SUBJECT CODE: AENG 221

SUBJECT NAME: Reciprocating Engines (Power Plant I)

EDITOR/S: Henry Adrian D. Cortez
EDIT DATE: June 30, 2019

Introduction to Reciprocating Engines

The lack of efficient and practical powerplants has limited aircraft development
throughout history. For example, in 1483 Leonardo daVinci conceived a flying machine he called
the aerial screw. However, without a powerplant, the aerial screw was never developed.
In this topic, we discuss what is a reciprocating engine, specifically in the field of aviation,
its history and its types/classifications.

• Definition of Reciprocating engines

A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is typically a heat

engine that uses one or more reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating
motion. Its name is derived from the back-and-forth (or reciprocating movement) of
their pistons.

The reciprocating engine used in the field of aviation is an internal combustion

engine which means the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a
combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit.

• History of Reciprocating Engines related to the field of aviation

1791 – John Barber took out the first patent for a heat engine. Unfortunately,
Barber’s engine was neither efficient nor practical.

1860 – Etienne Lenoir of France built the first practical piston engine. It employed
a battery ignition system and used natural gas for fuel.

1876 – Dr. August Otto developed the four-stroke, five event cycle called the Otto
Cycle. It was the next breakthrough in piston engine development. It is the cycle
still used in most modern reciprocating aircraft engines.

• Types/ Classifications of Reciprocating Engines

 o By Cylinder Arrangement
▪ Radial
▪ In-line
▪ V-type
▪ Opposed

o By Fuel type
▪ Gasoline
▪ Diesel

o By method of cooling
▪ Air-cooled
▪ Liquid-Cooled

Classification of Reciprocating Engines by Cylinder Arrangement

Typically, a reciprocating engine can be classified into three: by cylinder arrangement, by
fuel type and by method of cooling. But the most common way of classifying it is through cylinder
arrangement.
In this topic we will be focusing on the classification by cylinder arrangement. We will be
tackling the history of this different arrangements, the advantages and disadvantages of each
cylinder arrangement and which of the different cylinder arrangements are still being used today
in modern aircrafts.

• Radial Engines

A radial engine consists of a row, or rows of cylinders arranged around a

crankcase. They helped revolutionize the aviation industry with their high power and
dependability.

There are two basic types of radial engines:

o Rotary-type Radial Engine

- The cylinders are mounted radially around a small crankcase and
rotate with the propeller, while the crankshaft remains stationary
- This type of radial engine was used extensively during World War
I for their High power-to-weight ratio.
- Unfortunately, the large rotating mass of cylinders produced a
significant amount of torque, which made aircraft control difficult. This
 along with other several factors limited the development of the rotary-type
radial engine.

o Static-type Radial Engine

- The cylinders are mounted radially around a crankcase. The main
difference it has with a rotary-type is that the crankcase remains stationary
while the crankshaft rotates to turn the propeller.
- It has as few as three cylinders and as many as 28 cylinders.
- They were much more reliable than previous designs and is one of
the reasons that demonstrated to the world that the airplane was a
practical mean of transportation
Typically, a radial engine is designed in a Single-Row configuration which
means it consists of five to nine evenly spaced cylinders with all pistons connected
to a single crankshaft. In order to increase the engine power while maintaining a
reasonably-sized frontal area, a Multiple-Row configuration was developed which
contains two or more rows of cylinders connected to a single crankshaft. In order
to improve the cooling of a multiple-row configuration, the rows are staggered to
increase the amount of air flowing to each cylinder.

This is a Pratt and Whitney R-

4360 engine. It was the largest
practical radial engine used in
aviation. It consisted of 28 cylinders
arranged in four staggered rows. The
engine could produce a maximum of
3,400 horsepower.

Unfortunately, the
development and advancement in
turbojet and turboprop engines
eclipsed the performance of large
multiple row radial engines
 • In-Line Engines

An In-Line Engine generally have an even number of cylinders aligned in single

row parallel with the crankshaft. The pistons can either be upright above or inverted below
the crankshaft.

They have a comparatively small frontal area which enables them to be enclosed
by streamlined nacelles or cowlings which made them popular among early racing aircraft.

An advantage of this engine is that the crankshaft of the engine is higher off the
ground. This allowed greater propeller ground clearance, permitting the use of shorter
landing gear and thus improving the forward visibility while taxiing.

Unfortunately, the In-line Engines have two primary disadvantages: They have
low power-to-weight ratio and suffer from insufficient cooling.
 • V-Type Engines
A V-Type Engine is an evolution of the in-line engine. Two rows of cylinders,
called banks, are oriented either 45, 60, or 90 degrees apart from a single crankshaft.
Because the cylinder banks share a single crankcase and a single crankshaft, V-type engines
have a reasonable power-to-weight ratio with a small frontal area. Today, V-type engines
are typically found on classic military and experimental racing aircraft.
 • Opposed-Type Engine

Opposed-type engines are the most common reciprocating engines currently

used on light aircraft. Opposed engines can be designed to produce as little as 36
horsepower or as much as 400 horsepower.

