DATA GATHERING

 Data is everywhere. Indeed, it is common to hear Interviews

people say that we are drowning in data because
 involve an interviewer asking one or more
there is so much of it.
interviewees a set of questions, which may be
highly structured or unstructured; interviews
 So, what is data? Data can be
are usually synchronous and are often face-to-
face, but they don’t have to be.
 numbers
 Increasingly, interviews are conducted remotely
 words
using one of the many teleconferencing
 measurements
systems, such as Skype or Zoom, or on the
 descriptions
phone.
 comments
 photos
Questionnaires
 sketches
 are a series of questions designed to be
 films
answered asynchronously, that is, without the
 Videos
presence of the investigator.
 or almost anything that is useful for
 These questionnaires may be paper-based or
understanding a particular design, user
available online.
needs, and user behavior.
 Data can be quantitative or qualitative.
Observation
For example, the time it takes a user to find information
on a web page and the number of clicks to get to the  may be direct or indirect. Direct observation involves
information are forms of quantitative data. What the user spending time with individuals observing their
says about the web page is a form of qualitative data. activities as they happen.
 Indirect observation involves making a record of the
But what does it mean to collect these and other kinds of user’s activity as it happens, to be studied at a later
data? What techniques can be used, and how useful and date.
reliable is the data that is collected?

 All three techniques may be used to collect

Data Gathering is a central part of discovering
qualitative or quantitative data.
requirements and evaluation. Within the requirements
activity, data gathering is conducted to collect sufficient,
accurate, and relevant data so that design can proceed.
Within evaluation, data gathering captures user reactions I.Five Key Issues
and their performance with a system or prototype.  Goal Setting
 Identifying Participants
 Techniques for scraping large volumes of data  The relationship between the data collector
from online activities, such as Twitter posts, and the data provider
have become available. These and other  Triangulation
techniques for managing huge amounts of data,  Pilot studies
and the implications of their use.
Three main techniques for gathering data are:
 Interviews
 questionnaires
 observation
  Four methods are used to calculate the
number of participants:
1.GOAL SETTING
 Recommendations
 Data collection is essential to comprehending user  prospective power analysis
behavior and responses to technology. Specific aims  cost and feasibility analysis
for the study have an impact on data collection  saturation.
methods, procedures, and analysis. These objectives  While cost and feasibility analysis is a
must to be precise and succinct, whether they are practical decision, saturation depends on
formal or not. data collecting until no new information is
 Examples include seeing how technology affects discovered. Local norms or experts may
family life, recognizing simpler iconography, and provide guidelines.
figuring out how to rebuild a handheld meter reader.
 Although it frequently isn't available in
2. IDENTIFYING PARTICIPANTS interface design, prospective power
analysis depends on quantitative data that
 By using sampling or saturation sampling, the data already exists. For interface design, a
collection session seeks to identify the population or "local standard" recommends a sample
study population. size of twelve.
 There are two popular techniques for collecting
data: probability sampling and nonprobability 3. Relationship between the data
sampling. collector and the data provider
 Nonprobability sampling uses convenience sampling
or volunteer panels, whereas probability sampling  The collaboration between providers
uses simple random or stratified sampling. and data collectors is essential to a
well-conducted, transparent study.
 Convenience sampling uses individuals who are Participants must sign informed
readily available as opposed to those who are consent forms in the US and the UK to
carefully chosen. attest to their comprehension of the
purpose and usage of their data.
 Probability methods and nonprobability methods
differ in that the former can perform strong  These forms provide the right to
statistical tests and make population-wide withdraw at any moment, privacy, and
generalizations, while the latter necessitate a safe keeping. By guaranteeing that the
significant number of participants. data can be utilized for reporting and
analysis, the form safeguards the
 A thorough analysis of sampling is given by Vera interests of both parties.
Toepoel (2016), especially with regard to survey
data.  Informed permission forms give parents
peace of mind that their children won't
be subjected to frightening visuals or
How Many Participants Are Needed? asked threatening questions, which
makes them especially vital for those
 More participants in statistical tests
with impairments or younger children.
enable more true effects and more
accurate interpretations. Figure 8.
1 shows an example of a typical informed consent form. 4. Triangulation
 Investigating a phenomenon from
several angles is known as triangulation,
and it can be classified into four
categories: methodological, data,
investigator, and theories.

 While theories employ various

frameworks, data is gathered from
various sources, researchers, and
methodologies. By highlighting
comparable findings from several angles,
triangulation is frequently used to
validate findings.

