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Environmental and Hydrological Consequences of Agriculture Activities:

General Review & Case Study

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International Journal of Water Resources and Arid Environments 11(1): 43-61, 2022
ISSN 2079-7079
© PSIPW, 2021

Environmental and Hydrological Consequences of Agriculture Activities:

General Review & Case Study

Sajid Mahmood, 2Zeyneb Kiliç, 3Muhammad Mazhar Saeed,

1

1
Hafiz Abdur Rehman, 2Zafer Aslan, 4Eman I. Elsarag, 1Ijaz Ahmad and 1Saif Haider

1
Centre of Excellence in Water Resources Engineering, Lahore, Pakistan
2
Istanbul Aydin University, Istanbul, Turkey
3
Higher Education Commission, Islamabad, Pakistan
4
Arish University, North Sinai, Egypt

Abstract: Cultivated agriculture provides food, fibres, construction material and storable energy. The
ecosystem and reservoirs have been harmed, particularly because of human activity. The scale of changed
initiated by human is no longer local but global. The substantial growth implying compatibility with limitations
of natural resources and environmental absorption capacities is the goal. Agriculture is extremely reliant on
natural resources, particularly water supplies. Instinctive thing of a country is in a state of emergency that is
putting extreme pressure on country economy. It is questionable that sector level policies, mainly policy making
of natural things are old and are lagging demographic transformations this one is changing a sample of
resources. Resource degradation has occurred in Pakistan and all throughout the globe, because of misguided
policies that have resulted in a cost mismatch between costs of private and social life. Several technological
inputs were sponsored for a long time 1966-1996. Because power to tube well activities is charged at a lower
yearly growth, poor-quality tube well water was wasted, increasing to soil salinity. Furthermore, the data
Transitioning to more sustainable techniques like integrated fertilizer and pesticide application, as well as
more diverse cropping seasons, is insufficient to internalize fast changes in soil and water quality parameters.
With no need for a doubt, public service research has favored the technological advancements focused on
bundles of modern inputs while ignoring research on public goods such as holistic farming methods and plants
which support agricultural and irrigation system variety and sustainability. More funding through management
systems, education and research, investigation to grow wide - ranging but more durable agricultural trends or
angular motion, the elimination of inflationary pressures on major factors, especially moisture and policy
objective to engage in components such as plaster that could mitigate an issue of low rail well water is all
needed from a policy standpoint. The reduction discrepancies in policies and legislative restrictions mostly in
physical power and water sectors are critical variables for promoting long-term sustainability in both agriculture
and agriculture-based industries. Agriculture's environmental and hydrological impacts were highlighted in this
study and conclusions were given on the problem.

Key words: Hydrology Water Environment Agriculture Natural resources

INTRODUCTION organism have evolved in synergism with their envious

and developed due to process that is different cycles like
A system in which organisms interact with each bio-chemical cycle, different flows and different cold
other in physical environment is ecosystem. Environment effects. Environmental concerns and ecological concerns
is the subset of ecosystem; the other members are are two different things. The ability to reproduce one's
organisms and process. In land and water management own life is a worry for the environment. The sustainability
need on water security, revegetation, wildlife, energy of life is a concern for the environment. As a result, it is
production and long-term watershed managements are self-evident that every environmental occurrence has an
important. Life is maintained by organisms. Overtime ecological impact. Pakistan, as an Islamic Republic, must

Corresponding Author: Sajid Mahmood, Centre of Excellence in Water Resources Engineering, Lahore, Pakistan.
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 Intl. J. Water Resources & Arid Environ., 11(1): 43-61, 2022

establish goals and solutions for issues such as global (Ecological-Succession n.d.). Around 70% of the irrigated
warming has had an impact on the land and water in the land is scattered. Irrigation from wells, dams, canals and
area, by evaluating impact on quinary factors at present rivers is used to irrigate a large area of agriculture.
or future weather change and by determining the Numerous irrigation projects are still being built that will
influence of environmental issues on farmers, its social benefit Pakistan's future agricultural sector [8].
behaviour [1]. There are three basic roles of life Agriculture sector expansion is critical in every region of
production, consumption and decomposition. The a country, particularly in Pakistan, where it plays a critical
production is synthesis, the consumption is conversion role in the country's economy. Though climate change is
and decomposition are breaking. The agriculture sector is critical, dangerous and diplomatic for the agricultural
operating in a hazardous environment, as evidenced by sector [9]. Changes in climate, on the other hand, has a
present natural and climatic threats [2]. Furthermore, severe impact on cotton plant growth, development and
productive loss not only equivalent in that extent that is yield, as well as farmer livelihoods. Agriculture is
financially stable commodities producer outcomes, but it Pakistan's economic backbone and the primary source of
also regularly exceeds them [3]. The energy is not renewables. They allocate roughly 21 percent of National
recycled. It moves unidirectionally through the ecosystem GDP of Pakistan (agricultural GDP) and accounts for
being consumed at each step of the food and fibre. roughly 60% of foreign exchange [10]. Approximately
The process of appraising resources using old methods 68 percent of the population in rural areas relies on
and techniques is made difficult in some areas by a unique agriculture for food and a living. Agriculture is divided
and permanently declining number of stages, quick into numerous sub-sectors like forestry, fisheries etc.
alterations in hydrometeorological terms geometry about The crop sub-sector accounts for 8.27% of agricultural
portions of the state, as well as the absence of GDP. The livestock sector accounts for 11.77 percent of
microclimatic conditions methods. In efficient resource agricultural GDP. The sub-sector of fishing accounts for
utilisation, ageing framework, lack of application in 0.43 percent of agricultural GDP. 0.41 percent of
practise of necessary standards and norms, in addition to agricultural GDP is contributed by the forestry sub-sector
the bad state of the environment along with excessive [11].
pollution levels, irritate exposed region even more [4]. Agriculture could play a significant role in future
Quality of agriculture in different countries wealth varies economic development, food security, improved
greatly, but as GDP per capita rises and the economy's livelihoods and poverty alleviation via increasing
infrastructure changes, agriculture's share of the economy production. Despite this, Pakistani agriculture faces the
shrinks, as is to be expected. Agriculture generates more most serious water, land, environmental, agronomic,
than 30% of total wealth activity. In a few of the globe's institutional and socio-economic difficulties, all of which
poorest nations and it is responsible for 27% of GDP in have a negative impact on agricultural productivity.
Least Developed Countries Group. Pakistan has a modest For increased agricultural productivity in Pakistan,
agriculture sector compared to India and in comparison, comprehensive strategies and policies for the
low energy output to neighbouring [5]. Pakistan's management of water and non-water elements of
"common richness" is its advantageous geostrategic agricultural productivity must be created and
location, which has made it [6] the unifying connection implemented. The development of economic research and
spanning the Middle East, Central Asia, Europe Asia and appraisal of the usage of climatic information is required
South Asia. Although, the construction of a developed to ransom the production system and the increase of
infrastructure is essential to turn this into a vital possible damage from natural disasters. Indemnity in crop
prerequisite for transforming Pakistan into a significant production was categorised as mandatory because to the
power regional centre of collaboration and growth. importance of the agricultural sector in the country's
A large-scale problem like this necessitates a lot of time economy and its reliance on natural and climatic
and effort to solve. Agriculture is one of Pakistan's most conditions. Furthermore, agricultural production is
important industries. Wheat is the country's principal crop vulnerable to natural disasters and climaxes. Drought, hail,
[7]. heat waves and floods are all common problems that can
The network of ecosystems through which energy result in significant production losses [12]. The issue of
flows is known as a food web. Most of the food web has persistent unfavourable climate incidents is impacted by
a lot of inherent stability. Unless the damage is very their systemic nature, as droughts affect vast areas of the
severe, they can easily repair themselves. Pakistan's country's agricultural land, due to massive losses for
agricultural delivery facilities are in significant jeopardy agricultural producers. As a result, Pakistan is a high-risk

