Introduction to

Structural Analysis
and Loads
 A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support a load.
Important examples are related to civil engineering includes buildings, bridges, and
towers.

When designing a structure to serve a specified function for public use, the
engineer must account for its safety, aesthetics, and serviceability, while taking into
consideration economic and environmental constraints. Often this requires several
independent studies of different solutions before final judgment can be made as to
which structural form is most appropriate.
CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
ANALYSIS OF STATICALLY DETERMINATE STRUCTURES

EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURE
A structure is considered to be in equilibrium if, initially at rest, it remains at
rest when subjected to a system of forces and couples. If a structure is in equilibrium,
then all its members and parts are also in equilibrium.
Recall from statics that for a space (three-dimensional) structure subjected to
three- dimensional systems of forces and couples, the conditions of zero resultant
force and zero resultant couple can be expressed in a Cartesian xyz coordinate system
as,
 These six equations are called the equations of equilibrium of space structures and
are the necessary and sufficient conditions for equilibrium. The first three equations ensure
that there is no resultant force acting on the structure, and the last three equations express
the fact that there is no resultant couple acting on the structure.
For a plane structure lying in the xy plane and subjected to a coplanar system of
forces and couples, the necessary and sufficient conditions for equilibrium can be
expressed as
EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL FORCES

External Forces

External forces are the actions of other bodies on the structure under
consideration. For the purposes of analysis, it is usually convenient to further classify
these forces as applied forces and reaction forces. Applied forces, usually referred to
as loads (e.g., live loads and wind loads), have a tendency to move the structure and
are usually known in the analysis. Reaction forces, or reactions, are the forces exerted
by supports on the structure and have a tendency to prevent its motion and keep it in
equilibrium. The reactions are usually among the unknowns to be determined by the
analysis. The state of equilibrium or motion of the structure as a whole is governed
solely by the external forces acting on it.
Internal Forces

Internal forces are the forces and couples exerted on a member or por- tion
of the structure by the rest of the structure. These forces develop within the
structure and hold the various portions of it together. The internal forces always
occur in equal but opposite pairs, because each member or portion exerts back on the
rest of the structure the same forces acting upon it but in opposite directions,
according to Newton’s third law. Because the internal forces cancel each other, they
do not ap- pear in the equations of equilibrium of the entire structure. The internal
forces are also among the unknowns in the analysis and are determined by applying
the equations of equilibrium to the individual members or portions of the structure.
Support Connections.
Structural members are joined together in various ways depending on the
intent of the designer. The three types of joints most often specified are the pin
connection, the roller support, and the fixed joint. A pin-connected joint and a roller
support allow some freedom for slight rotation, whereas a fixed joint allows no
relative rotation between the connected members and is consequently more
expensive to fabricate
Determinacy of Structures

The equilibrium equations provide both the necessary and sufficient conditions
for equilibrium. When all the forces in a structure can be determined strictly from
these equations, the structure is referred to as statically determinate. Structures having
more unknown forces than available equilibrium equations are called statically
indeterminate.
For a coplanar structure there are at most three equilibrium equations for each
part, so that if there is a total of n parts and r force and moment reaction
components, we have
Classify each of the beams shown as statically determinate or statically indeterminate.
If statically indeterminate, report the number of degrees of indeterminacy.
Classify each of the pin-connected structures shown as statically determinate or
statically indeterminate. If statically indeterminate, report the number of degrees of
indeterminacy
Classify each of the frames shown as statically determinate or statically indeterminate.
If statically indeterminate, report the number of degrees of indeterminacy.
Classify each of the structures as stable or unstable. The structures are subjected to
arbitrary external loads that are assumed to be known.
Computation of Reactions
Example:
Determine the reactions on the beam shown
Example:
Determine the reactions on the beam shown
Example:
Determine the reactions on the beam shown. Assume A is a pin and the support at
B is a roller (smooth surface).
Example:
The compound beam is fixed at A. Determine the reactions at A, B, and C. Assume
that the connection at B is a pin and C is a roller.
Example:
Determine the horizontal and vertical components of reaction at the pins A, B, and C
of the two-member frame shown
 Shear and Bending
Moment on Beams and
Frames
Solutions to P1 Quiz
Solutions to P1 Exam
1. Determine the forces in the members identified by ‘‘x’’ of the truss shown by the
method of sections.
2. Determine the reactions at the supports for the beam shown.
3. Determine the reactions for beam shown. Draw the shear and bending moment
diagrams.
4. Draw the shear, bending moment, and axial force diagrams for the frame shown.
Moment-Area Method
Moment-Area Method
The method is based on two theorems, called the moment-area theorems, relating the
geometry of the elastic curve of a beam to its M=EI diagram, which is constructed by dividing the
ordinates of the bending moment diagram by the flexural rigidity EI.

The first moment-area theorem, which can be stated as follows:

The change in slope between the tangents to the elastic curve at any two points is equal to the
area under the M/EI diagram between the two points, provided that the elastic curve is continuous
between the two points.
The second moment-area theorem, which can be stated as follows:
The tangential deviation in the direction perpendicular to the undeformed axis of the beam
of a point on the elastic curve from the tangent to the elastic curve at another point is equal to the
moment of the area under the M/EI diagram between the two points about the point at which the
deviation is desired, provided that the elastic curve is continuous between the two points.
Example 1:
Determine the slopes and deflections at points B and C of the cantilever beam shown in figure by
the moment-area method.
Example 2:
Use the moment-area method to determine the slopes at ends A and D and the deflections at points
B and C of the beam shown in figure.
Example 3:
Determine the maximum deflection for the beam shown in figure by the moment-area method.
Bending Moment Diagram by Parts
Two procedures are commonly used for constructing bending moment diagrams by parts.
The first procedure simply involves applying each of the loads separately on the beam and
constructing the corresponding bending moment diagrams. Consider, for example, a beam subjected
to a combination of a uniformly distributed load and a concentrated load, as shown in the figure.
Example 4:
Determine the deflection at point C of the beam shown in figure by the moment-area method.
Example 4:
Determine the smallest moment of inertia I required for the beam shown, so that its maximum
deflection does not exceed the limit of 1/360 of the span length . Use the moment-area method.
Conjugate Beam Method
 The conjugate-beam method is based on the analogy between the relationships
among load, shear, and bending moment and the relationships among M/EI, slope,
and deflection.

