surface RF sputtering
using or electron
RF sputtering beam
or electron evaporation,
beam and and
evaporation, the
fabrication of Taof
the fabrication 2OTa5/SiO multilayers
2 O52/SiO can becan
2 multilayers prepared by plasma-enhanced
be prepared by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor
chemical
deposition (PECVD).
vapor deposition In addition,
(PECVD). μ-LEDs
In addition, withwith
µ-LEDs an an
arbitrary
arbitrarydiameter
diametercancanbebedefined
defined
through
through aa photolithography
photolithography process.
process. The
Themesa
mesadepth
depthof of11μmµm can
can be
be etched
etched byby using
using aa
HCl
HCl solution
solution for ITO and ICP-RIE
ICP-RIE for
for GaN.
GaN.A ATi/Al/Ni/Au
Ti/Al/Ni/Au layer
layercancanbebedeposited
depositedas as the
the
electrodes, and a 5 nm-thick aluminum oxide (Al2O3) passivation layer can be grown on
the full wafer to reduce sidewall defects generated by mesa etching. Then, a 200 nm SiO2
layer can be deposited to cover the Al2O3 layer. Finally, the metal contacts can be con-
nected to the p-metal and n-type contact layer to complete the manufacture of the μ-
 Crystals 2023, 13, 572 7 of 12

Crystals 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 12

electrodes, and a 5 nm-thick aluminum oxide (Al2 O3 ) passivation layer can be grown on the
full wafer to reduce sidewall defects generated by mesa etching. Then, a 200 nm SiO2 layer
4. Result and Discussion
can be deposited to cover the Al2 O3 layer. Finally, the metal contacts can be connected to
4.1. Wavefunction Overlapcontact
the p-metal and n-type layer
and Peak to complete
Wavelength the manufacture of the µ-RCLED device.
Shift
An enhancement
4. Result of the internal quantum efficiency (IQE) can be achieved by increas-
and Discussion
ing4.1.
theWavefunction
radiative recombination
Overlap and Peakrate. The recombination
Wavelength Shift rate Wspontaneous can be expressed
2
  e -hh
2
An enhancement
as follows: Wspontaneous ~of uthe internal
c uv
quantum efficiencyu (IQE)
[28], where andcanube achieved by increas-
are the Bloch envelope
c v
ing the radiative recombination rate. The recombination rate Wspontaneous can be expressed
functions for the conduction and valence
2 bands,
2 respectively, and e-hh is the electron
as follows: Wspontaneous ∼ |huc |uv i| · |Γe-hh | [28], where |uc i and |uv i are the Bloch enve-
and hole
lope wavefunction
functions overlap integral.
for the conduction Thebands,
and valence energy band diagrams
respectively, and
and |Γe-hh | isthe
thewavefunction
electron
overlaps
and hole ofwavefunction
the regular and staggered
overlap integral.quantum
The energy wells
band atdiagrams
the inputandcurrent equal to 300 mA
the wavefunction
areoverlaps
shown ofinthe regular
Figure 6. and staggered
In Figure 6a,quantum wellsInGaN
the regular at the input currentwell
quantum equaldisplays
to 300 mA a large
are shown in Figure 6. In Figure 6a, the regular InGaN quantum well displays
spatial separation between electron and hole wavefunction due to an internal electric field, a large spatial
separation
with between electron
the electron-hole and hole overlap
wavefunction wavefunction
Γe-hh =due to an
8.8%. Ininternal
Figure electric field, with stag-
6b, a three-layer
the electron-hole wavefunction overlap Γe-hh = 8.8%. In Figure 6b, a three-layer staggered
gered InGaN quantum well is shown, where a higher indium content sublayer in the cen-
InGaN quantum well is shown, where a higher indium content sublayer in the center,
ter,sandwiched
sandwiched between two sublayers with lower indium content, draws both electron
between two sublayers with lower indium content, draws both electron and
and hole wavefunctions
hole wavefunctions to the to center,
the center, resulting
resulting in the in the significantly
significantly improvedimproved
wavefunctionwavefunc-
tion overlap
overlap Γe-hh
Γe-hh = 18.1%.
= 18.1%. By optimizing
By optimizing the indium
the indium contents contents and thicknesses
and thicknesses of the sub-
of the sublayers
layers
in the in staggered
the staggered
InGaN InGaN quantum
quantum well,
well, the the electron-hole
electron-hole wavefunction
wavefunction overlap can overlap
be can
increased by more than two times, compared to the regular InGaN
be increased by more than two times, compared to the regular InGaN quantum well. quantum well.

