ATOC 4880/5880

Mesoscale Meteorology

Organization of
Isolated Convection

Spring 2023
SEEC Bldg., Room N129
Tuesdays and Thursdays 11:30 am –12:45 pm

Dr. David Kingsmill

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection
Role of Vertical Wind Shear

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection

Role of Vertical Wind Shear

Both simulations are

initialized with a CAPE
of 2200 J kg-1. Only the
vertical profile of zonal
wind is different.

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection

 Role of Vertical Wind Shear

Convective
Storm
Matrix

• For initial storm, max 𝑤𝑤 increases for greater CAPE

and decreases for greater shear due to more
entrainment.
• Secondary storm will not occur without shear and
can’t be maintained with too much shear.
• Secondary split storms (supercells) optimally occur
with moderate to high shear
• The values of shear supporting a supercell are too
large to support the secondary cell development that
defines a multicell storm yet low enough that the
developing storm is not sheared apart.

From Weisman and Klemp. (1982) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection
 Role of Vertical Wind Shear
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
Bulk Richardson Number ≡ 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 =
1 2
𝑈𝑈
2
where 𝑈𝑈 is the vector difference of 0-6 km mean wind and 0-500 m mean wind

BRN
S=Supercells M=Multicells TR=Tropical
From Weisman and Klemp. (1982) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection
 Single-Cell Storms
Form in a weakly-sheared environment. Such storms also known as
“Pulse”, “Ordinary” and “Air-Mass” storms
This conceptual model was developed in the late 1940’s with data collected during
the “Thunderstorm Project”. The data was derived from radar (non-Doppler),
aircraft (in situ), balloon sounding and surface observations, which really did not
provide enough information to justify the detail shown below.
Total lifetime of 30-60 minutes

Cumulus Mature Dissipating

From Byers and Braham (1949) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection
 Single-Cell Storms
More detailed multiple Doppler radar observations
of a single-cell storm from the late 1980’s:

Cumulus
Stage

Max updraft:
10 ~12 m/s
km
Cloud top:
~8 km
10
m/s

Reflectivity and wind

vectors on cloud photo
Reflectivity (gray),
vertical velocity (black)
and wind vectors
From Kingsmill and Wakimoto (1991) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection
 Single-Cell Storms
Retrieval of pressure and buoyancy from
multi-Doppler wind field

1 𝜕𝜕𝑝𝑝′ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
=− − 𝐯𝐯 � 𝛁𝛁𝑢𝑢 + 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

1 𝜕𝜕𝑝𝑝′ 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣
=− − 𝐯𝐯 � 𝛁𝛁𝑣𝑣 − 𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑢
𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

1 𝜕𝜕𝑝𝑝′ 𝜕𝜕𝑤𝑤
𝐵𝐵 = + + 𝐯𝐯 � 𝛁𝛁𝑤𝑤
𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣′
𝐵𝐵 ≅ 𝑔𝑔 − 𝑟𝑟𝐻𝐻
𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣

Perturbation pressure Thermal buoyancy

Precipitation loading
From Kingsmill and Wakimoto (1991) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection
 Single-Cell Storms
Thermal buoyancy and
precipitation loading
Cumulus
Stage

Storm is
dominated by
buoyancy

Perturbation
pressure is
relatively small

Similarity to
plumes/thermals

Storm has not

yet glaciated

From Kingsmill and Wakimoto (1991) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection
 Single-Cell Storms
Now compare with the Byers and Braham conceptual model:

Cumulus
Stage

A lot of
similarities, but
the storm has not
yet glaciated

From Byers and Braham (1949)

From Kingsmill and Wakimoto (1991) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection
 Single-Cell Storms
The storm has now glaciated, creating a burst of latent heating to form a
towering cumulus cloud reaching ~14 km
Mature
Stage

Max updraft of
~22 m/s at 11.5 km

Descending
precipitation core in
relatively weak
updraft surrounded
by stronger updrafts

Bimodal vertical
distribution of
thermal buoyancy

From Kingsmill and Wakimoto (1991) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection
 Single-Cell Storms
Mature Deep midlevel downdraft
on periphery of storm
Stage
10
m/s

Downdraft does
not extend to the
surface and is
clearly displaced
from the
precipitation core

Associated with
negative thermal
buoyancy most
likely produced
by evaporative Relative Plane of Behind
cooling camera photo plane of
position
photo
Cross section INTO the photograph
From Kingsmill and Wakimoto (1991) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection
 Single-Cell Storms
Now compare with the Byers and Braham conceptual model:

Mature
Stage

Many similarities,
but some
significant
differences in
updraft and
downdraft structure

From Byers and Braham (1949)

From Kingsmill and Wakimoto (1991) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection
 Single-Cell Storms
Precipitation core has now reached the surface and is associated with a
downdraft that extends up to ~4 km.
Dissipating
Stage
Max downdraft of
~13 m/s

Strong downdraft
not aligned with
highest reflectivity
but coincident with
minimum in thermal
buoyancy

This low-level
downdraft is distinct
from the midlevel
downdraft observed
during the mature
From Kingsmill and Wakimoto (1991) stage
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection
 Single-Cell Storms
Vertical velocity at 2 km AGL
Dissipating
Stage

10
Strong divergent km
outflow at the surface
underneath strong
downdraft

The divergent outflow

Perturbation pressure at surface
is associated with a
10
relatively large and m/s
positive pressure
perturbation, the
largest observed
during the entirety of
the storm

From Kingsmill and Wakimoto (1991) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection
 Single-Cell Storms
Now compare with the Byers and Braham conceptual model:

Dissipating
Stage

Mostly similar, but

downward motion
is not evident
throughout and the
magnitude of
vertical motions are
non-negligible at
upper levels

From Byers and Braham (1949)

From Kingsmill and Wakimoto (1991) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection
 Multicell Storms
Disorganized collection of single-cell storms in a weakly-sheared environment
based on data from the Thunderstorm Project. All of the various cells are at various
stages of evolution and not positioned relative to each other in a systematic manner.
Lifetime of several hours.

From Byers (1959) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection

 Multicell Storms
With the addition of vertical wind shear, new growth occurs systematically on a
preferred flank of the multicell storm. The preferred flank is often on the downshear
side where the horizontal vorticity balance is optimized for more erect updrafts:

No Shear

Upshear Downshear
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection
 Multicell Storms
Schematic evolution of multicell storm

Based on a storm in NE Colorado

Upshear Downshear

From Browning et al. (1976)

Downshear Upshear
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection
 Multicell Storms

Example from
Taiwan

a5 a4 a3 a2 a1

Courtesy of Ben Jou (National Taiwan University) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection
 Multicell Storms

(VC)

• New storm development

occurs on flank of gust front
where convergence is
maximized with low level
storm relative ambient flow
• Hence, cell motion (Vc) may
be different than the system
motion (Vs)
• Therefore, multicell storms
may not propagate in the
direction of the mean
ambient flow

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection

 Multicell Storms

24 June 2018 ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection

 Multicell Storms

Denver Sounding

m/s
km
MSL

• Weak winds and wind shear in the

lowest 3 km AGL
• Storm-relative winds in the lowest
3 km AGL directed toward the W
• Shear vector for the lowest 6 km
AGL directed toward the ENE
• Somewhat consistent with eastern
preferred flank for new growth
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection
 Multicell Storms

18 June 2018 ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection

 Multicell Storms

Denver Sounding

m/s
km
MSL

• Shear vector for the lowest 2 km AGL

directed toward the NNE and for the
lowest 6 km AGL toward the NE
• Storm-relative winds in the lowest 2
km AGL directed toward the WSW to
WNW
• Not consistent with preferred southern
flank for new growth
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection
 Supercell Storms

From various photographers (not me) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection
 Supercell Storms
Definition:
An often dangerous convective storm that consists primarily of a single,
quasi-steady rotating updraft, which persists for a period of time much
longer than it takes an air parcel to rise from the base of the updraft to
its summit (often much longer than 10–20 min).

Most rotating updrafts are characterized by cyclonic vorticity called a

mesocyclone. The supercell typically has a very organized internal
structure that enables it to propagate continuously. It may exist for
several hours and usually forms in an environment with strong vertical
wind shear. Supercells often propagate in a direction and with a speed
other than indicated by the mean wind in the environment. Such storms
sometimes evolve through a splitting process, which produces a
cyclonic, right-moving (with respect to the mean wind), and anticyclonic,
left-moving, pair of supercells. Severe weather often accompanies
supercells, which are capable of producing high winds, large hail, and
strong, long-lived tornadoes.

