Name ______________________ Date(YY/MM/DD) ______/_________/_______

St.No. __ __ __ __ __-__ __ __ __ Section__________ Group #_____

UNIT 28: ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

AND POLARIZATION
Approximate Time Three 100-minute Sessions

Hey diddle diddle, what kind of riddle

Is this nature of light?
Sometimes it’s a wave,
Other times particle...
But which answer will be marked right?

Jon Scieszka

OBJECTIVES

1. To understand electromagnetic waves and how they propagate.

2. To investigate different ways to polarize light including linear and

circular polarization.

© 2014 by S. Johnson. Adapted from PHYS 131 Optics Lab #3.

Page 28-2 Studio Physics Activity Guide SFU

OVERVIEW

In this unit you will learn about the behaviour of electro-

magnetic waves. Maxwell predicted the existence of elec-
tromagnetic waves in 1864, a long time before anyone was
able to create or detect them. It was Maxwell’s four famous
equations that led him to this prediction which was finally
confirmed experimentally by Hertz in 1887.

Maxwell argued that if a changing magnetic field could

create a changing electric field then the changing electric
field would in turn create another changing magnetic field.
He predicted that these changing fields would continuously
generate each other and so propagate and carry energy
with them. The mathematics involved further indicated
that these fields would propagate as waves. When one
solves for the wave speed one gets:

1
wave speed: c =
ε0µ0 (28.1)

Where ε0 and µ0 are the electrical constants we have already

been introduced to. The magnitude of this speed led Max-
€ further hypothesize that light is an electromagnetic
well to
wave.

Once you have learned a few things about the nature of

electromagnetic waves, you will go on to investigate the
phenomenon of polarization.

© 2014, 2009 by S. Johnson and N. Alberding Adapted from PHYS 131 Optics Lab #3.
Unit 28 – Electromagnetic Waves and Polarization Page 28-3
Authors: Sarah Johnson and Neil Alberding

SESSION 1 — ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Figure 28.1: An electromagnetic wave.

An electromagnetic wave that is travelling in the positive

z-direction with its electric field oscillating parallel to the
x-axis and its magnetic field oscillating parallel to the y-
axis (as shown in Figure 28.1) can be represented mathe-
matically using two sinusoidal functions of position (z) and
time (t):
  max
E = E sin(kz − ωt) (28.2a)
 
B = B max sin(kz − ωt) (28.2b)
 
where€E max and B max are the amplitudes of the fields, ω is
the angular frequency which is equal to 2πf, where f is the
frequency of the wave, and k is the wave number, which is
equal€to 2π/λ, where λ is the wavelength.
€ €
It is important to note that Figure 28.1 is an abstract rep-
resentation of an electromagnetic wave that represents the
magnitude and direction of the electric and magnetic fields
at points along the z-axis. In a real electromagnetic wave
travelling through space, for each line parallel to the z-axis
there is a similar picture. These arrows, which represent
field vectors, do not indicate a sideways displacement of
anything. Also, as we’ll soon see, there can be many axes
along which the fields oscillate in one electromagnetic
wave.

© 2014, 2009 by S. Johnson and N. Alberding Adapted from PHYS 131 Optics Lab #3.
Page 28-4 Studio Physics Activity Guide SFU

✍ Activity 28-1: Wave Speed

(a) Plug in the values for ε0, the permittivity of free space and µ0,the
permeability of free space, into the following equation and verify
that the wave speed of electromagnetic waves that you get is consis-
tent with the speed of light in a vacuum, c = 299 792 458 m/s:

1
wave speed: c =
ε0µ0 (28.1)

The speed of a wave is equal to a product of its wavelength

λ and its frequency f. So. for an electromagnetic wave we
get:

c = λf (28.3)

This means there is an inverse relationship between wave-

length and frequency for electromagnetic waves, i.e. the
longer the wavelength of a wave, the lower the frequency.
€
Electromagnetic (EM) waves are often sorted into what’s
know as the Electromagnetic Spectrum, where the types of
electromagnetic waves are sorted in order of their wave-
length or frequency. One example of an electromagnetic
spectrum where the waves are sorted by wavelength is
shown below in Figure 28.2. As you know, modern technol-
ogy takes advantage of the existence of many of these elec-
tromagnetic waves, which all travel at the speed of light, c.

© 2014, 2009 by S. Johnson and N. Alberding Adapted from PHYS 131 Optics Lab #3.
Unit 28 – Electromagnetic Waves and Polarization Page 28-5
Authors: Sarah Johnson and Neil Alberding

Figure 28.2: The Electromagnetic Spectrum.