Figure 6. Energy band diagrams and wavefunctions of (a) regular and (b) staggered quantum wells
Figure 6. Energy band diagrams and wavefunctions of (a) regular and (b) staggered quantum wells
with the input current equal to 300 mA. The zoom-in images of electron and hole wavefunctions for
with the input current equal to 300 mA. The zoom-in images of electron and hole wavefunctions for
both kinds of quantum wells are plotted in the insets. Here Γe-hh represents the integral overlap of
both kinds of quantum wells are plotted in the insets. Here Γe-hh represents the integral overlap of
electron and hole wavefunctions.
electron and hole wavefunctions.

Figure
Figure7 7summarizes
summarizes the optical
opticalperformance
performance of of
thethe regular
regular andand staggered
staggered quantum
quantum
wells.
wells. Figure7a,b
Figure 7a,bshow
show the
the electroluminescence
electroluminescence spectra
spectraof ordinary µ-LEDs
of ordinary μ-LEDs with with
regular
regular
MQWs. When the input current increases from 30 mA to 300 mA,
MQWs. When the input current increases from 30 mA to 300 mA, the peak wavelength the peak wavelength
changes
changes from525.50
from 525.50nmnm to
to 515.25
515.25nm,
nm,corresponding
corresponding to atoblue-shift of 10.25
a blue-shift nm, and
of 10.25 nm,the
and the
FWHM increases from 32 nm to 39 nm. In contrast, Figure 7c,d show the electrolumines-
FWHM increases from 32 nm to 39 nm. In contrast, Figure 7c,d show the electrolumines-
cence spectra of µ-LEDs with staggered MQWs. When the input current increases from
cence
30 mAspectra
to 300ofmA,
μ-LEDs withwavelength
the peak staggered has
MQWs. When small
a relatively the input current
blue-shift fromincreases
527.25 nmfrom 30
mA to to 300 nm
525.00 mA,andthethe
peak
FWHM wavelength
increaseshas
froma 29.5
relatively small
nm to 34.5 nm.blue-shift from 527.25
Here the broad FWHMnm to
525.00 nm and the FWHM increases from 29.5 nm to 34.5 nm. Here the
of 34.5 nm is problematic for color purity, as high color purity is accompanied by narrow broad FWHM of
34.5 nm is problematic for color purity, as high color purity is accompanied by narrow
FWHM. Both the commercial and staggered quantum well μ-LEDs show better perfor-
mance than the ones demonstrated in Section 3 due to the presence of the NP DBR as the
strain-released layer, which mitigates the effect of the QCSE.
Crystals 2023, 13, 572 8 of 12

FWHM. Both the commercial and staggered quantum well µ-LEDs show better perfor-
Crystals 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 12
mance than the ones demonstrated in Section 3 due to the presence of the NP DBR as the
strain-released layer, which mitigates the effect of the QCSE.

Figure 7.
7. (a,b) Electroluminescence spectra, peak wavelength
wavelength shifts, and FWHMs of the µ-LEDs
μ-LEDs
with regular MQWs. (c,d) Electroluminescence spectra, peak wavelength shifts, and FWHMs
with regular MQWs. (c,d) Electroluminescence spectra, peak wavelength shifts, and FWHMs of of the
the
μ-LEDs with staggered MQWs.
µ-LEDs with staggered MQWs.