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 Intl. J. Water Resources & Arid Environ., 11(1): 43-61, 2022

agricultural area, with an average annual drought rate of continues today as farmers, researchers and companies
40%, attaining 60% in some regions of the country. strive for more prolific plants and animals by picking a few
Agricultural producers' financial stability and solvency supposedly more useful or edible species. At both the
are also impacted by unfavourable weather conditions. species and genetic levels, this process necessitates a
According to [13] in her publications on stabilising the reduction and simplicity of nature's vast biological
financial situation of agricultural enterprises, climatic diversity. However, because the early farmers chose their
conditions influenced the indicators of declining favoured plants and cultivated their land with the few
productivity. There is a weather risk that is layered on rudimentary equipment and primarily organic inputs
economic risk at the same time, making it harder to identify available on a local (small) scale, their actions had a minor
and analyse. In their articles, [14] stated that effective impact or were confined geographically. There are still
ways to reduce agricultural risks must be identified, which cultures that practise small-scale, low-impact agriculture
must be done based on the expansion of empirically based today [18].
suggestions and knowledge of the structure and sources As energy flows through the food chain, it’s
of financial assistance provided by equipment, crop temporarily stored at various stages called Trophic levels,
protection products and financial guarantees of insurance the producers represent such as green plants at first
covergae. As a result of the effect of insurance on risk, trophic level, at second trophic level herbivores and the
other approaches cannot adequately compensate for third are carnivores and at the fourth number are eaters of
the potential harm and losses caused by diverse risks. carnivores. As a general estimate, only 10% of the energy
Misuse of resources, scientific issues, limited investment, available at one trophic level passes onto the next.
infrastructure, agricultural trade issues and delicate In cultivated agriculture, it takes 10, 000 kilocalories of
electricity and energy shortages are all problems that maize to produce 1000 kilocalories of beef and 100
Pakistan faces in the agricultural industry [15]. Climate kilocalories by human effort. The rise in population and
change, droughts and floods have added to the severity urbanisation necessitated the production of larger
of these issues. Important weather forecasting of various quantities of food that could be carried over longer
extreme weather events can cause fatalities and can distances. To commit bigger tracts of land to agricultural
become more common and catastrophic in Pakistan as the activities, animal traction, irrigation canals and other
climate changes. Extreme weather events produced by intensification techniques were deployed. Ground
climate change, in contrast to typical climate regimes, can utilization adjustments, like emptying forested for
produce sudden, unexpected events, such as rainfall cultivation and agricultural practises like crop rotation and
regimes. Water scarcity occurs when the rainfall regime mixes, grazing practises, residue management, irrigation
changes and a significant number of impermeable surfaces and drainage, all have an impact on the soil environment
disrupts the normal water flow system. Underground and and alter the range of habitats and foods available to soil
above-ground water sources are not being fed due to organisms. Water and water resources are also harmed
changes in the water cycle. Because of the ongoing rise by improper and unconscious agricultural practises.
in temperature and change in precipitation patterns, the Tillage techniques, pesticide application and other land
amount of water required by farmers would decrease and treatments all have an impact on the physical and
a scarcity situation will emerge, threatening food security chemical environment, specifically the qualities of water
and farmers' lives in the Indus Basin, as well as in Pakistan and soil. As the population became more urbanised, a
[16]. lower percentage of the population was involved in food
The environmental and hydrological impacts of production. As a result, agricultural methods have
agricultural activities were discussed in this study: evolved, including the creation of modern farming
techniques that include technology. Cultivated agriculture
Organisms and Environment: The cultivated agriculture depends on the flux of solar energy. The first trophic level
started nearly 10, 000 years when human being began autotrophs are designed to capture and convert solar
settling near the banks of natural streams and energy into high energy chemical by carbohydrates,
domesticating the wild species of plants and animals to proteins and fats. The agriculture has had a huge impact
produce food for their consumption. The agricultural on humanity, especially in terms of population. This is
impact activities on biodiversity like plants and animals because the supply of human digestible calories per
has a vast tale, that started when human being first began square kilometre has expanded dramatically because of
the control process over 7000 years ago [17]. These plant and animal breeding. One way to look at it is that
ancient agriculturists initiated the selection process that we replaced non-human consumable items with human

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consumable items. In the last 2000 years, the world's well as alternative possibilities of specific aspects of
population has increased by a factor of 28 to reach seven autotrophic metabolic regulation or enzyme shortages as
billion people. Agriculture has advanced in around 10, 000 possible causes of obligate autotrophy. Autotrophic
to 15, 000 years, allowing the human population to nutrition in plants can be divided into two types
become nearly to 1000 times larger. depending on the type of energy source employed.
Photo-autotrophic nutrition (where sunlight is the sole
Temperature Response: Of autotrophs is more distinct source of energy) and chemo-autotrophic nutrition are
and well-studied. All plants and cold-blooded organisms the two types (where chemicals are the only source for
exhibit increased growth with increasing temperature energy).
above low temperature tolerance and decreases sharply
at higher temperature. The warm-blooded animals have Carbon Dioxide Response: Plants assimilate carbon
regulated body temperature within narrow limits excepting dioxide in the process of photosynthesis. Plants generally
some species which go into hibernation by switch respond well to increased concentration of CO, up-to
from warm blooded to cold blooded state. To convert double the normal atmosphere (0.03%). Based on the
CO2 into organic carbon molecules, autotrophs use process of assimilation of CO, the plants are classified as
either light or chemical energy. Photoautotrophs are C.C and CAM. The Cs plants fix carbon as three carbon
photosynthesizing creatures that use light to do so, such acid as first stage and C. plants as four carbon acid.
as algae and higher plants. Heterotrophs, on the other Thus C, plants are more efficient and are well adapted to
hand, rely on pre-existing organic molecules for their warmer and drier climate compared to C: CAM plants open
chemical energy. Every plant has perfect temperature their stomata at night and take on CO 2 or store for
requirements and they develop more efficiently at certain processing during day and thus are well adapted to desert
temperatures. Bacteria, which absorb organic material like conditions, Cs plants exhibit the greatest photo
from their surroundings and a variety of animals, which synthetic action by at higher concentrations of CO
ingest and digest other species, are examples of compared to C and CAM. The direct response of animals
heterotrophs. The stoichiometric flexibility of these two to increasing CO2, levels are undetectable until the
fundamental dietary methods, autotrophy and concentration exceed 1000 ppm. The increased level of
heterotrophy, is also different. Many heterotrophs get all CO; adds to the ambient temperature which in turn make
their carbon, energy and nutrients from the same food the animals shift from areas of CO2 rich. When carbon
packages, whereas autotrophs get them from multiple, dioxide levels in the atmosphere rise, most plants thicken
somewhat independent sources. Growth rate (µ, g g 1 d 1) their leaves in an unexpected way, according to
is related to autotroph nutrition content. researchers. Thick-leaved plants appear to be in our future
as carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere grow owing to
Light Response: Photosynthesis is the mechanism by human activities. Scientists have acquired a lot of data on
which autotrophs transform carbon dioxide and water into how leaves thicken in reaction to high carbon dioxide
carbohydra. Most plants respond to increasing light levels, as well as the levels of carbon dioxide in the
intensity with increasing photo synthetic rate. However, atmosphere that will be seen by the turn of the era., "
some plants require shade to grow well and must avoid Kovenock said. “We settled to consolidate the known
direct exposure to sun. The aquatic plants respond to corporal effects of leaf thickening into climate models to
light like land plants excepting light inhibition of photo see what, if any, effect this would have on a global
synthesis in marine phytoplankton at light intensities scale." [19]. Even though the effect of carbon dioxide on
approaching full sunlight. The U.V light in general limits carbohydrates perception is unknown at this time, several
the development of plants. The animals respond to light studies have employed exogenous carbohydrates to treat
in different way Most have biological clock determining plant roots, resulting in increased root sugar content,
time of exposure. The timing regulates endocrine glands. which could reflect higher root sugar content coming from
gonads and colour, the intensity and duration of light greater photosynthesis under carbon dioxide. Most study
carry significant influence over the biological clock. on the role of carbohydrates in plant roots has focused
The organisms' reliance on carbon dioxide and light, or entirely on sucrose. Other studies revealed the impacts of
inorganic respiratory substrates, may be due to a need for other carbs such as glucose and fructose, non-sucrose
other energy sources if they are unable to receive carbohydrates may have many additional functions to
adequate energy for growth through organic compound play. Although much of this research has focused on A.
respiration. The effect of organic chemicals on autotrophs thaliana, sugars are expected to perform a wide range of
and the enzymes contained in them is investigated, as roles in root function in other plant species. The probable