✍ Activity 28-2: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

(a) Using Figure 28.2 roughly estimate the average wavelength and
frequency of the following EM waves:

1) Gamma rays

2) Ultraviolet waves

3) Microwaves

4) Radio waves

© 2014, 2009 by S. Johnson and N. Alberding Adapted from PHYS 131 Optics Lab #3.
Page 28-6 Studio Physics Activity Guide SFU

(b) On the grid below, graph log(frequency) vs. log(wavelength) for

these 4 EM waves.

(c) Does your graph show the relationship between frequency and
wavelength that you expect? What is this relationship? Why do you
think it was necessary to take logarithms of both quantities?

© 2014, 2009 by S. Johnson and N. Alberding Adapted from PHYS 131 Optics Lab #3.
Unit 28 – Electromagnetic Waves and Polarization Page 28-7
Authors: Sarah Johnson and Neil Alberding

The Wave Equation

Using the definitions of ω and k, ω = 2πf and k = 2π/ λ, we
can rewrite 28.3 as:

⎛ 2π ⎞⎛ ω ⎞ ω
c = λf = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ k ⎠⎝ 2π ⎠ k (28.4)

Using this result we can rewrite our two wave equations

€as:
 ✓z ◆
⇥ t) = E⇥ 0 sin
E(z, t (28.5a)
c
\vec{E}(x,t)= \vec{E}_0 \sin\left[\omega\left(\frac{z}{c}- t\right)\right
 ✓z ◆
⇥ t) = B
B(z, ⇥ 0 sin t (28.5b)
c

One can use Faraday’s Law to determine the ratio of the

electric and magnetic fields. This ratio is:
 
E max E
 max =  = c
B B
(28.6)

Thus if you know the magnitude of one of the two fields

you can easily determine the magnitude of the other in an
€electromagnetic wave.

✍ Activity 28-3: The Wave Equation

Suppose you are given the following wave equation:
h ⇣z ⌘i
Ex = (4.0V/m) sin ( 5 ⇥ 1015 s 1 ) t , Ey = 0, Ez = 0
c
E_x=(4.0{\rm V/m}) \sin \left[ (\tfrac{\pi}{5} \times 10^{15} {\rm ~s^{-1}})\left(\frac{z}{c}-t \right) \right],
~E_y=0, ~E_z=0
Determine the following quantities for this electromagnetic wave.

(a) ω = ?

(b) f = ?

© 2014, 2009 by S. Johnson and N. Alberding Adapted from PHYS 131 Optics Lab #3.
Page 28-8 Studio Physics Activity Guide SFU

(c) λ = ?

(d) k = ?

(e) Write expressions for the three components (x,y,z) of the mag-
netic field of this wave below.

(f) What type of electromagnetic wave do these equations describe?

(radio wave?, x-ray? etc...)

© 2014, 2009 by S. Johnson and N. Alberding Adapted from PHYS 131 Optics Lab #3.
Unit 28 – Electromagnetic Waves and Polarization Page 28-9
Authors: Sarah Johnson and Neil Alberding

Energy Transport by Electromagnetic Waves

We know that the energy per unit volume or energy density

stored in an electric field of magnitude E is:

1
u elec = ε0 E 2
2 (28.7)

We also know that the energy per unit volume stored in a

magnetic field of magnitude B is:

€
mag B2
u =
2µ0 (28.8)

Using the fact that E = cB for an electromagnetic wave, it

is easy to show that these two energy densities are equal
for em waves:
€
1 1 1
u elec = ε0 E 2 = ε0 (cB) 2 = ε0c 2 B 2
2 2 2
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
= ε0c 2 2µ0 u mag = c 2 ⎜ 2 ⎟ u mag = u mag
2 ⎝ c ⎠

where we have used Equation 28.1 to replace ε0 µ0 with

1/c2 . This equality of the two energy densities is true eve-
rywhere along an electromagnetic wave.
€
The total energy density for an electromagnetic wave is the
sum of the two energy densities:

total elec mag 1 2 B2

u =u +u = ε0 E +
2 2µ0 (28.9)

Because the two densities are equal, one can also write:

€
u total = 2u elec = ε0 E 2 (28.10)

© 2014, 2009 by S. Johnson and N. Alberding Adapted from PHYS 131 Optics Lab #3.
Page 28-10 Studio Physics Activity Guide SFU

total mag B2
u = 2u =
µ0 (28.11)

These two equations are useful if you only know one of the
two field strengths.