4.2. Reflectivity Spectrum and FWHM

To resolve the
To resolve theissue
issueofofbroadbroad FWHM
FWHM at high
at high inputinput current,
current, a Fabry–Pérot
a Fabry–Pérot cavitycavity
com-
comprising
prising a GaN a GaN
layer,layer, an NP-n-GaN
an NP-n-GaN DBR,DBR, and different
and different pairs pairs
of Ta2of Ta2 O2 5DBRs
O5/SiO /SiO2isDBRs added. is
added. The 11.5 pairs of NP-n-GaN DBRs were successfully
The 11.5 pairs of NP-n-GaN DBRs were successfully fabricated and the optical reflectivityfabricated and the optical
reflectivity
was measured was in
measured
our previous in ourwork
previous[8]. work
Based[8].on Based on our previous
our previous experimentalexperimental
result, a
result,
porosity a porosity
of 35.7%ofin35.7% in the NP-n-GaN
the NP-n-GaN layer islayer is assumed,
assumed, and theandresulting
the resulting reflectivity
reflectivity at
at 525
525
nm isnm is 96.7%.
96.7%. In addition,
In addition, the reflectivity
the reflectivity spectra
spectra withwith different
different numbers
numbers of Ta of2OTa 2 O5 /SiO
5/SiO 2 DBR 2
DBR
pairs pairs are shown
are shown in Figure
in Figure 8a, and
8a, and the maximum
the maximum reflectivity
reflectivity at 525 at 525
nm nm is 97.9%
is 97.9% withwith6.5
6.5
Ta2O Ta5/SiO
2 O5 /SiO
2 DBR 2 DBR
pairs.pairs.
As we Asknow
we know thatFWHM
that the the FWHM of anofAiry
an Airy distribution
distribution in the in fre-
the
frequency domain for a simple Fabry–Pérot cavity consisting of
quency domain for a simple Fabry–Pérot cavity consisting of two opposite planar mirrors two opposite planar mirrors
· n · π · L)(1-R 1/2 [29], where c,
can
can bebe expressed
expressed as as follows:
follows: FWHM FWHM == (c/2 (c/2∙n∙π∙L)(1-R 1 · 1R
1∙R2)(R ∙R22)(R · R2 )where
)1/21[29], c, L, n, R1,
L,
andn, RR21,represent
and R2 represent
the speedthe speed
of light inof light incavity
vacuum, vacuum, cavity
length, thelength, the reflectivity
reflectivity of cavity ma- of
cavity material, and optical reflectivities for the top and bottom mirrors,
terial, and optical reflectivities for the top and bottom mirrors, respectively. Based on the respectively. Based
on the equation,
above above equation,
if R1 and if R and R2 approach
R12 approach unity, 1-Runity, 1-R1 ·R2 approaches
1∙R2 approaches zero andzero thusandthethus
FWHM the
FWHM approaches zero. Here the simulated FWHMs for different
approaches zero. Here the simulated FWHMs for different numbers of Ta2O5/SiO2 DBR2 numbers of Ta 2 O 5 /SiO
DBR
pairs pairs are shown
are shown in Figure
in Figure 8b, demonstrating
8b, demonstrating that that the FWHM
the FWHM indeed indeed decreases
decreases as the
as the re-
reflectivity increases. The FWHMs for 5.5 and 6.5 pairs of DBRs
flectivity increases. The FWHMs for 5.5 and 6.5 pairs of DBRs are 0.315 nm and 0.294 nm, are 0.315 nm and 0.294 nm,
respectively.
respectively. When Whenthe thenumber
numberofofDBR DBR pairs
pairs is larger
is larger thanthan
6.5,6.5,the the
FWHMFWHM gradually
gradually sat-
saturates. Moreover, since the output power of the µ-RCLED will reach its maximum when
urates. Moreover, since the output power of the μ-RCLED will reach its maximum when
the reflectivity of the top Ta2 O5 /SiO2 DBR is closest to that of the bottom NP DBR [18], the
the reflectivity of the top Ta2O5/SiO2 DBR is closest to that of the bottom NP DBR [18], the
6.5 pairs of Ta2 O5 /SiO2 DBRs represent the best design in this work.
6.5 pairs of Ta2O5/SiO2 DBRs represent the best design in this work.
Crystals
Crystals2023, 13,13,
2023, 572x FOR PEER REVIEW 99 ofof1212

Figure8.8. (a)
(a) Reflectivity
Reflectivity spectra
spectra of
ofthe
thetop
topreflective mirror
reflective with
mirror different
with pairs
different of Ta
pairs of2OTa5/SiO 2 DBRs.
Figure 2 O5 /SiO2
The optical reflectivity of 11.5 pairs of GaN/NP-n-GaN DBR was plotted by the
DBRs. The optical reflectivity of 11.5 pairs of GaN/NP-n-GaN DBR was plotted by the black line. black line. (b)
FWHMs with different numbers of Ta2O5/SiO2 DBR pairs.
(b) FWHMs with different numbers of Ta2 O5 /SiO2 DBR pairs.