 However, because different theoretical

frameworks and data types exist, true
triangulation is difficult. Different
approaches can yield insights when
different data gathering and analysis
techniques are used.

 In large-scale research projects and

crowdsourcing, triangulation is also
employed to confirm the accuracy of
data—a process referred to as "checking
 Since contracts frequently exist between the data for ground truth.”
collector and supplier, informed permission is not
normally necessary when collecting data for
commercial companies. 5. Pilot Studies
 A minor version of the primary study is
 For example, a consultant would ask employees to called a pilot study. Prior to starting the
provide information for a new interactive system, actual study, it is intended to confirm
and they would be expected to comply. that the suggested method is workable.
Nonetheless, it is critical to take the situation into As an illustration, the tools and
account and make your decision on the particulars. guidelines can be validated, the viability
of an experimental procedure can be
 The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) of established, and the interview or
the European Union gives people never-before-seen questionnaire questions can be tested
control over their personal data. It can be necessary for clarity.
to offer incentives to participants in data collection
sessions, for example, in order to gauge how  This helps spot possible issues before
appealing a new interactive software is to students. they arise so they can be fixed. It is a waste of
time and money to distribute 500 questionnaires
and then discover that two of the questions are
 highly confusing. A pilot study could have They can, however, be hard to capture
prevented this costly mistake. highlights from, cause distractions, and
 A pilot study can be used to find introduce biases. Working together with a
participants, but participants should not colleague can provide a different viewpoint
be involved in the main study to avoid and lessen these problems. With permission,
potential dilution of results. images and brief videos of artifacts, events,
and the surroundings may be added to hand-
Data, Information, and Conclusions drawn sketches and notes.
 When gathering and analyzing raw data, information
is gained through interpretation and conclusion-  Audio Plus Photographs
making. For example, research on the new screen As an alternative to taking notes, audio
arrangement at a leisure center may show that while recording lets observers concentrate on the
users under two years old find the arrangement interviewees and their activities without
helpful, those over five years old find it frustrating. having to record every word. It frequently
serves as a reminder and a source of
 This shows that the layout may be more user-friendly anecdotes for reports, giving the analysis
for novices but not for frequent users, indicating the context.
need for a more comprehensive support system to
help seasoned users get used to the new layout. However, due to bad connections and
acoustics, quality is extremely important,
particularly when conducting remote
II.Data Recording interviews. Photos are frequently added to
audio recordings.
 Gathering data is essential for sharing and analyzing
it. While some techniques, such as diaries and
questionnaires, rely solely on self-documentation,  Video
Short video clips can be recorded with
others make use of notes, photos, audio recordings,
smartphones, but long-term or inconsistent
and video recordings.
recordings require professional video equipment.
Professional video equipment is better suited for
 Frequently, different methods of recording are makerspaces or workshops.
blended together, such as taking pictures for context
and recording audio. Additionally, a remote system called GoToMeeting
is used to record verbal comments and facial
 The choice of data recording approach depends on expressions. Planning concerns, however, must be
the study's goal, context, resources, and sensitivity. resolved to reduce intrusiveness and guarantee
Common methods include audio, photographs, and high-quality data.
notes, but video data may be necessary for detailed
recording of activities and contexts.
III.Interviews
 Notes Plus Photographs There are four basic forms of
A flexible and less technical way to record interviews: open-ended or
data that gives a good summary of the unstructured, structured, semi-
content gathered is through handwritten structured, and group interviews
notes. They assist researchers in
concentrating on crucial elements and are Interviews are talks with a purpose.
frequently the initial stage of analysis. The goal, the interview questions, and
the interaction design exercise
determine the type of interview.
  Focus Groups/Group
 A structured interview or questionnaire may be
Interviews
more appropriate for receiving detailed Focus groups, led by a trained facilitator, are
feedback on a particular design feature, but group interviews used in interaction design
an informal, open-ended interview may be exercises. They allow participants to discuss
better for getting an idea of how users are diverse topics, allowing for personal
responding to a new design concept. viewpoints and collective issues. They can
be customized to meet cultural norms, as
seen in Kenya's traditional "talking circle"
 Unstructured Interviews for gathering opinions.

Unstructured interviews are exploratory discussions with

open-ended questions, focusing on a specific issue. They
require probing techniques and a balance between
pertinent and novel lines of inquiry. These interviews
produce rich, complex data, but may not be the same for
every participant. Analyzing them can provide insightful
findings using grounded theory and other techniques.