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection

 Supercell Storms
Forward Flank Downdraft

Rear Flank Downdraft

Updraft
From Lemon and Doswell (1979)

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection

 Supercell Storms
Devastating tornadic supercell over Moore, OK on 20 May 2013

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection

 Supercell Storms
Devastating tornadic supercell over Moore, OK on 20 May 2013

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection

 Supercell Storms
BWER: Bounded Weak Echo Region (Associated with VERY strong updraft)

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection

Supercell Storms

View from the ~SE

View from the ~SE

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection
 Supercell Storms

Early
Stage

Views from ~South

Mature
Stage Note evolution of rear-flank
downdraft and flanking-line
gust front

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection

 Supercell Storms

What is the origin of supercell rotation? Let’s look at the equation for
tendency of vertical vorticity, neglecting the Coriolis term:

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑤𝑤 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑤𝑤 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑤𝑤

= −𝐯𝐯 � 𝛻𝛻𝛻𝛻 + 𝜁𝜁 + − + −
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦

Advection Stretching Tilting

Linearize this equation by decomposing variables into mean and

perturbation components:
𝑢𝑢 = 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑢𝑢′ 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣 + 𝑣𝑣 ′ 𝑤𝑤 = 𝑤𝑤 ′ 𝜁𝜁 = 𝜁𝜁 ′

After neglecting products of perturbations, the equation becomes:

𝜕𝜕𝜁𝜁 ′ 𝜕𝜕𝜁𝜁 ′ 𝜕𝜕𝜁𝜁 ′ 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝑤𝑤 ′ 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑤𝑤 ′
= −𝑢𝑢 − 𝑣𝑣 + −
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥

Advection Tilting
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection
 Supercell Storms
The linearized vorticity equation can be expressed more succinctly as:
𝜕𝜕𝜁𝜁 ′
= −𝐯𝐯 � 𝛁𝛁h 𝜁𝜁 ′ + 𝐒𝐒 × 𝛁𝛁h 𝑤𝑤 ′ � 𝐤𝐤
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Advection Tilting

𝜕𝜕𝐯𝐯 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕

where 𝐯𝐯 = 𝑢𝑢𝐢𝐢 + 𝑣𝑣𝐣𝐣 𝐒𝐒 = = 𝐢𝐢 + 𝐣𝐣 𝛁𝛁h = 𝐢𝐢 + 𝐣𝐣
𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦

The interaction of shear (𝐒𝐒) with

a circular updraft (pink area with
maximum in middle) via the
tilting term leads to a counter-
rotating vertical vorticity couplet
on the left and right sides of the
updraft looking downshear.

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection

 Supercell Storms
A slight modification to the linearized
vorticity equation is necessary to account
for movement of the updraft/storm (at
speed 𝐜𝐜). This storm-relative (sr) version
only modifies the advection term:
𝜕𝜕𝜁𝜁 ′
= − 𝐯𝐯 − 𝐜𝐜 � 𝛁𝛁h 𝜁𝜁 ′ + 𝐒𝐒 × 𝛁𝛁h 𝑤𝑤 ′ � 𝐤𝐤
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 sr
Advection Tilting

The advection of vorticity is dependent

on the orientation of storm-relative flow
(𝐯𝐯 − 𝐜𝐜) with respect to the shear vector
(𝐒𝐒), which is orthogonal to the horizontal
vorticity vector (𝛚𝛚h )
If (𝐯𝐯 − 𝐜𝐜) ⊥ 𝛚𝛚h , vertical vorticity couplet
structure is retained (crosswise vorticity)
If (𝐯𝐯 − 𝐜𝐜) ∥ 𝛚𝛚h , positive vertical vorticity
advected to center of updraft
(streamwise vorticity)
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection
 Supercell Storms
Streamwise vorticity : (𝐯𝐯 − 𝐜𝐜) ∥ 𝛚𝛚h Crosswise vorticity : (𝐯𝐯 − 𝐜𝐜) ⊥ 𝛚𝛚h

Consider this analogy: Imagine air parcels shaped like a football with the long axis
parallel to the storm-relative winds. Streamwise vorticity would be equivalent to a
football thrown with a spiral. Crosswise vorticity would be equivalent to a football
kicked end-over-end.

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection

 Supercell Storms

If an updraft tilts air parcels with If an updraft tilts air parcels with crosswise
streamwise vorticity, they immediately vorticity, the updraft is not spatially
acquire vertical vorticity since the updraft correlated with the vertical vorticity field
and vertical vorticity fields are spatially, and therefore, does not immediately
positively correlated. This type of airflow acquire rotation
is said to be helical.

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection

 Supercell Storms
Cover of our textbook

If an updraft tilts air

parcels with streamwise
vorticity, they
immediately acquire
vertical vorticity since
the updraft and vertical
vorticity fields are
spatially, positively
correlated. This type of
airflow is said to be
helical.