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results for roots of plants cultivated under carbon dioxide, this idea, known as the Soil–Plant–Atmosphere
where surplus sugar is transferred to the roots of leaves, Continuum [20], is beneficial in underlining the need of
with in upcoming sections, we'll talk about them: examining all elements of water relations. As a result of
this approach, the water movement in the SPAC system is
Properties of Water: Water is necessary for life and considered as if it were the current flowing in a
accounts for roughly 70% of the body's weight. Water is conducting system. In coming days, relationship of water
the only substance found as gas, liquid and solid on with plants will be promising and it will generate new
planet earth. It is colourless, odourless transparent to ideas for the development and growth of plants, listed
visible light and opaque to infra-red radiation. Water is below:
absorbed by plants through mots and released from
leaves because of solar heating. The water stream flowing SEM electron microscopy with EDAX, e.g., is a
front root lo leaves carry the nutrients needed by plants. nanoscale observational technique.
The nutrient load is the function of water quality. Optical microscopy
Pure water increases the improved supply of nutrients to Atomic force microscopy has the potential to be
the plants. The animals also consume water to assimilate useful in analyzing the luminal surface chemistry of
and transport nutrients in their body. The excess water is conducting elements.
discharged taking away the body wastes. There are weak Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) could be used to
interactions between the hydrogen ends of other water map hydrological linkages in wood in three
molecules and the oxygen ends of both a unit due to the dimensions.
structure of the water molecule. Even though these New multispectral techniques that allow for more
"polar" interactions are rather weak and frequently break accurate surface warming mapping can reveal
and rebuild, their presence gives water several unique information about water distribution, evaporation, ice
features in comparison to other substances on Earth. formation and even sap flow.
Water's characteristics are significantly responsible for Ample computing power involves investigation of
the existence of life on Earth. Dissolved salts, more reliable estimates of sap mobility.
micronutrients, certain metals and gases are constantly
present in natural waterways. Water named as "Universal Bio-Geo-Chemical Cycle: Environment in fact focuses the
Solvent" since it dissolves so many different things. bio-geochemical cycles. The identification and
Whereas many of these substances are required for rectification of imbalances in the bio-geochemical
thriving aquatic environments, their quantities can have processes describe the environment protection and or
detrimental repercussions as they rise, which is why we conversation activities. The nutrient elements such as
refer to them as pollutants. Photosynthetic species nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, phosphorus and sulphur occur
adapted to living in water are known as aquatic plants. in different forms within organism and environment.
Many land plants are "vascular" plants, which means that Because nutrients cycle within and through the biotic and
their roots absorb and transport water and nutrients to the a biotic compound of environments, the process is called
leaves. Because they live in water, these "macrophytes" Bio geo chemical cycles. When human interrupt these
don't need to transfer it and they can usually require cycles or modify through addition of certain compounds
nutrients from it. The type and form of aquatic plants are to the environment, there is impact on the ecosystem.
determined by the level of water or that it is moving or Human facilities, poor design and land usage have all had
still. We are primarily concerned about the function a negative impact on the ecosystem. Changes in the
bacteria play in virus transmission from the perspective water, carbon and nitrogen cycles have also been caused
of waterbodies. Bacteria and other single-celled creatures by climate change, resulting in land degradation and
are increasingly being recognized for their role in desertification. The bio-geo-chemical perturbations be
decomposing organic matter, digesting minerals and local or global depending upon the scale of interruption
nutrients and, in certain situations, turning carbon and or addition the example is the me fossil fuel energy
dioxide into new plants. Water transports the flow of soil which is changing the carbon, nitrogen and sulphur
water, into the bases, through the plant and on to the cycles, the use of fertiliser is changing. Nitrogen and
atmosphere is viewed as a series of interconnected phosphorus cycle and use of biomass for food, fibre
actions, which makes a significant contribution to plant and fuel is modifying the hydrologic, nitrogen and
water relations. When investigating plant water balance, phosphorus cycles.

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 Intl. J. Water Resources & Arid Environ., 11(1): 43-61, 2022

Fig. 1: Biogeochemical cycles in earth (https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone)

