Lecture 0:

Introduction
 Course Information
 Instructor
 Dr. Lam Duc Khai ([email protected] )

 Text book
 CMOS VLSI Design – A Circuits and System Perspective –
Neil H.E. Weste and David Harris – 3rd Edition, 2005.

 Other books
 Analysis and Design of Digital Integrated Circuits – In Deep
Submicro Technology – David A.Hodges, Horace G. Jackson and
Resve A. Saleh – 3rd Edition, 2004.

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 Course Evaluation
 Grading policy:
Midterm: 15% (closed books)

Assignment and Term-project: 15%

Lab: 20%

Final test: 50% (closed books)

 No cheating

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 Introduction
 Integrated circuits: many transistors on one chip.
 Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI): bucketloads!
 Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor
– Fast, cheap, low power transistors
 Today: How to build your own simple CMOS chip
– CMOS transistors
– Building logic gates from transistors
– Transistor layout and fabrication
 Rest of the course: How to build a good CMOS chip

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 Silicon Lattice
 Transistors are built on a silicon substrate
 Silicon is a Group IV material
 Forms crystal lattice with bonds to four neighbors

Si Si Si

Si Si Si

Si Si Si

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 Dopants
 Silicon is a semiconductor
 Pure silicon has no free carriers and conducts poorly
 Adding dopants increases the conductivity
 Group V: extra electron (n-type)
 Group III: missing electron, called hole (p-type)

Si Si Si Si Si Si
- +

+ -
Si As Si Si B Si

Si Si Si Si Si Si

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 p-n Junctions
 A junction between p-type and n-type semiconductor
forms a diode.
 Current flows only in one direction

p-type n-type

anode cathode

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 nMOS Transistor
 Four terminals: gate, source, drain, body
 Gate – oxide – body stack looks like a capacitor
– Gate and body are conductors
– SiO2 (oxide) is a very good insulator
– Called metal – oxide – semiconductor (MOS)
capacitor Source Gate Drain
Polysilicon
– Even though gate is SiO2
no longer made of metal
n+ n+
Body
p bulk Si

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 nMOS Operation
 Body is usually tied to ground (0 V)
 When the gate is at a low voltage:
– P-type body is at low voltage
– Source-body and drain-body diodes are OFF
– No current flows, transistor is OFF
Source Gate Drain
Polysilicon
SiO2

0
n+ n+
S D
p bulk Si

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 nMOS Operation Cont.
 When the gate is at a high voltage:
– Positive charge on gate of MOS capacitor
– Negative charge attracted to body
– Inverts a channel under gate to n-type
– Now current can flow through n-type silicon from
source through channel to drain, transistor is ON
Source Gate Drain
Polysilicon
SiO2

1
n+ n+
S D
p bulk Si

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 pMOS Transistor
 Similar, but doping and voltages reversed
– Body tied to high voltage (VDD)
– Gate low: transistor ON
– Gate high: transistor OFF
– Bubble indicates inverted behavior
Source Gate Drain
Polysilicon
SiO2

p+ p+

n bulk Si

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 Power Supply Voltage
 GND = 0 V
 In 1980’s, VDD = 5V
 VDD has decreased in modern processes
– High VDD would damage modern tiny transistors
– Lower VDD saves power
 VDD = 3.3, 2.5, 1.8, 1.5, 1.2, 1.0, …

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 Transistors as Switches
 We can view MOS transistors as electrically
controlled switches
 Voltage at gate controls path from source to drain
g=0 g=1

d d d
nMOS g OFF
ON
s s s

d d d

pMOS g OFF
ON
s s s

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 CMOS Inverter

A Y VDD
0 1
1 0 OFF
ON
0
1
A Y
ON
OFF

A Y
GND
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 CMOS NAND Gate
A B Y
0 0 1 ON
OFF
OFF
ON OFF
ON
0 1 1
1
Y
1 0 1 0 ON
A OFF
1 1 0 0
1
1
0 OFF
ON
B ON
OFF

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 CMOS NOR Gate
A B Y
0 0 1 A
0 1 0
1 0 0 B
1 1 0 Y

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 3-input NAND Gate
 Y pulls low if ALL inputs are 1
 Y pulls high if ANY input is 0

Y
A
B
C

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 CMOS Fabrication
 CMOS transistors are fabricated on silicon wafer
 Lithography process similar to printing press
 On each step, different materials are deposited or
etched
 Easiest to understand by viewing both top and
cross-section of wafer in a simplified manufacturing
process

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 Inverter Cross-section
 Typically use p-type substrate for nMOS transistors
 Requires n-well for body of pMOS transistors
A
GND VDD
Y SiO2

n+ diffusion

p+ diffusion
n+ n+ p+ p+
polysilicon
n well
p substrate
metal1

nMOS transistor pMOS transistor

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Well and Substrate Taps
 Substrate must be tied to GND and n-well to VDD
 Metal to lightly-doped semiconductor forms poor
connection called Shottky Diode
 Use heavily doped well and substrate contacts / taps
A
GND VDD
Y

p+ n+ n+ p+ p+ n+

n well
p substrate

well
substrate tap
tap

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Well and Substrate Taps

Thyristor

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 Inverter Mask Set
 Transistors and wires are defined by masks
 Cross-section taken along dashed line

GND VDD

nMOS transistor pMOS transistor

substrate tap well tap

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 Detailed Mask Views
 Six masks n well

– n-well
– Polysilicon
Polysilicon

– n+ diffusion
– p+ diffusion n+ Diffusion

– Contact p+ Diffusion

– Metal Contact

Metal

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 Fabrication
 Chips are built in huge factories called fabs
 Contain clean rooms as large as football fields

Courtesy of International
Business Machines Corporation.
Unauthorized use not permitted.