Opposed engines have a relatively small, lightweight crankcase that

contributes to a high power-to- weight ratio. The compact cylinder arrangement provides
a comparatively small frontal area, which enables the engine to be enclosed by streamlined
nacelles or cowlings.
Engine Components
The basic parts of a reciprocating engine include the crankcase, cylinders, pistons,
connecting rods, valves, valve-operating mechanism, and crankshaft. The valves, pistons, and
spark plugs are located in the cylinder assembly, while the valve operating mechanism,
crankshaft, and connecting rods are located in the crankcase.
o Crankcase

The crankcase is the core of a reciprocating engine. It contains the engine's

internal parts and provides attach points for the cylinders, external accessories,
and airframe installation. Additionally, the crankcase provides a tight enclosure
for the lubricating oil.

o Engine Mounting Points

It is also called as mounting lugs. The mounting arrangement supports the
weight of the entire powerplant and propeller, it must be designed to
accommodate all normal and designed loads in flight and on the ground.
o Crankshaft

The crankshaft receives a linear power pulse from the piston through the
connecting rod and changes it to rotary motion to turn the propeller. The number
of crankpins varies depending on the type of engine and the number of cylinders.
Regardless of the number of throws or the number of pieces used in construction,
all crankshafts have the same basic components, including main bearing journals,
crankpins, and crank cheeks. Crank cheeks, or crank arms, are required to connect
crankpins to each other and to the main journal of the crankshaft

The centerline of a crankshaft runs through the center of the main bearing
journals. These journals support the crankshaft as it rotates.

• Crankshaft Balance
An unbalanced crankshaft can cause excessive vibration. To
help minimize unwanted vibration, crankshafts are balanced
statically and dynamically.

A crankshaft is in static balance when the weight of the

entire assembly is balanced around its axis of rotation. After a
crankshaft is statically balanced, it must also be dynamically
balanced. A crankshaft is considered in dynamic balance when the
 centrifugal forces and power pulses are offset with
counterweights.

• Crankshaft Types
The type of crankshaft used on a particular engine depends
on the number and arrangement of the engine's cylinders. The
most common types of crankshafts are single-throw, two-throw,
four-throw, and six-throw.

The simplest crankshaft is the single throw, or 360-degree

crankshaft, used on single-row radial engines.
Twin-row radial engines require a two-throw crankshaft,
one throw for each bank of cylinders. The throws on a two-throw
crankshaft are typically set 180 degrees apart and can consist of
either one or three pieces.

Four-cylinder opposed engines and four cylinders inline

engines use four-throw crankshafts. On some four-throw
crankshafts, two throws are arranged 180 degrees apart from the
other two throws.

o Bearings

A bearing is any surface that supports and reduces friction between two
moving parts. A good bearing must be composed of material that is strong enough
to withstand the pressure imposed on it, while allowing rotation or movement
between two parts with a minimum of friction and wear.

• Plain Bearings
Plain bearings are generally used as crankshaft main
bearings, cam ring and camshaft bearings, connecting rod end
bearings, and accessory drive shaft bearings. These bearings are
typically subject to radial loads only.

• Ball Bearings
A ball bearing assembly consists of grooved inner and outer
races, one or more sets of polished steel balls, and a bearing
retainer. The balls are held in place and kept evenly spaced by the
bearing retainer, and the inner and outer hearing races provide a
smooth surface for the balls to roll over.
 • Roller Bearings
Roller bearings are similar in construction to ball bearings except
that polished steel rollers are used instead of balls. The rollers
provide a greater contact area and a corresponding increase in
rolling friction over that of a ball bearing.

o Connecting Rods

The connecting rod is the link that transmits the force exerted on the
piston to the crankshaft. The weight of a connecting rod corresponds to the
amount of inertia it possesses when the rod and piston stop before accelerating
in the opposite direction at the end of each stroke. Engine manufacturers strive to
make connecting rods as light as possible, to reduce inertial forces, but still
maintain their necessary strength.

• Plain Connecting Rods

Plain connecting rods are used in opposed and inline
engines.

• Master-and-Articulated Rod Assembly

Radial engines use a master-and-articulated rod assembly
to connect the pistons to the crankshaft. In this type of assembly,
one piston in each row of cylinders is connected to the crankshaft
by a master rod. The remaining pistons are connected to the
master rod with articulated rods.