Many interrelated processes in an estuarine system's operation of ecosystems, it is crucial to the existence of
biogeochemical cycles are subject to a variety of external life. The transfer of materials between the Earth's principal
factors. Understanding the variables that influence the reservoirs, which include the atmosphere, terrestrial
organic nitrogen and carbon cycles in this system, as well biosphere, seas and geosphere, is determined by these
as their overall fate, is crucial and difficult due to the cycles. The six most frequent elements present in organic
extreme dynamism of estuaries, both mechanically and molecules, which serve as the foundation of lifeforms, are
biogeochemically. The interactions between the carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and
nonlinearity of state variables and parameters are extreme. sulfur dioxide. These elements exist in various reservoirs
According to this research, the principal source of to varying degrees and take on a few chemical forms, both
nitrogen and carbon in this system is litterfall from organic and inorganic.
neighbouring mangrove areas, which helps to maintain a
healthy detritus food chain. Seasons and tidal flush play Hydrological Cycle: In the form of reservoirs, the earth
a significant influence in the transportation of insoluble retains tremendous volumes of water. The atmosphere,
and resistant organic materials from land to sea via this lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere all contain water.
river. The flow of energy and matter in biochemical These parts are all constantly flooded with water masses.
processes is intimately associated to daily existence and The hydrologic cycle is what it's known as in general.
the Earth's environment. Foreign matter, such as Water is evaporated by solar energy from lakes rivers,
chemicals and contaminants, has an impact on marine ocean, soil and vegetation. It rises into the atmosphere
biology's development. Marine biodiversity is influenced where it cools and condenses. Under appropriate
by circulation patterns and regional distribution. conditions falls back to earth as rain, snow and dew.
The presence of nutrients also has an impact on the life The hydrologic cycle is the simplest of the bio-geo-
cycle and life span of marine science. Pollutant chemical cycles and is well understood Only 5% of
transmission inside the marine body is caused by higher the water is in circulation through the hydrosphere
nutrient and lower organic carbon concentrations, (the portion of the earth occupied by water) and 95% is
variable microbial community components among habitats bound-up in lithosphere (the outer part of earth composed
and assemblages of organisms that demonstrate migration of rock) On the average a water molecule travels through
behavior on aquatic species. The increased retention of the atmosphere for 10 days before falling back. Cultivated
organic stuff within the body is due to physical and agriculture has increased requirements of good water
biological processes, aquatic species, which has a which speeds up the hydrological cycle of evaporation,
negative impact on marine ecosystem. As previously transpiration and precipitation. The concentration of
stated, biogeochemical cycles seem to be converting animals near the cultivated agriculture adds on to the
energy and materials into useable forms to enable the speed of hydrologic cycles along with loading it with

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Fig. 2: Hydrological-cycle-process in ecosystem (https://theconstructor.org.)

nutrients and other chemicals which may or may not be 14% [23, 24]. Water evaporates from the Earth's mantle
easily degradable. The hydrological cycle of the earth is enters the environment, where that compresses to form
the sum of all mechanisms that move water from land raindrops and finally falls to the land as precipitation.
and ocean surfaces to the best possible extent in the To complete the water cycle, excess water collected on
form as rainfall. Oceans and land surfaces, among other land is returned to the oceans via rivers and groundwater
things, have an impact on the hydrological cycle. [25]. As a result, solar energy moves a considerable
The preservation of the hydrologic budget on the land amount of water from the oceans to the land each
surface is dependent on vegetation [21]. The ability of the year through the atmosphere, making the hydrologic
ground surface to hold water is improved by vegetation cycle essential not only for human existence and
development. Plants intercept precipitation, which is then natural ecosystems, but also for industrial and
evaporated instantly when it is gathered by the glass roof. agricultural productivity. Precipitation, surface runoff,
Through evaporation processes, the plants themselves evaporation, transpiration, infiltration, condensation,
materialise and contribute significantly to the production evapotranspiration, sublimation, groundwater base flow
of water vapour. Surface runoff is substantially higher on and interception are the key components of the
bare ground than it is on vegetated regions. Plants are hydrological cycle. Solar input, earth rotation, distance
essential to the hydrological cycle's operation because from the ocean, geography and general air circulation are
they dominate the processes of energy, water vapour and all elements that can influence the hydrological cycle.
carbon exchange. The hydrological cycle is the driving Water courses in the forest uplands vary widely in terrain
force behind all of the globe's freshwater resources.. and distance from the ocean. The west and north, in
Cyclic circulation paths of water in the earth must be general, receive the most yearly precipitation, with
identified. amounts reaching 4000 mm. In the east and inland
Evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration portions of vast coastlines, the average annual
and surface runoff are examples of physical processes precipitation is 1000 mm. The maximum and minimum mean
that carry water from one reservoir to another. Water annual precipitation over the period 1961–1990 was 6944
covers 70% of the Earth's surface equating to 1.41018 m3. and 128 mm, respectively. Runoff is not spread equally
The oceans contain 97 percent saline water, whereas throughout the year and can be divided into distinct
rivers, lakes, glaciers, permanent snow and groundwater runoff zones [26]. The lowest runoff occurs in coastal
aquifers contain the remaining 3% fresh water [22]. locations with an Atlantic regime from May to August
Evaporation is caused by solar intensity, which removes and the rest of the year is similar. Low winter runoff
roughly 5771012 m3 of water from the Earth's atmosphere, (January–March), a considerable increase due to melting
with oceans accounting for 86% and land accounting for snow in April and May and low summer morals that grow

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Fig. 3: Carbon cycles in Earth (https://www.sciencefacts.net)

from August till winter begins distinguishing the inland deforestation, developing alternative energy sources and
regime, which is located between the Atlantic and using geo engineering. Organic C mineralization results in
mountain regimes. The river flow regime reflects the major changes at degradation loci, particularly with
variance in precipitation across the country. Some rivers respect to oxidant consumption. Due to its prevalence in
have recording period spans several years before and the atmosphere and the high energy yield associated with
after the production of many projects in hydropower. aerobic respiration, oxygen is the primary (and ultimate)
Hydropower development has resulted in a dramatic oxidant for organic C. At sites where access to oxygen is
reduction in the flood-to-minimum discharge ratio. limited, usually by diffusion through water, it disappears
first and usually rapidly. When they are available, other
Carbon Cycle: Approximately 49% of the dry weight of electron acceptors are then consumed in the order NO 3-,
the organism is carbon the only source of carbon to Mn4+, Fe3+ and SO42-. When all these oxidants have been
producer organisms is atmospheric carbon dioxide. consumed or are otherwise unavailable, detrital carbon is
The respiration of carbon dioxide by all organisms return converted to a mixture of CO 2 and CH 4. Once particulate
carbon to the atmosphere. Carbon is deposited in the detritus has been hydrolysed, the soluble hydrolytic
soil and sequestered in sediments of lakes and streams. products are almost inevitably and rapidly catabolized to
The atmospheric reservoir of carbon in 718 GT (339 parts CO2 only or to CO2+, CH4 in the absence of electron
per million or 0.339% by volume) compared to deep sea acceptors. Approximately 38 000–40 000 Pg of carbon is
sediments of 32000 GT, fossil fuel 12000 GT and organise stored in the ocean depths, 5000 Pg on land and in soil,
1760 GT. One GT is 10kg. The cultivated agriculture 750–850 Pg in the atmosphere and 900 Pg in the ocean
consuming fossil fuel and releasing carbon through surface layer (1 Pg C = 1015 g C). The atmosphere,
respiration and purification is releasing more carbon into biodiversity, soil and ocean surface layer are all
atmosphere which is increasing the CO, concentration by inextricably linked, with continuous, relatively rapid
about one ppm per year The concentration of carbon in carbon exchanges taking place between them. Carbon
the atmosphere before industrial revolution was 268 ppm. exchange between this fast-response system and the
The carbon cycle is one of several important ocean depths takes a lot longer (of the order of thousands
biogeochemical cycles that connect the biosphere, of years). In other words, exchange with the deepest part
atmosphere, geosphere and hydrosphere. It is no longer of the ocean limits CO2 absorption, resulting in CO 2
in equilibration because of the use of fossil fuels and the accumulation in the atmosphere. As a result, the ocean
conversion of forested land to low-carbon alternative depths cannot help to reduce CO 2 build-up. Human
solutions. As a result of these interferences, greenhouse activities contribute to CO2 accumulation in two ways:
gases accumulate in the atmosphere, causing warming. fossil fuel combustion (coal, oil and natural gas) and
We examine the current rates of change in carbon flow deforestation, particularly of tropical rain forests. To meet
rates and discuss the cycle's critical processes. Finally, we humanity's growing energy needs, biomass and fossil
look at how the carbon cycle can be managed by reducing fuels are damaged, releasing CO 2 into the atmosphere.