4.3.Emission
4.3. EmissionSpectrum
Spectrumofofµ-RCLED
µ-RCLED
Basedon
Based onthethe discussion above, above,the thedesign
designofof staggered
staggered MQWs
MQWs cancan substantially
substantially alle-
viate the
alleviate theblue-shift
blue-shiftissue
issueinduced
inducedby bythe
theQCSE.
QCSE. Additionally,
Additionally, by by applying
applyingaahigh-quality
high-quality
resonantcavity,
resonant cavity,the theFWHM
FWHMcan canalso
alsobebereduced.
reduced.The TheRCLED
RCLEDisissimilar
similartotoa aFabry–Pérot
Fabry–Pérot
cavity,and
cavity, andthe thelongitudinal
longitudinalmode modespacing
spacingcan canbe expressedasas∆λ
beexpressed Δλ≡≡ λλ22/(2n
/(2nggLLeffeff
),),where
whereng
ng(n(n
g= g 2.6 in the
= 2.6 in thecalculation
calculation for for
thethetarget wavelength
target wavelength of 525 nm)nm)
of 525 and and
Leff are
Leffthearegroup
the groupindex
index
and and effective
effective cavitycavity length,
length, respectively.
respectively. Basedononthis
Based this definition,
definition, the mode modespacing spacing
shrinks
shrinkswith withthe thecavity
cavitylength.
length.IfIfthe thelongitudinal
longitudinalmode modespacing
spacingisisset
settotobe be2020nm, nm,thenthen
the effective cavity length of the RCLED should be approximately
the effective cavity length of the RCLED should be approximately 2.65 μm, indicating that 2.65 µm, indicating that
Leff
Leff==5λ 5λforforachieving
achievingaagreen greenRCLED
RCLEDwith withhigh-quality-factor
high-quality-factorand andstable
stablesingle-mode
single-mode
emission.
emission.Meanwhile,
Meanwhile, the total
the resonant
total resonant modemodelossloss
of aof
Fabry–Pérot
a Fabry–Pérotcavity can be
cavity can calculated
be calcu-
by the by
lated following equation:
the following αi + αmαi=+2α·nmg=·π/(λ
equation: ·Q) and and
2∙ng∙π/(λ∙Q) αm =α− m 1/(2 ·Leff )ln(R
= −1/(2∙L eff)ln(R1 ·1R 2 )2)[30,31].
∙R [30,31].
Here
Hereαiα, i,αm andQQare
αm, ,and arethe
theinternal
internal(material)
(material)loss,loss,mirror
mirrorloss,
loss,and
andcavity
cavityquality
qualityfactor,
factor,
respectively. Consequently, the Q factor is inversely dependent
respectively. Consequently, the Q factor is inversely dependent on the effective cavity on the effective cavity
length
lengthand and thetheproduct
product of Rof1 andR1 R 2 . The
and R2.current-dependent
The current-dependent emission spectra of
emission the InGaN-
spectra of the
based
InGaN-based green μ-RCLEDs with the regular and staggered MQWs are shown in9a,b.
green µ-RCLEDs with the regular and staggered MQWs are shown in Figure Fig-
The
ureelectroluminescence spectra for the
9a,b. The electroluminescence green for
spectra µ-RCLEDs
the greenwith both kindswith
μ-RCLEDs of InGaN
both kinds MQWsof
possess
InGaN generic
MQWs Airy-distribution-like peaks. Regardless
possess generic Airy-distribution-like of the
peaks. InGaN quantum
Regardless of the InGaN well
structure, the central peak wavelength is located at 525 nm. In addition,
quantum well structure, the central peak wavelength is located at 525 nm. In addition, as as the input current
increases
the inputfrom current30 mA to 300from
increases mA, 30 themA emission
to 300 wavelength
mA, the emissionremains almost unchanged,
wavelength remains al-
and
most unchanged, and the adjacent second-highest peak at a wavelengthmore
the adjacent second-highest peak at a wavelength of 505 nm becomes of 505 obvious.
nm be-
The wavelength difference is due to the longitudinal mode spacing.
comes more obvious. The wavelength difference is due to the longitudinal mode spacing. The output power of
the µ-RCLEDs with regular and staggered MQWs with different
The output power of the μ-RCLEDs with regular and staggered MQWs with different in- input currents is shown
input
Figure 9c. The
currents outputinpower
is shown Figureof9c. theThe
green power with
µ-RCLED
output of thestaggered MQWs increases
green μ-RCLED with stag-
steadily as the current increases, due to the greater wavelength stability. In contrast, the
gered MQWs increases steadily as the current increases, due to the greater wavelength
output power of the µ-RCLED drops as the input current exceeds 240 mA.
stability. In contrast, the output power of the μ-RCLED drops as the input current exceeds
240Divergence
4.4. mA. Angle of µ-RCLED with Staggered MQWs
We have also investigated the far-field emission patterns of the µ-RCLED with stag-
gered MQWs for increasing numbers of Ta2 O5 /SiO2 DBR pairs from 2.5 to 6.5, as shown
in Figure 10. The calculated radiation profiles for different pairs of Ta2 O5 /SiO2 DBRs are
all narrower than the Lambertian-like distribution of conventional LEDs, as plotted by the
blue line in Figure 10a. The calculated divergence angle decreases from 71.5◦ to 56.4◦ as
the number of Ta2 O5 /SiO2 DBR pairs increases from 2.5 to 6.5, as shown in Figure 10b.
Crystals 2023, 13, 572 10 of 12