 Structured Interviews
Similar to questionnaires, structured interviews use pre-
planned, brief, closed questions with each participant in
order to ensure a standardized study. These types of
interviews are helpful when objectives are clear, specific
questions can be identified, and the range of potential
responses is known.
 Planning and Conducting an
 Semi-structured Interviews
Interview
You run the risk of upsetting the interviewer if
Creating the list of questions or topics to cover,
you frame your questions to imply
gathering any supporting materials (like a
predetermined answers. The interviewee's
project description or consent form), making
response may also be influenced by body
sure the recording equipment functions,
language and the amount of time allotted for
arranging the interview's structure, and setting
the conversation. When gathering information,
up a convenient time and location are all part of
especially neutral information, probing and
the planning process.
prompting are helpful techniques. These
techniques seek to advance the conversation Developing Interview Questions
without introducing bias because semi-
Questions may be open-ended (or open)
structured interviews are meant to be widely
or closed-ended (or closed). Open questions are
repeatable.
best suited where the goal of the session is
exploratory; closed questions are best suited
where the possible answers are known in
advance.
Running the Interview
Before starting, make sure that the goals of the
interview have been explained to the
interviewee and that they are willing to
proceed.
Finding out about the interviewee and their
environment before the interview will make it
easier to put them at ease, especially if it is an
unfamiliar setting. During the interview, it is
better to listen more than to talk, to respond
with sympathy but without bias, and to appear As another example, Clara Mancini et al. (2009)
to enjoy the interview. used a combination of questionnaire prompts
and deferred contextual interviews when
Other Forms of Interview
investigating mobile privacy.
Although in-person interviews and focus groups
In order to study mobile privacy, Clara Mancini
may not always be feasible, remote
et al. (2009) used deferred contextual
interviewing can be a useful substitute due to
interviews and questionnaire prompts.
the widespread use of email, Skype, Cisco
Participants' smartphones were used to answer
WebEx, Zoom, and other digital conferencing
questions and conduct interviews at a later
platforms, as well as phone-based interactions
time.
(voice or chat), occasionally combined with
screen-sharing software.
IV. Questionnaires
These are conducted similarly to in-person
meetings, but different problems may arise Questionnaires are a method for gathering user
from bad connections and acoustics, and opinions and demographic information,
participants might be more inclined to multitask allowing for greater data collection without
than pay attention to the task at hand. additional resources. They can be used
independently or in combination with other
Enriching the Interview Experience
techniques to enhance understanding.
In-person interviews typically occur in an
Although they have different goals,
impartial setting apart from the interviewee's
questionnaires and structured interviews share
typical surroundings. Because of the artificial
similar objectives. They are quicker and easier
context this produces, interviewees may find it
to administer, but require careful use of
challenging to fully respond to questions.
negative questions.
Interviews can be improved by employing props
Questionnaire Structure
like personas, prototypes, or work artifacts that
the interviewee or interviewer brings along, or The opening questions on a questionnaire
by providing descriptions of routine tasks, in usually include basic demographic data like
order to help counteract this. gender, age, and place of birth, as well as details
about relevant experience. In addition to
ensuring that only pertinent data is gathered,
this helps contextualize replies.
It may be easier and more logical to complete a
lengthy questionnaire if the questions are
divided into related topics. By doing so,
 accurate data collection is ensured and the  Semantic Differential Scales
context of the responses is better understood.

 Question and Response Format

Selecting the appropriate question and
response format, such as closed-ended
questions or range questions, can enhance
clarity and make it easier for respondents to
provide clear answers. Common formats
include:  Administering Questioners
 Check Boxes and Ranges
A suitable response rate and a representative
sample are necessary for questionnaires.
Although sampling techniques are necessary for
large surveys, interaction designers frequently
employ small samples. Larger or more remote
populations are concerned about return rates.
Online forms provide advantages such as
automated data collection and analysis, and are
 Rating Scales
more convenient. In addition to automatically
transferring responses into a database for
analysis, they can be interactive and offer
instantaneous data validation. Offering
incentives varies based on the target audience.