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Furthermore, livestock breeding, as well as solid waste enzymes that generate acetyl-CoA. Nevertheless, Liu B.
and wastewater management, emit significant quantities et al. evaluated the change of denitrification gene
of CH4 and N2O into the atmosphere, further altering expression as well as the formation of NO, N2O and N2
climate change. All these inputs cause significant in microxia-affected soils They terminated those
abnormality in the biosphere's delicate equilibrium governing mechanisms observed outlying are also
conditions, particularly fossil fuels, which are burned in observed in complicated sections, emphasising the key to
an infinitesimal time compared to the centuries required by selection in course like recognizing engaged key creatures
slow depositional processes to form this resource [27]. [29].
Nitrogen is the fourth much abundant component in
Nitrogen Cycle: Nitrogen is the building block of protein. cellular biomass, accounting for a large portion of the
It is present in the air in abundance. Unlike CO2, it cannot Earth's atmosphere. Microbial activities regulate the trade
be used by the organisms directly from the air. of static dinitrogen gas (N2) with ‘reactive nitrogen' in the
Nitrogen is absorbed by the plants through its roots as living environment (nitrogen molecules that support and
Nitrate, Nitrite and ammonia (NH) or ammonium. Animals the outcome of, cellular metabolism or growth). This was
obtain their nitrogenous compounds by eating plants. not the case in the original atmosphere, where abiotic
The nitrogen cycle is complex. It follows several processes were most likely important in nitrogen oxide
pathways. Most of the nitrogen is incorporated into the inter-transformation. Although abiotic reactions such as
times of the organisms after fixation is through the this are still necessary, the current nitrogen cycle is driven
reduction process. Denitrification is the process by by reductive dinitrogen fixation and an enzyme inventory
which molecular nitrogen is released lo the atmosphere that facilitates dinitrogen-producing reactions. Prior to the
This process also release energy to be used by the sod Haber-Bosch process (the industrial fixation of N2 into
organisms for metabolism. NO3 is reduced to NO2. ammonia, NH3) in 1909, microorganisms created and
The oxygen released in the presence of glucose or recycled nearly all the reactive nitrogen in the biosphere.
phosphate provide both energy compounds for life. Chemical fertilisers and other anthropogenic factors have
Denitrification occurs generally under anaerobic more than doubled the yield of agricultural crops,
conditions created by poor aeration of soil or heightened notwithstanding the Haber-Bosch process. The
organic decay. Nitrogen compounds are highly soluble in importance nitrogen contribution to the ecosystem and
water and do not readily bind to soil particles. Therefore, cellular life cannot be overstated; nonetheless, our
are easily carried by water into the aquifer, lakes and understanding the bacteria and enzymatic processes that
streams. Nitrogen from fertiliser used in cultivated transform nitrogen into its oxidised form many is still
agriculture dissolves in irrigation water and the runoff limited (Table 1). The nitrogen cycle's major microbial
enriches the streams resulting in vigorous growth of processes, the pathogen this one performs nitrogen
aquatic plants. When these plants die, much of the alterations, the extensible and emergent antiquity of the
available oxygen is consumed and the lake become nitrogen cycle [30].
anaerobic depriving the aquatic animal from the needed
oxygen. The result is stinking situation. The largest Sulphur Cycle: All organisms require sulphur. Inorganic
reservoir of nitrogen are rocks, sediments and the sulphate (SO) is the major source of sulphur for
atmosphere with 1.9x 10"Kg. 4 x 10^12 and 3.9 x 10^18 kgs organisms. Sulphur is used in the folding of amino acids
N respectively. Dissolved Nitrogen in the ocean is to form protein molecules in the protoplasm. Plants and
estimated to be 2.2x10^16 kg. The plant biomass has about microbes can reduce sulphate for proteins synthesis, but
1.4x10^14 kgs N. Denitrification is another important step animals obtain sulphur containing in the form of amino
in the nitrogen cycle that has a significant environmental acid in their food. Sulphate is abundant in nature. It is
impact by producing nitrous oxide (N2O), a powerful leached and from soil taken by plants and replenished by
greenhouse gas and reactive nitric oxide (NO), both of rain. Consequently, vegetation can usually meet it needs.
which have the potential to drive climate change. Through Over cropping of vegetation deplete sulphate availability
a quantitative proteomic analysis, this activity was to such an extent that it must be replenished using
considered in Paracoccus denitrificans PD1222 by fertiliser. The action of several sulphur-containing
Olaya-Abril et al. [28] and identified significant aspects proteins is degraded by soil organisms into their
stimulation of denitrification various metabolic enzymes, constituent amino acids. Another type of soil bacteria
along with TCA and glyoxylate cycle enzymes and converts amino acid sulphur to hydrogen sulphide (H2S).

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 Intl. J. Water Resources & Arid Environ., 11(1): 43-61, 2022

Fig. 4: Nitrogen cycle in earth (https://www.cimmyt.org)

Table 1: Oxidation states of nitrogen

Fig. 5: (https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics)

In the presence of oxygen, sulphur bacteria convert H2S significant element through the atmosphere. Human
to sulphur and then to sulphate. Eventually, the sulphate activities have had a significant impact on the sulphur
decomposes into H2S. Every year, the sulphur cycle cycle, probably most notably in the creation of acid rain,
transports massive amounts of this physiologically notwithstanding the extent of natural reservoirs.

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 Intl. J. Water Resources & Arid Environ., 11(1): 43-61, 2022