Crystals 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEWangular color shifts within ±30◦ are achieved to improve the light extraction efficiency
The 10 of 12
when the number of DBR pairs is equal to or larger than 5.5.

Figure 9. Electroluminescence spectra of the green μ-RCLEDs with (a) regular and (b) staggered
MQWs. (c) Output power as a function of the input current for the two μ-RCLEDs.

4.4. Divergence Angle of µ-RCLED with Staggered MQWs

We have also investigated the far-field emission patterns of the μ-RCLED with stag-
gered MQWs for increasing numbers of Ta2O5/SiO2 DBR pairs from 2.5 to 6.5, as shown in
Figure 10. The calculated radiation profiles for different pairs of Ta 2O5/SiO2 DBRs are all
narrower than the Lambertian-like distribution of conventional LEDs, as plotted by the
blue line in Figure 10a. The calculated divergence angle decreases from 71.5° to 56.4° as
the number
Figure of Ta2O5/SiO2 DBR
9. Electroluminescence pairs
spectra of increases
the green from 2.5 towith
μ-RCLEDs 6.5, as
(a)shown
regularin Figure
and 10b. The
(b) staggered
Figure
angular9. Electroluminescence
color shifts within spectra
±30° of achieved
are the green µ-RCLEDs
to improve with
the (a) regular
light and (b) efficiency
extraction staggered
MQWs. (c) Output power as a function of the input current for the two μ-RCLEDs.
MQWs.
when the(c) Output
numberpower as apairs
of DBR function of theto
is equal input currentthan
or larger for the
5.5.two µ-RCLEDs.
4.4. Divergence Angle of µ-RCLED with Staggered MQWs
We have also investigated the far-field emission patterns of the μ-RCLED with stag-
gered MQWs for increasing numbers of Ta2O5/SiO2 DBR pairs from 2.5 to 6.5, as shown in
Figure 10. The calculated radiation profiles for different pairs of Ta 2O5/SiO2 DBRs are all
narrower than the Lambertian-like distribution of conventional LEDs, as plotted by the
blue line in Figure 10a. The calculated divergence angle decreases from 71.5° to 56.4° as
the number of Ta2O5/SiO2 DBR pairs increases from 2.5 to 6.5, as shown in Figure 10b. The
angular color shifts within ±30° are achieved to improve the light extraction efficiency
when the number of DBR pairs is equal to or larger than 5.5.

Figure10.
Figure 10.(a)
(a)Far-field
Far-fieldemission
emissionpatterns
patternsof
ofthe
thegreen
greenµ-RCLEDs
μ-RCLEDswith
withstaggered
staggeredMQWs
MQWsoperating
operating
at 300 mA for different pairs of Ta2O5/SiO2 DBRs. The blue line indicates the emission pattern of
at 300 mA for different pairs of Ta2 O5 /SiO2 DBRs. The blue line indicates the emission pattern of
conventional LEDs. (b) Far-field divergence angle as a function of pairs of DBRs.
conventional LEDs. (b) Far-field divergence angle as a function of pairs of DBRs.