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection

 Supercell Storms
Helicity (ℋ) ≡ A measure of the degree to which the direction of
fluid motion is aligned with the vorticity of the fluid
Mathematically: ℋ = 𝐯𝐯 � 𝛚𝛚 = 𝐯𝐯 � 𝛁𝛁 × 𝐯𝐯
For applications to convective storms, the horizontal components of
these vectors as obtained from environmental soundings (assumed
as mean values) are integrated over the depth (𝑑𝑑) of expected
storm inflow (usually 1-3 km):
𝑑𝑑
ℋ = ∫0 𝐯𝐯 � 𝝎𝝎𝐡𝐡 dz where 𝝎𝝎𝐡𝐡 = 𝐤𝐤 × 𝐒𝐒

A storm-relative version of this equation is most relevant because

we are interested in tilting by the (moving) updraft:

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
𝐯𝐯 − 𝐜𝐜 � 𝝎𝝎𝐡𝐡
S𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = � 𝐯𝐯 − 𝐜𝐜 � 𝝎𝝎𝐡𝐡 dz = � 𝐯𝐯 − 𝐜𝐜 𝜔𝜔𝒔𝒔 dz where 𝜔𝜔𝒔𝒔 =
0 0 𝐯𝐯 − 𝐜𝐜
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = � 𝐯𝐯 − 𝐜𝐜 � 𝐤𝐤 × 𝐒𝐒 dz = − � 𝐤𝐤 � 𝐯𝐯 − 𝐜𝐜 × 𝐒𝐒 dz
0 0

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection

 Supercell Storms
Graphical calculation of storm-relative
helicity (𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆) from a hodograph:

The magnitude of 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 is equal to

twice the area bounded by the
hodograph and the tip of the storm-
motion vector. This relationship is
derived from an application of Green’s
theorem, which gives the relationship
between a line integral around a
simple curve and a double integral
over the area bounded by the curve. The green shaded area above comprises
a quarter circle of radius 5 ms-1 plus a
square of 5 ms-1 x 5 ms-1. The total area
3 km of these two regions is ~45 m2s-2, which
4 km
2 km corresponds to a SRH of ~90 m2s-2.
5 km 7 km
6 km
1 km
SFC Storm Motion

This area represents

the Sfc-3 km helicity ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection
 Supercell Storms
Calculation of storm-relative helicity (𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆) from sounding data using a
discretized version of the equation: 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑣𝑣 − 𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐 𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑢𝑢 − 𝑢𝑢𝑐𝑐
𝑑𝑑 𝑘𝑘=𝑘𝑘𝑑𝑑 −1
𝑢𝑢𝑘𝑘+1 − 𝑢𝑢𝑘𝑘 𝑣𝑣𝑘𝑘+1 − 𝑣𝑣𝑘𝑘
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = − � 𝐤𝐤 � 𝐯𝐯 − 𝐜𝐜 × 𝐒𝐒 dz ≅ � 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑢𝑢 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 1 (𝑧𝑧𝑘𝑘+1 − 𝑧𝑧𝑘𝑘 )
𝑘𝑘+ 𝑧𝑧𝑘𝑘+1 − 𝑧𝑧𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘+ 𝑧𝑧𝑘𝑘+1 − 𝑧𝑧𝑘𝑘
1
0 𝑘𝑘=1 2 2

1
where the summation is over the levels (𝑘𝑘) of a sounding. The 𝑘𝑘 +
2
terms represent averages in the layer between levels of the sounding.
Let’s use one of the hodographs from the last slide as an example:
Sounding Levels
Level 𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣
(k=1) 0 0 5
3d/4
d/2 (k=2) d/4 .7 7.5
d/4 (k=3) d/2 2.5 9.3
(k=4) 3d/4 5 10
(k=5=kd) d 10 10
Storm Motion (c) 10 5
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection
 Supercell Storms
Now, lets create a table to derive parameters in the layers in between the
sounding levels (𝑧𝑧𝑘𝑘+1 − 𝑧𝑧𝑘𝑘 ) is the same at all levels, so those terms vanish)
𝑘𝑘=𝑘𝑘𝑑𝑑 −1

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ≅ � 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 1
(𝑢𝑢𝑘𝑘+1 − 𝑢𝑢𝑘𝑘 ) − 𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 1
(𝑣𝑣𝑘𝑘+1 − 𝑣𝑣𝑘𝑘 )
𝑘𝑘+ 𝑘𝑘+
2 2
𝑘𝑘=1