Windblown dusts are produced on the Earth's surface; and Europe is being offset by rising emissions in Asia,
however, this is influenced by grazing and desertification. which could pose a unique problem in the twenty-first
Mineral extraction and fuel consumption mobilise large century.
amounts of sulphur. Human emissions to the atmosphere
are mostly derived from the refining and combustion of Phosphorus Cycle: Phosphorus has major importance to
fossil fuels, which much outnumber natural sources. The organisms for mutating DNA, RNA and ATP called
decline in anthropogenic emissions in North America and phosphorylated compounds. Phosphorous is also formed
Europe is being offset by rising emissions in Asia, which in vertebrates as phosphate salts in bones and teeth.
could pose a unique problem in the twenty-first century. Plants assimilate phosphorous from inorganic phosphate
Sulphate is much more soluble than phosphates and move as orthophosphate ionic. The other organisms get their
readily between land and sea were these accumulate. phosphorus needs from plants. Phosphorus does not
Sulphur is 240 times more abundant in sea water than in occur naturally in the atmosphere except in small
fresh water. Sulphur is absorbed as sulphate through the quantities clinging to the dust. In water, where there is
roots and to some extent through their leaves. It is passed abundant oxygen, phosphorus is oxidised and form
to the animals and comeback to the ground by excretion, insoluble compound which precipitate and are not
demise and decompose. Sulphur occurs in living cells as available to aquatic plants. Eventually the precipitated
sulfhydryl molecule within amino acids. Microbes phosphorus from rocks which upon erosion in returned to
decompose organic matter by converting sulfhydryl the soil. In the soil phosphorus comes from decaying
molecule into H2S. Under aerobic conditions bacteria organic matter which can be readily taken by the plants.
oxidise H, S into SO4 and use the energy liberated in the The phosphorus from the sedimentation takes a
oxidation to obtain carbon from CO2 by reduction The complicated route. The plants can only absorb
sulphate produced is then useable by plants. Under phosphorus an inorganic phosphate made available as
anaerobic conditions such as bottom of lakes, it is DAP fertiliser under natural conditions. The loss of
impossible to oxidise H, S but certain photo synthetic phosphorus from the soil is through conversion into
bacteria use H2S to manufacture carbohydrates and in the insoluble compounds by reacting with Ca, Fe etc. [34].
process oxidise H2S to elemental sulphur or to sulphate. Phosphorus entering streams as phosphate from
The presence of H, S eliminates animals in the bed of deep fertilisers, detergents, excrements etc produce undesirable
lakes and sea [31]. enrichment resulting in rapid growth of algae and higher
Due to the amount of sulphate, cycling in Sulphur is plants and reduced concentration of oxygen and
more significant in coastal and marine ecosystems are consequently aquatic life such as fish etc. Phosphorus is
more diverse than terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems. an important component related as growth of a plant and
Because of high concentration of sulphate in sediment its application has been around for a long time.
pore water, sulphur decline is a primary TEA activity recognised as necessary to keep crop production at
when OM mineralization occurs in coastal sediments. economically feasible levels. P is required in agricultural
Sulphate reduction becomes main mechanism when systems for cellular metabolism, seed and root formation,
sulphate intake is increased, affecting the other elements crop maturation (particularly cereals), crop quality and
cycling including Iron, Carbon and Nitrogen [32]. The cereal straw strength. P is recycled into the soil
linkage for the anaerobic methane oxidation pathway to through litter, plant residues and animal waste in natural
the pore-water sulphate reduction pathway accounts for (non-agricultural) systems [35]. However, in agricultural
a major amount of the pore-water sulphate reduction [33]. systems, P could be removed from crop or animal output.
Human activities have had a significant impact on the To boost and maintain production, agricultural systems
Sulphur cycle, probably most notably in the creation of import chemical P fertilisers, crops and feed additives [36].
acid rain, notwithstanding the extent of natural reservoirs. Consider the relatively small pool of native soil P is
Windblown dusts are produced on the Earth's surface; incapable of supplying and maintaining enough soluble
however, this is influenced by grazing and desertification. orthophosphate (H2PO4) to soil solution for satisfactory
Mineral extraction and fuel consumption mobilize large crop growth, soils must be supplemented with water-
amounts of Sulphur. Human emissions to the atmosphere soluble P fertilisers. Even though surrounding P levels
are mostly derived from the refining and combustion of launching into streams and lakes along groundwater flow
fossil fuels, which much outnumber natural sources. clearly reflect the collision of land use, soil P is largely
The decline in anthropogenic emissions in North America transported across surface flow. Water can dissolve and

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 Intl. J. Water Resources & Arid Environ., 11(1): 43-61, 2022

Fig. 6: Phosphorus cycles (https://serc.carleton.edu)

transport soluble P or erode and move particulate P when in municipal wastewater, while the phosphorus content of
it flows through the soil surface. Soluble P can be detergents has been reduced in many countries by
inorganic or organic, whereas particulate P is made up of substituting alternative compounds. Fertilizer
smaller soil particles, such as clay and lighter organic manufacturing industries may produce amounts of P
matter. Regardless of how much P is applied, the amount comparable to the total emissions of small countries, while
of soluble P is critical. Diffuse leakage of P from soils is these emissions have fallen dramatically due to advances
widely accepted as a possibility that contributes to water in technology and wastewater treatment. Phosphate
quality degradation. Individuals have had an eminent minerals are the principal source of phosphorus, whether
impact on the phosphorus cycle, primarily to produce they are found in phosphate ores, rocks, or soils.
fertiliser to support an expanding human population, with Their quantity, availability and reactivity are thus critical
much of the increased phosphorus mining and application to the Earth's entire phosphorus cycle, as well as the
occurring after the mid-twentieth century. Human carbon cycle, which is influenced by biological activity
phosphorus mining is now estimated to be 23.5 Tg per regulation.
year, more than doubling the amount of phosphorus
flowing through the environment in comparison to the Environmental Impacts: Cultivated agriculture is all
Holocene baseline. Preindustrial weathering processes about biomass production. The increasing intensity of
produced 15-20 Tg of mobilised phosphorus per year, but biomass production carries potential environmental
human mining of phosphorus is now estimated to produce impacts on the form of introducing of bio geochemical
15–20 Tg of mobilised phosphorus per year. This extra cycles in balance. Policymakers have been prompted by
phosphorus has a considerable impact on the Earth the urgent need of alleviate attempts in reply to change in
System's functioning, largely through and it may weather are required to accelerate the spread of
contribute to the eutrophication of freshwater lakes, but bioenergy, resulting in significant land-use changes on
it may also contribute to the formation of anoxic zones in short timescales. Despite the potential negative effects on
the ocean (Sustainability Challenges in the Phosphorus biodiversity and the environment, large-scale bioenergy
System n.d.). Because phosphorus is locked up in production has hardly become a reality. received
bedrock, soils and sediments, it is not directly available to appropriate scientific consideration. Environmental
organisms. Geological and biological events in the global rules or regulatory constraints in most nations are still
phosphorus cycle convert inaccessible forms to lagging the exponential rise of energy crops. Most of the
bioavailable ones, which can be digested directly. research finds beneficial effects on biodiversity at the
Wastewater treatment plants and industrial outlets are field scale, but the results are highly dependent on
examples of point sources and on the other side, the most biomass plantation management, age, size and variability.
significant contributors to phosphorus pollution. Significant uncertainties exist at the regional level
Detergents are the most common source of phosphorus and there is also a strong fear that large commercial

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 Intl. J. Water Resources & Arid Environ., 11(1): 43-61, 2022