5.5. Conclusions
Conclusions
Wehave
We haveexperimentally
experimentally demonstrated
demonstrated aa green green InGaN-based
InGaN-based c-planec-plane µ-LED
μ-LED with
with aa
three-layerstaggered
three-layer staggeredquantum
quantum well
well structure
structure andand compared
compared its optical
its optical and electrical
and electrical prop-
properties
erties to those
to those of a commercial
of a commercial µ-LED.μ-LED.
We then We then numerically
numerically investigatedinvestigated the optoe-
the optoelectronic
lectronic characteristics
characteristics of an InGaN-based
of an InGaN-based green μ-RCLED
green µ-RCLED consistingconsisting
of 11.5 pairsof 11.5 pairs of na-
of nanoporous
noporous
n-GaN DBRsn-GaN DBRs of
with 35.7% with 35.7%atofthe
air-void air-void
bottomatandthe6.5
bottom
pairs and
of Ta6.5O pairs
/SiO
2 5 MQWs 2 Ta
of
DBRs 2Oat
5/SiO
the2
Figure 10. (a) Far-field emission patterns of the green μ-RCLEDs with staggered operating
top.
DBRs Theat InGaN
the top. MQW
The structure
InGaN MQW emitting
structureat a wavelength
emitting at a of 525
wavelength nm serves
of 525
at 300 mA for different pairs of Ta2O5/SiO2 DBRs. The blue line indicates the emission pattern of as
nm the active
serves as
region. A three-layer
the active region.
conventional LEDs. (b) symmetric
A Far-field
three-layer staggered
symmetric
divergence MQW
anglestaggered structure
MQW
as a function is adopted
structure
of pairs in our design
of DBRs.is adopted in our to
deal
designwithto the
dealissue
withofthe
wavelength instability. instability.
issue of wavelength Meanwhile,Meanwhile,
the dependence of the number
the dependence of
of the
Ta
5. 2 O5 /SiO
number DBR
of2Ta
Conclusions pairs2 DBR
2O5/SiO on the FWHM,
pairs on the optical
FWHM, power output,
optical andoutput,
power far-field divergence
and angle
far-field diver-
isgence
also studied. is By
alsooptimizing the optimizing
indium content and thickness
contentof the sublayers in
of the
Weangle studied.demonstrated
have experimentally By the indium
a green InGaN-based and
c-plane thickness
μ-LED with the
a
staggered InGaN MQWs, the electron-hole wavefunction overlap can be increased by more
three-layer staggered quantum well structure and compared its optical and electrical
than two times, compared to the regular MQWs. The numerical results indicate that the
properties to those of a commercial μ-LED. We then numerically investigated the optoe-
wavefunction overlaps are 8.8% and 18.1% for the regular and staggered MQWs, respec-
lectronic characteristics of an InGaN-based green μ-RCLED consisting of 11.5 pairs of na-
tively. Furthermore, the blue-shift of electroluminescence, as the input current increases
noporous n-GaN DBRs with 35.7% of air-void at the bottom and 6.5 pairs of Ta2O5/SiO2
from 30 mA to 300 mA, is reduced from 10.25 nm for the regular MQWs to 2.25 nm for the
DBRs at the top. The InGaN MQW structure emitting at a wavelength of 525 nm serves as
staggered MQWs. When 6.5 pairs of Ta2 O5 /SiO2 DBRs are applied on top, the FWHM can
the active region. A three-layer symmetric staggered MQW structure is adopted in our
design to deal with the issue of wavelength instability. Meanwhile, the dependence of the
number of Ta2O5/SiO2 DBR pairs on the FWHM, optical power output, and far-field diver-
gence angle is also studied. By optimizing the indium content and thickness of the
Crystals 2023, 13, 572 11 of 12

be reduced from 35–40 nm obtained with the ordinary µ-LED to about 0.3 nm obtained with
the µ-RCLED. Due to the narrow FWHM and the small blue-shift of electroluminescence,
the µ-RCLED with staggered MQWs can maintain high output power even at high input
currents. In contrast, the output power with regular MQWs drops when the input current
exceeds 240 mA. The far field divergence angle drops from 71.5◦ to 56.4◦ as the number of
Ta2 O5 /SiO2 DBR pairs increases from 2.5 to 6.5. In summary, our simulation results demon-
strate that the proposed designs for green µ-RCLEDs to achieve high wavelength stability
and narrow FWHM may pave the way for developing next-generation light sources.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.-C.K.; methodology, K.-B.H. and W.-T.H.; software,

W.-T.H. and Y.-H.B.; validation, K.-B.H., W.-T.H. and Y.-H.B.; investigation, K.-B.H., Y.-H.P., W.-T.H.
and H.-C.K.; writing—original draft preparation, K.-B.H., C.-C.T., T.-H.H. and W.-T.H.; writing—
review and editing, K.-B.H., C.-C.T., T.-H.H., T.-Y.L. and W.-T.H. and H.-C.K.; supervision, C.-H.H.,
Y.L. and H.-C.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology in Taiwan (Grant Nos.
MOST 110-2622-8-A49-008-SB, 111-2124-M-A49-004-, 111-2622-E-A49-014-).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors express their gratitude to the Innolux corporation and Hon Hai
Research Institute for their technical support and helpful discussion.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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