Level 𝒖𝒖𝒌𝒌 𝒗𝒗𝒌𝒌 𝒖𝒖𝒌𝒌+𝟏𝟏 − 𝒖𝒖𝒌𝒌 𝒗𝒗𝒌𝒌+𝟏𝟏 − 𝒗𝒗𝒌𝒌 𝒖𝒖 𝟏𝟏 𝒗𝒗 𝟏𝟏 𝒖𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝟏𝟏

𝒗𝒗𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝟏𝟏
𝒌𝒌+ 𝒌𝒌+ 𝒌𝒌+ 𝒌𝒌+
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐

(k=1) 0 0 5
k=3/2 0.7 2.5 0.35 6.25 -9.65 1.25
(k=2) d/4 0.7 7.5
k=5/2 1.8 1.8 1.6 8.4 -8.4 3.4
(k=3) d/2 2.5 9.3
k=7/2 2.5 0.7 3.75 9.65 -6.25 4.65
(k=4) 3d/4 5 10
k=9/2 5 0 7.5 10 -2.5 5
(k=5=kd) d 10 10
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection
 Supercell Storms
𝑘𝑘=𝑘𝑘𝑑𝑑
Now, lets derive the 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ≅ � 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 1 (𝑢𝑢𝑘𝑘+1 − 𝑢𝑢𝑘𝑘 ) − 𝑢𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 1 (𝑣𝑣𝑘𝑘+1 − 𝑣𝑣𝑘𝑘 )
𝑘𝑘+ 𝑘𝑘+
2 2
𝑘𝑘=1

Layer 1 (k=1 to 2): (1.25)*(0.7) – (-9.65)*(2.5) = 25 m2s-2 Total: 87.24 m2s-2

Layer 2 (k=2 to 3): (3.4)*(1.8) – (-8.4)*(1.8) = 21.24 m2s-2 (compares well with
Layer 3 (k=3 to 4): (4.65)*(2.5) – (-6.25)*(0.7) = 16 m2s-2 value of 90 m2s-2
Layer 4 (k=4 to 5): (5)*(5) – (-2.5)*(0) = 25 m2s-2 derived graphically)

3d/4
d/2
Typically, supercell storms do not
d/4
occur unless the 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 > 150 m2s-2

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection

Supercell Storms
Propagation and Evolution

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection

Supercell Storms
Propagation and Evolution

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection

 Supercell Storms
Dynamic Pressure Perturbations

Dynamic pressure perturbations (𝑝𝑝𝑑𝑑′ ) result when fluid elements are

influenced by rotation (the “spin” term) and deformation (the “splat” term):
3 3 2
1 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗 1
𝑝𝑝𝑑𝑑′ ∝ �� + − 𝛚𝛚 2
4 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 2
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑗𝑗=1

“Splat” term “Spin” term

(Rate of strain tensor) (Vorticity vector)

The “splat” term is always associated with high 𝑝𝑝𝑑𝑑′ (e.g., downdraft hitting
the surface) while the “spin” term is always associated with low 𝑝𝑝𝑑𝑑′ (e.g.,
tornadoes). For the latter, low 𝑝𝑝𝑑𝑑′ is associated with any sense of rotation
(i.e., cyclostrophic balance)

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection

 Supercell Storms
Dynamic Pressure Perturbations

The equation from the previous slide can be partitioned into linear and
nonlinear components by separating the wind field into mean and
perturbation components (part of Equ 2.137):
3 3 2
1 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑖𝑖′ 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗′ 1 ′ 𝜕𝜕𝑤𝑤 ′ 𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝑤𝑤 ′ 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣
𝑝𝑝𝑑𝑑′ ∝ �� + − 𝛚𝛚 2
+ 2 +
4 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑗𝑗=1

Nonlinear term Linear term

This equation can then be modified through scale analysis appropriate for
supercell storms (part of Equ 8.24):
′ 1 ′2
𝑝𝑝𝑑𝑑 ∝ − 𝜁𝜁 + 2𝐒𝐒 � 𝛁𝛁h 𝑤𝑤 ′
2

Nonlinear term Linear term

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection

 Supercell Storms

Nonlinear dynamic perturbation

pressure is the key factor that
leads to splitting of supercells

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection

 Supercell Storms

Linear dynamic perturbation

pressure and a curved
hodograph are the key factors
that lead to supercell growth on
a preferred flank of the storm.

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Organization of Isolated Convection