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 Fabrication Steps
 Start with blank wafer
 Build inverter from the bottom up
 First step will be to form the n-well
– Cover wafer with protective layer of SiO2 (oxide)
– Remove layer where n-well should be built
– Implant or diffuse n dopants into exposed wafer
– Strip off SiO2

p substrate

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 Oxidation
 Grow SiO2 on top of Si wafer
– 900 – 1200 C with H2O or O2 in oxidation furnace

SiO2

p substrate

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 Photoresist
 Spin on photoresist
– Photoresist is a light-sensitive organic polymer
– Softens where exposed to light

Photoresist
SiO2

p substrate

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 Lithography
 Expose photoresist through n-well mask
 Strip off exposed photoresist

Photoresist
SiO2

p substrate

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 Etch
 Etch oxide with hydrofluoric acid (HF)
– Seeps through skin and eats bone; nasty stuff!!!
 Only attacks oxide where resist has been exposed

Photoresist
SiO2

p substrate

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 Strip Photoresist
 Strip off remaining photoresist
– Use mixture of acids called piranah etch
 Necessary so resist doesn’t melt in next step

SiO2

p substrate

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 n-well
 n-well is formed with diffusion or ion implantation
 Diffusion
– Place wafer in furnace with arsenic gas
– Heat until As atoms diffuse into exposed Si
 Ion Implanatation
– Blast wafer with beam of As ions
– Ions blocked by SiO2, only enter exposed Si
SiO2

n well

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 Strip Oxide
 Strip off the remaining oxide using HF
 Back to bare wafer with n-well
 Subsequent steps involve similar series of steps

n well
p substrate

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 Polysilicon
 Deposit very thin layer of gate oxide
– < 20 Å (6-7 atomic layers)
 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) of silicon layer
– Place wafer in furnace with Silane gas (SiH4)
– Forms many small crystals called polysilicon
– Heavily doped to be good conductor

Polysilicon
Thin gate oxide

n well
p substrate

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 Polysilicon Patterning
 Use same lithography process to pattern polysilicon

Polysilicon

Polysilicon
Thin gate oxide

n well
p substrate

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 Self-Aligned Process
 Use oxide and masking to expose where n+ dopants
should be diffused or implanted
 N-diffusion forms nMOS source, drain, and n-well
contact

n well
p substrate

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 N-diffusion
 Pattern oxide and form n+ regions
 Self-aligned process where gate blocks diffusion
 Polysilicon is better than metal for self-aligned gates
because it doesn’t melt during later processing

n+ Diffusion

n well
p substrate

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 N-diffusion cont.
 Historically dopants were diffused
 Usually ion implantation today
 But regions are still called diffusion

n+ n+ n+

n well
p substrate

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 N-diffusion cont.
 Strip off oxide to complete patterning step

n+ n+ n+

n well
p substrate

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 P-Diffusion
 Similar set of steps form p+ diffusion regions for
pMOS source and drain and substrate contact

p+ Diffusion

p+ n+ n+ p+ p+ n+

n well
p substrate

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 Contacts
 Now we need to wire together the devices
 Cover chip with thick field oxide
 Etch oxide where contact cuts are needed

Contact

Thick field oxide

p+ n+ n+ p+ p+ n+

n well
p substrate

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 Metalization
 Sputter on aluminum over whole wafer
 Pattern to remove excess metal, leaving wires

Metal

Metal
Thick field oxide
p+ n+ n+ p+ p+ n+

n well
p substrate

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 Layout
 Chips are specified with set of masks
 Minimum dimensions of masks determine transistor
size (and hence speed, cost, and power)
 Feature size f = distance between source and drain
– Set by minimum width of polysilicon
 Feature size improves 30% every 3 years or so
 Normalize for feature size when describing design
rules
 Express rules in terms of l = f/2
– E.g. l = 0.3 mm in 0.6 mm process

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 Simplified Design Rules
 Conservative rules to get you started

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 Inverter Layout
 Transistor dimensions specified as Width / Length
– Minimum size is 4l / 2l, sometimes called 1 unit
– In f = 0.6 mm process, this is 1.2 mm wide, 0.6 mm
long

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 Summary
 MOS transistors are stacks of gate, oxide, silicon
 Act as electrically controlled switches
 Build logic gates out of switches
 Draw masks to specify layout of transistors

 Now you know everything necessary to start

designing schematics and layout for a simple chip!

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