The slope and deflection can be determined from M=EI by the same operations
as those performed to compute shear and bending moment, respectively, from the
load. Furthermore, if the M=EI diagram for a beam is applied as the load on a
fictitious analogous beam, then the shear and bending moment at any point on the
fictitious beam will be equal to the slope and deflection, respectively, at the
corresponding point on the original real beam.
 A conjugate beam corresponding to a real beam is a fictitious
beam of the same length as the real beam, but it is externally
supported and internally connected such that if the conjugate beam
is loaded with the M/EI diagram of the real beam, the shear and
bending moment at any point on the conjugate beam are equal,
respectively, to the slope and deflection at the corresponding point
on the real beam.
Sign Convention

If the positive ordinates of the M/EI diagram are applied to the conjugate beam
as upward loads (in the positive y direction) and vice versa, then a positive shear in
the conjugate beam denotes a positive (counterclockwise) slope of the real beam
with respect to the undeformed axis of the real beam; also, a positive bending
moment in the conjugate beam denotes a positive (upward or in the positive y
direction) deflection of the real beam with respect to the undeformed axis of the
real beam and vice versa.
Example 1:
Determine the slopes and deflections at points B and C of the cantilever beam shown in figure by
the conjugate beam method.
Example 2:
Use the conjugate-beam method to determine the slopes at ends A and D and the deflections at
points B and C of the beam shown in Figure.
Example 3:
Determine the maximum deflection for the beam shown in Figure by the conjugate-beam method.
Example 4:
Determine the slope at point A and the deflection at point C of the beam shown in Figure by the
conjugate-beam method.
Example 5:
Use the conjugate-beam method to determine the deflection at point C of the beam shown in Figure
Statically Indeterminate Structures
Three-Moment Equation

General Formula:
If E is constant

If E and I are constant

If E and I are constant and points 1,2, and 3 are unsettling supports:
 6�ã 6�ƀ
Table for and for common loadings
� �
Example 1:
Determine the reactions for the beam shown.
Example 2:
Determine the reactions for the continuous beam shown due to the uniformly distributed load and
due to the support settlements of 10 mm at A, 50 mm at B, 20 mm at C, and 40 mm at D. Use the
three-moment equation.
Example 3:
Determine the reactions for the continuous beam shown.
Moment-Distribution Method

Sign Convention

In applying the moment-distribution method, we will adopt the same sign convention as used
previously for the slope-deflection method:

Since a counterclockwise moment at an end of a member must act in a clockwise direction on the
adjacent joint, the foregoing sign convention implies that clockwise moments on joints are
considered positive.
Member Stiffness

Consider a prismatic beam AB, which is hinged at end A and fixed at end B. If we apply a moment
M at the end A, the beam rotates by an angle � at the hinged end A and develops a moment ��� at
the fixed end B, as shown in the figure. The bending stiffness, , of a member is defined as the
moment that must be applied at an end of the member to cause a unit rotation of that end.
When the modulus of elasticity for all the members of a structure is the same, it is usually
convenient to work with the relative bending stiffnesses of members in the analysis. The relative
bending stiffness, K, of a member is obtained by dividing its bending stiffness, , by 4E.

Now, suppose that the far end B of the beam is hinged, The
relationship between the applied moment M and the rotation �
of the end A of the beam can now be determined by using the
modified slope-deflection equation.

It indicates that the stiffness of the beam is reduced by 25

percent when the fixed support at B is replaced by a hinged
support. The relative bending stiffness of the beam can now be
obtained by dividing its bending stiffness by 4E:
About Modified K

For continuous beams with hinge or

roller ends, the final moment at the
end is zero. The distribution of
moment will become easier if we
multiply the beam stiffness K of the
span containing that support ¾,
which would eliminate any further
distribution of moment on that
support. Do not do this for fixed end
support.
Carryover Moment

Let us consider again the hinged-fixed beam. When a moment M is applied at the hinged end A of
the beam, a moment ��� develops at the fixed end B, as shown in the figure. The moment ��� is
termed the carryover moment.
Carryover moment is defined as the moment induced at the fixed end of a beam by the action of a
moment applied at the other end.

Distribution Factor (DF)

In frames and continuous beams, the moment between any two adjacent members are generally not
equal. The unbalanced moment must be distributed to the other end of each member. The ratio of
distribution to any beam is called the distribution factor, DF and is defined by
Fixed-End Moments(FEM)

In the moment distribution method, we first assume the individual spans to be fully restrained at
both ends, the we compute the fixed-end moments.

The fixed-end moment expressions for some common types of loading conditions are given below
for convenient reference. In the moment-distribution method, the effects of joint translations due to
support settlements and sidesway are also taken into account by means of fixed-end moments.
Example 1:
Determine the member end moments for the two-span continuous beam shown
Example 2:
Determine the member end moments for the three-span continuous beam shown
Example 3:
Determine the member end moments for the continuous beam shown
Example 4:
Determine the member end moments for the three-span continuous beam shown