 Likert Scales
 handling delicate matters, and incorporating
diverse viewpoints. Teamwork is key.
V.Observation Regularly checking notes, records, and
maintaining personal opinions are essential.
 In product development, observation is Confirming observations and interpretations
essential because it helps designers with informants or participants is also
comprehend the context, tasks, and important.
objectives of users. Examining how well the
prototype supports these tasks and objectives
can be done directly or indirectly, in the field
 Ethnography
or in a controlled setting like a usability lab.
Social scientists employ ethnography as a
method to comprehend the structure and
 Direct Observation in the Field functions of society. In interaction design, it is
Field observations provide valuable insights into widely used, especially for collaborative
user behavior and technology usage, but can be systems. Without using a framework,
laborious and complex. Developing adaptability ethnography observes events and records the
and flexibility is crucial, and experience is viewpoints of participants.
necessary to strike a balance between goal- Big data is used to analyze how people behave
setting and adaptability. and use technology. Ethnographic data is
gathered in a variety of ways, and research
 Structuring Frameworks for endeavors to comprehend individuals' actions
Observation in the Field within particular environments.

Experts use a simple framework to

structure and focus their observations, as
events can be complex and rapidly
changing during observations.

 Degree of Participation
Study participants vary based on objectives and
type. Passive observers blend in with the group,
requiring objectivity and detachment. Full
participant observer approaches may be
challenging due to time, skill, or organizational
preparedness. Researchers like Chandrika Cycil
et al. (2013) used family vacations to gather
family dynamics and context before data
collection.

 Planning and Conducting an

Observation in the Field
Choosing a framework is crucial for
organizing observation and data collection
tasks. Other factors include participant
count, data collection, group acceptance,
 Researchers use a think-aloud protocol to
examine problem-solving strategies in children.
They type their child's phone into the search
box, observing their silent screen. This
technique requires people to express their
thoughts out loud, externalizing their thought
processes.

 Direct Observation in Controlled

Environments

Observing users in controlled environments, using  Indirect Observation: Tracking

scripts, and recording data are crucial for controlled Users’ Activities
studies. The study focuses on context and Sometimes direct observation is not possible
interaction, with equipment arrangement and because it is too intrusive or observers cannot be
camera arrangement being essential. Data is then present over the duration of the study, and so
edited and analyzed. activities are tracked indirectly. Diaries and
interaction logs are two techniques for doing this.
 The Think-Aloud Technique  Diaries
Observation can be problematic as the observer Diaries are a valuable method for gathering
doesn't know users' thoughts and can only data on participants' activities, feelings, and
guess from what they see. In a controlled motivations, especially when participants are
environment, the think-aloud technique can private or related to emotions. They are
help understand a person's thoughts. For time-efficient and suitable for long-term
example, observing a user evaluating the studies.
interface of a web search engine can help
understand their thoughts. However, determining the study duration can
be challenging due to participant reliability
and memory exaggeration. Researchers can
use other media like photographs, audio, or
artifacts to enhance recall.
 • The participants involved. Characteristics of
the target user group including their location and
availability.
• The nature of the technique. Does the
technique require specialist equipment or
training, and do the investigators have the
appropriate knowledge and experience?
• Available resources. Expertise, tool support,
time, and money.
Table 8.1 provides an overview of techniques,
including information type, data type,
advantages and disadvantages, and modalities.
Different modalities, such as face-to-face,
 Interaction Logs, Web Analytics, phone, or teleconferencing, should be
considered when choosing techniques.
and Data Scraping
Interaction logs are software tools that record
users' activity, such as key presses, mouse
movements, and time spent on websites. They are
unobtrusive and can automatically log large
volumes of data, allowing for quantitative and
qualitative analysis.
Indirect observation involves examining the
activity trail left behind on websites, such as Twitter
or Facebook, to examine discussion threads on
specific topics. Automated techniques are needed
to analyze thousands, tens, or millions of posts,
requiring web analytics and data scraping.

VI.Choosing and Combining

 Collecting case study data
Techniques
Case studies are a method used to collect field
Combining data gathering techniques into a study data over time, often involving direct and
single program provides multiple perspectives indirect observations and interviews. They are
and is common in case study data collection. The effective for integrating multiple perspectives
choice of techniques depends on study goals and and understanding first impressions.
factors.
Data collection methods include
• The focus of the study. What kind of data documentation, archival records, interviews,
will support the focus and goal of the study? This direct observations, participant observation, and
will be influenced by the interaction design physical artifacts. For instance, a study on local
activity and the level of maturity of the design. communities' technology adaptation for
managing rivers and streams allowed a detailed
analysis of events and relationships.