Table 2: A comparison of phosphorus recovery methods from sewage sludge ash

production will have a negative impact on biodiversity in The water, fertilisers and pesticides used in the
areas of high sustentation consequence. Although, cultivated fields invariably get into ground water affect
incorporating biomass crops into agricultural landscapes area downstream disturbing N, S and P cycles. Non-point
has the potential to boost rural economies while source pollution by agricultural inputs is the major
mitigating the harmful effects of farm demission. and concern arising out of the cultivated agriculture. The
assisting in the rehabilitation of damaged land, resulting agricultural waste decomposition adds to the
in higher biodiversity values. The dimensional structure environmental degradation by releasing CH 4 and disease
and dispensation of biomass plantations will decide the organisms. Agricultural operations can also have a direct
intimation, given the degree of land conversion required impact on aquatic species' habitats by causing physical
to meet bioenergy targets. To ensure sustainable biomass disturbances caused by cattle or equipment. Although
crop production, biodiversity would have to become an agricultural NPS pollution remains a severe concern
integral component of risk assessment measures in all across the country, much has been accomplished in terms
countries that have not yet committed to making it a of sediment and nutrient reduction from privately owned
requirement of strategic landscape planning. To aid in the agricultural areas during the last several decades.
long-term economic and ecological sustainability of Much has been learnt about more effective techniques to
biomass production, as well as to avoid costly mistakes in prevent and mitigate NPS pollution from agricultural
our efforts to alleviate change in weather, we need to do activities in recent years. Excess nitrogen creates other
integrate environmental and economic research. A water quality issues in addition to eutrophication.
considerable amount of dust is put into the air by tillage Fish, particularly trout, may be poisoned by dissolved
operations. The dust costs the leaves of the plants and ammonia at quantities more than 0.2 mg/L. In addition,
diminishes the photosynthetic activity. Tillage favours nitrates in drinking water might be harmful to newborn
topsoil inhabitants over subsoil dwellers by burying crop babies. In the digestive tract, nitrate is converted to
leftovers and manure. Night crawlers are infrequent in nitrite, which lowers the blood's oxygen-carrying capacity
long-term clean-tilled fields. Tillage also promotes topsoil (methemoglobinemia), leading in brain damage or death.
dryness and large day/night temperature swings. As a The United States Environmental Protection Agency has
result, the number of earthworms is lower in clean-tilled set a maximum a nitrate-nitrogen concentration of 10 mg/L
fields than in no-tilled fields. Tillage brings earthworms to in swilling water [38]. The intensively managed ecosystem
the surface, where they are preyed upon by predators completely changes the community of organisms. The
such as birds. Long-term no-tilled fields frequently have natural areas surrounded by the cultivated fields exhibit
at least twice as many earthworms as clean-tilled fields changes in the form of population of various species of
[37]. organisms. Monocultures tend to attract exotic species

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 Intl. J. Water Resources & Arid Environ., 11(1): 43-61, 2022

more susceptible to disease and require large chemical disasters, such as floods, effective disaster management
applications. The noise generated from agricultural plans are required. According to a document prepared by
operations disturbs the natural habitats of the animals the United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP), out of
in the vicinity forcing them to migrate or die off. 30 million species on the earth, 11.5 million have ever been
The increased use of land for biomass production described. Of this figure, 750, 000 are insects, 41, 000 are
heightens soil erosion. The erosion rates in the cultivated vertebrates and 250, 000 are plants. The remainder are
soil averages 20 metric ton per hectare annually. invertebrates, fungi and micro-organisms. The document
The maintenance of adequate vegetative cover and further states that about one quarter of the earth's 30
reduced run off velocities processing solutions to the soil million species risk extinction within the next 30 years
erosion and nutrients loss in variety do not provide with because they are being destroyed in a systematic manner.
intense agricultural practices. The ecosystem stability The tropical forests, for instance, contain more than half
remains the prime concern. The concept is that of the world species and one single activity namely
perturbation is reduced to the level it can repair itself. "Tropical Deforestation" can eliminate 5-15% of the
The preservation of ecosystem stability is difficult. species by the year 2020. This would multiply the
The long-term perturbation such as extended period of sediments loads manifold as being witnessed presently.
drought, insect infestation, fire etc introduces ecological Deforestation has aggravated the soil erosion to the
succession. extent that has exceeded all the previous estimates e.g.,
The ecological session is a well-ordered community about 550, 000 tons of sediments are pouring daily into a
development process that involves changes in species single Tarbela water reservoir. Pakistan government has
organisation. At each stage of succession, the prescient been forced to build a new reservoir instead with cost
microclimate is modified by the organisms. Wherever estimates of about 800 billion rupees. However, rivers
there is perturbation, there is opportunity for succession. transmit the effluents and by-products of agriculture,
Whether it is cutting of forest, stripping of land surface, industry and urban areas to the beaches, causing indirect
damming of valley, drilling for oil, the succession will damage to these ecosystems. And if that isn't bad
follow and environment will change. Because of the enough, man-made climate change poses a threat to all
relatively brief era of cultivated agricultural history during coastal places, because melting glaciers push more water
which technologies have played a dominating role, people seaward and the oceans warm and expand, causing sea
have rated them differently at different times. Some levels to increase. Coastal cities might be flooded and
represent the removal of the wear and tear of regular entire islands could be submerged under the seas [39].
living, while others represent a necessary evil to produce
biomass. The goal is to optimise farming methods that are Environmental Direct Impact: Table 3 indicates the
both productive and resource efficient while also various percentages of direct environmental
contributing to a more homogenous landscape at the consequences on the agriculture sector.
micro and macro levels. This implies principally a genuine
balance between the aim of cultivated agriculture and Indirect Environmental Impact: Table 4 shows the
values by the bio geo chemical cycles. Most people in various percentages of indirect environmental
Pakistan have relatively close contact and relationship consequences on the agriculture sector.
with cultivated agriculture. A vast number of free and
independent farmers and a limited number of major estate Environmental Total Impact: Table 5 Illustrate total
owners used to make up the agriculture sector. As a environmental impact on agriculture sector in Pakistan.
result, changes in agriculture are likely to affect a larger
number of individuals. The only thing that is being Impact of Fertilizers: Excessive use of fertilizers has
modified is their own cultural inheritance. adverse effects on environment which is causing major
concerns. Following tables and graphs illustrates the
Deforestation Impacts: Assessing an environment is problems:
challenging enough, but policymakers also need to
understand how different habitats collaborate. As in Upsetting the System: Anybody that has attended a basic
China and Pakistan, degradation in highlands can subject understands that the World's most vital
exacerbate floods in grasslands and agricultural fields components circulate in cycles, moving from the sky to
below. To limit the effects of various water-related natural the land, sea and back. Habitat has become so powerful

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 Intl. J. Water Resources & Arid Environ., 11(1): 43-61, 2022

Table 3: Pakistan's agriculture sector's direct environmental affects and sectoral ties to Pakistan's overall ecological consequences
Item Downstream Environmental Linkage (%) Internal Environmental Linkage (%) Total Indirect Environmental Linkage (%)
Land 16.7 10.0 26.7
Water 58.3 35.0 93.3
Blue water 61.9 37.2 99.0
Grey water 48.7 29.2 77.9
Nitrogen impact 57.3 34.4 91.7
N2O 56.5 33.9 90.4
NH3 61.9 37.2 99.0
NOx 9.2 5.5 14.7
N 62.1 37.3 99.4
CO2 0.9 0.5 1.4
1
Pakistan's overall sectoral environmental effect is calculated by adding all sectoral environmental impacts from the 2015 IO table, which can be found at
http://worldmrio.com/.