• Fork-and-Blade Rod Assembly

The fork-and-blade rod assembly used in V-type engines
consist of a fork connecting rod and a blade connecting rod. The
forked rod is split at the crankpin end to allow space for the blade
rod to fit between the prongs.

o Pistons
The piston in a reciprocating engine is a cylindrical plunger that moves up
and down within a cylinder assembly. Pistons perform two primary functions; in
conjunction with the valves, pistons manage the fuel, air, and exhaust pressures
 in the cylinder, and they transmit the force of combustion through the connecting
rod to the crankshaft.

The portion of the piston between the ring grooves is commonly referred
to as a ring land. The piston's top surface is called the piston head and is directly
exposed to the heat and force of combustion. The piston pin boss is an enlarged
area inside the piston that provides additional bearing area for the piston pin,
which passes through the piston pin boss to attach the piston to a connecting rod.
To help align a piston in a cylinder, the piston base is extended to form the piston
skirt. Some pistons have cooling fins cast into the underside of the piston skirt to
provide for greater heat transfer to the engine oil.

Piston rings perform three functions. They prevent pressure leakage from
the combustion chamber, control oil seepage into the combustion chamber, and
transfer heat from the piston to the cylinder walls.

Ring gaps must be staggered, or offset to create the best seal, which
prevents combustion gases from leaking past the rings into the crankcase. This
blow-by, as it is often called, results in a loss of power and increased oil
consumption.

There are two types of pistons rings used in reciprocating engines:

compression rings and oil rings. The compression rings, located in the ring grooves
immediately below the piston head, prevent gas from escaping around the piston
during engine operation. Oil rings control the amount of oil applied to the cylinder
walls and prevent oil from entering the combustion chamber.
A piston pin joins the piston to the connecting rod. Piston pins are tubular,
and are machined from a case-hardened, nickel-steel alloy forging.

o Cylinders
The cylinder is the combustion chamber where the burning and expansion
of gases takes place to produce engine power. Furthermore, a cylinder houses the
piston and connecting rod assembly along with the valves and spark plugs.

A typical air-cooled engine cylinder consists of a cylinder head, barrel,

mounting flange, skirt, cooling fins, and valve assembly.

• Cylinder Barrel
 Is the part that contains the piston. The inside of a cylinder, or
cylinder bore, is usually machined smooth to a uniform, initial
dimension, and then honed to a final dimension. Chrome-plating
refers to a method of hardening a cylinder by applying a thin
coating of chromium to the inside of the cylinder barrels. The
process used to chrome-plate a cylinder is known as electroplating.
Cylinder barrels are machined from a forged blank, with a skirt that
projects into the crankcase and a mounting flange that is used to
attach the cylinder to the crankcase. The longer skirt helps keep oil
from draining into the combustion chamber and causing hydraulic
lock after an engine has been shut down.

• Cylinder Head
The cylinder head covers the cylinder barrel to form the enclosed
chamber for combustion. In addition, cylinder heads contain intake
and exhaust valve ports, spark plugs, and valve actuating
mechanisms. Cylinder heads also transfer heat away from the
cylinder barrels. Cooling fins are cast or machined onto the outside
of a cylinder head to transfer heat to the surrounding air.

• Valves
Engine valves regulate the flow of gases into and out of a cylinder
by opening and closing at the appropriate time during the Otto
cycle. Each cylinder has at least one intake valve and one exhaust
valve.

o Propeller Reduction Gears

Some high-powered engines use a propeller reduction gear system to produce
their maximum rated power output while maintaining a slower propeller speed.
Reduction gear systems currently installed on aircraft engines use spur gears,
planetary gears, or a combination of the two.

• Spur gears have teeth cut straight across their circumference and
can be either external or internal. To help minimize vibration. some
engines use a quill shaft between the crankshaft and propeller
shaft. A quill shaft is a hardened steel shaft that is splined on both
ends and installed between two gears, or shafts, to absorb
torsional vibration.
• In a planetary reduction gear system the propeller shaft is attached
to a housing that contains several small gears called planetary
 gears. The planetary gears rotate between a sun gear and a ring
gear (sometimes called a bell gear). The crankshaft drives either the
sun gear or the ring gear depending on the individual installation.

o Propeller Shafts
A shaft transmitting power from an engine to a propeller. Tapered propeller
shafts were used on most of the early, low-powered engines. On a tapered
propeller shaft, the shaft diameter tapers toward the end of the shaft. High-
powered engines require a stronger method of attaching propellers. Most high-
powered radial engines use splined propeller shafts. A spline is a rectangular
groove that is machined into the propeller shaft. Modern horizontally opposed
aircraft engines use a flanged propeller shaft. The crankshaft is forged with a flat
flange on its end. A propeller is bolted directly to the flange.

References used:
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine
• https://www.aircraftsystemstech.com/p/types-of-engines-aircraft-engines-can.html
• Jeppesen Powerplant Textbook