Table 4: The indirect environmental implications and sectoral linkages of Pakistan's agriculture sector on the country's overall environmental impact
Item Upstream Environmental Linkage (%) Mixed Environmental Linkage (%) Total Indirect Environmental Linkage (%)
Land 0.24 1.24 1.48
Water 0.01 0.30 0.31
Blue water 0.00 0.32 0.32
Grey water 0.03 0.25 0.28
Nitrogen impact 0.04 0.29 0.35
N2O 0.03 0.26 0.28
NH3 0.00 0.32 0.32
NOx 0.48 0.03 0.51
N 0.002 0.32 0.32
CO2 (Gg) 0.37 0.005 0.38

Table 5: Overall environmental impacts of Pakistan's agriculture sector in relation to Pakistan's total sectoral environmental impacts
Item Total Environmental Impact (Direct + Indirect)
Land 28
Water 94
Blue water 99
Grey water 78
Nitrogen impact 92
N2O 91
NH3 99
NOx 15
N 100
CO2 2

Table 6. Fertilizer Use on Arable Land

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 Intl. J. Water Resources & Arid Environ., 11(1): 43-61, 2022

Fig. 7: A comparison of Pakistan’s agriculture sector’s total direct and indirect environmental impacts

Fig. 8: Fertilizer Trends Application in Pakistan (http://data.worldbank.org)

Fig. 9: Fertilizer use Pakistan (2015-16) (http://data.worldbank.org)

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 Intl. J. Water Resources & Arid Environ., 11(1): 43-61, 2022

that it has affected even the planet's most basic systems. per person, with balancing of marine fish capture all signal
The most well-known example is what we've done to the that keeping up with global food demand over the next
carbon cycle. Because we're pouring carbon dioxide into half-century will be significantly more challenging if the
the atmosphere much faster than land and water can world stays on the UN medium development path and if
absorb it, the accumulating gas traps heat and causes incomes continue to rise.
climate disruption. The outcome is not simply higher sea
levels and more powerful storms, but also a likely CONCLUSION
repositioning of the world's ecosystems as forest and
grassland boundaries moves. Several organisms are Input intensification and area expansion are the
unable to adapt to abrupt habitat changes. The primary drivers of increased agriculture production,
destruction wreaked on the nitrogen cycle is less although total factor productivity (TFP) is dropping over
well-known. Humans have increased the amount of time. Chemical pesticides and fertilisers have had a
nitrogen compounds that can be utilized by living things negative impact on natural resources such as quality and
by using fertilizers, burning fossil fuels and clearing land. safety of soil, water, air and food. Immense manufacturing
However, those levels are higher than what plants and costs, low average yields and low-quality products are all
animals can efficiently absorb and recycle into the allowing foreign goods to enter our local marketplaces.
atmosphere. These extra nitrogen compounds wash into These worries have rendered Pakistan uncompetitive at
fresh and saltwater systems, where they stimulate international markets, furthermore this have made a
suffocating algal growth, resulting in dead zones. Because negative effect on the welfare of domestic customers.
the global food system relies heavily on fertilizer, Scarcity of water is a major concern which is a critical
restoring the nitrogen cycle's balance is a difficult task. agricultural input, but Pakistan's crop production system's
What we've done to the water cycle is far more water use efficiency is extremely low. Evidence suggests
disastrous. Human demand for freshwater is so that agriculture has taken over some of the world's richest
tremendous that many huge rivers, such as the Yellow in and most productive regions while food consumption is
China and the Nile in Egypt, dry up before reaching the continuously rising as total world’s population and per
sea. When diverted water is returned to rivers, it is capita income rise. Due to rise in widening imbalance
frequently contaminated with unpleasant chemicals and between supply and demand is putting severe damage to
sewage. Furthermore, the construction of 40, 000 huge future food security and reduction in poverty. It is
dams and numerous smaller barriers has transformed the justified that if the government does not overcome the
majority of the world's rivers into a network of following problems and challenges faced by the
interconnected lakes. Thousands of species evolved to agriculture sector, not only will future generations' food
free-flowing water face severe repercussions because of security be compromised, but also the manufacturing
such a water system, unlike anything seen since the end sector's development will be slowed and the trade deficit
of the last ice age. The impact of humans on the water and balance of payments will increase. The agriculture
cycle can also be found underwater. Sometimes sector's poor performance is attributed to the absence of
irretrievably damaging these reservoirs of groundwater capacity for creating and implementing revolution at each
[40]. apex of the utility chain. Stakeholders at various points
Although industrialization assures economic along the value chain are either unable to implement
development of a country, it does so at the expense of current manufacturing, grading and processing
raised environmental temperature. Rising emissions of procedures or are uninformed of the benefits of doing so.
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane, Structure modifications at the macro and local levels
which trap heat in the atmosphere, are causing global may aid in the rehabilitation of the agriculture industry.
warming. Improved energy efficiency and the use of The widening imbalance between social and economic
newer, cleaner energy sources can help minimize these returns on agriculture transformation explains low private
emissions. Food, particularly animal protein, is strongly investment in the region. Contract farming and the
reliant on the oceans. The oceanic fish capture increased creation of agro-industrial clusters (AIC) could be feasible
from 19 million tons to more than 90 million tons between options; however, contract farming will not be sustainable
1950 and 1997. Since mid-century, the capture of most if diverse players in the value region lack the ability to
maritime fisheries has increased fivefold, pushing them to monitor new automations or advances. Agriculture's
their boundaries or even beyond. The three concurrent transition from highly productive to marginal areas
trends of declining water tables, declining farmland land could be slowed by rectifying strategy, encouraging

59
 Intl. J. Water Resources & Arid Environ., 11(1): 43-61, 2022

perpendicular development in household and commercial 7. Finance Division, Government of Pakistan. 2019.
raising. Investing in issue research, developing Pakistan Economic Survey 2017-18. Pakistan
agricultural technology, rural infrastructure, stakeholder Economic Survey, pp: 115-31.
capacity building, forming farm-based vocational 8. Kahlown, Muhammad Akram and Abdul Majeed,
academies and innovators and bolstering public-private 2002 Water-resources Situation in Pakistan:
partnerships could assist the agriculture industry Challenges and Future Strategies.
recover. The spotting of feasible groups for every crop 9. Ali, Uzair et al., 2021. Climate Change Impacts on
must aid in the promotion of corporate farming to Agriculture Sector: A Case Study of Pakistan.
overthrow the ineffective manufacturing and marketing Ciencia Rural, 51(8).
structure currently in place. Despite significant irrigation 10. Tareen, Wajahat Ullah Khan et al., 2020. Present
infrastructure, gaps in water management infrastructure, Status and Potential of Biomass Energy in Pakistan
such as dams, result in surplus water being discharged Based on Existing and Future Renewable Resources.
into the sea, leaving the country water-stressed for much Sustainability (Switzerland) 12(1).
of the year. Changes in monsoon patterns and rising 11. Aslam, Muhammad, 2016. Agricultural Productivity
temperatures are projected to provide significant problems Current Scenario, Constraints and Future Prospects
to agriculture, particularly in northern Pakistan, which is in Pakistan. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, 32(4):
already vulnerable to climate change. Temperature rises 289-303.
will most certainly accelerate agricultural growth cycles 12. Easterling, David et al., 2012. 3 - Changes in Climate
and reduce the time between sowing and harvesting, Extremes and Their Impacts on the Natural Physical
lowering crop yields. Climate change threats and shocks Environment. Cambridge University Press.
to Pakistan's agricultural sector are becoming more Ecological-Succession.
frequent. Smallholder farmers who rely on rain-fed
13. Ali, Sajjad et al. 2017. Climate Change and Its Impact
agriculture and have limited capacity to cope with climatic
on the Yield of Major Food Crops: Evidence from
uncertainties are significantly affected by rising
Pakistan. Foods, 6(6): 1-19.
temperatures and variations in monsoon systems.
14. Kahan, David, 2013. Managing Risks in Farming.
15. Ahmed, Riaz and Usman Mustafa, 2017. Impact
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