€ One can use these expressions to determine the rate of en-

ergy transport per unit area for an em wave. The instanta-
neous energy flow rate is given as:

1 2
S= E = ε0cE 2
cµ0 (28.12)

✍ Activity 28-4: Electromagnetic Wave Intensity

€(a) If intensity I is defined to be the time-average of S, show that for
an em wave travelling in the positive z-direction:

1
I= S = (E max ) 2 sin 2 (kz − ωt)
cµ0

(b) Rewrite the intensity in terms of the root-mean square value of

the magnitude of the electric field Erms = Emax / √2 and using the
fact that the time-average of sin2 (kz - ωt) in this case equals 1/2.

© 2014, 2009 by S. Johnson and N. Alberding Adapted from PHYS 131 Optics Lab #3.
Unit 28 – Electromagnetic Waves and Polarization Page 28-11
Authors: Sarah Johnson and Neil Alberding

(c) Now write the intensity I in terms of the root-mean square of the
magnetic field: Brms .

The Poynting Vector 

One can define a vector quantity S , called the Poynting
vector after John Henry Poynting, as the following:

 1  €
S = E ×B
µ0 (28.13)

This vector has a magnitude equal to the energy transport

rate and points in the direction that the energy travels i.e.
€the wave propagation direction.

✍ Activity 28-5: The Poynting Vector 

(a) Show that the magnitude of the vector S given above in Equ.
28.13 is equal to the quantity S given in Equ. 28.12. (Hint: Don’t
forget to deal with the angle between the two field vectors.)

© 2014, 2009 by S. Johnson and N. Alberding Adapted from PHYS 131 Optics Lab #3.
Page 28-12 Studio Physics Activity Guide SFU

(b) Using Equ. 28.13 determine the direction of the Poynting vector
for the EM wave shown in Figure 28.1. Is this direction consistent
with the direction the wave is shown to be travelling?

© 2014, 2009 by S. Johnson and N. Alberding Adapted from PHYS 131 Optics Lab #3.
Unit 28 – Electromagnetic Waves and Polarization Page 28-13
Authors: Sarah Johnson and Neil Alberding

SESSION 2 — POLARIZATION

Theory of Polarization
*(This section must be read before coming to class or you
will not get finished in time.)*

To describe light one must specify its frequency, its direc-

tion of propagation and its state of polarization. Our inter-
est in this session is with polarization, so let us assume
that we have monochromatic light propagating along the
+z direction of a right-handed co-ordinate system. Light is
a transverse electromagnetic wave—the electric field is al-
ways perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Be-
cause the direction of propagation is along the +z axis, the
electric field vector E must lie in the plane formed by the x
and y axes. This can be expressed mathematically as fol-
lows:

€
E (x, y,z,t) = E x (z,t)iˆ + E y (z,t) ˆj (28.14)

The components of the electric field Ex and Ey do not de-

pend on x and y because we assume that the wave is a
€
plane wave propagating along the +z direction.

Light is linearly polarized if the electric field vector E is
always parallel to the same line which is perpendicular to
the direction of propagation. Mathematically:

€

E (x, y,z,t) = A x iˆ cos(ωt − kz) + Ay ˆj cos(ωt − kz) (28.15)

The amplitudes Ax and Ay are real constants. The inten-

sity of the light is proportional to the square of the ampli-
€ tude. Figure 28.3 shows the electric field vectors at a fixed
time along a line in the direction of propagation. Figure
28.3a illustrates light polarized along the x direction (Ax≠0,
Ay=0) and 28.3b shows polarization along the y direction
(Ax=0, Ay≠0). As time goes on the entire pattern moves in
the +z direction. Light polarized in an arbitrary plane is a
superposition of these two independent possibilities (Ax≠0,
Ay≠0). The plane of polarization is determined by the rela-
tive magnitudes of Ax and Ay.

© 2014, 2009 by S. Johnson and N. Alberding Adapted from PHYS 131 Optics Lab #3.
Page 28-14 Studio Physics Activity Guide SFU

Linearly Polarized Light

(a) x-direction (b) y-direction

x x
E

z
y y
E

Figure 28.3: The electric field vectors of linearly polarized light.

Light is circularly polarized if the electric field vector

moves in a circle. As there are two senses of rotation, there
are again two independent polarization states, left and
right:

left : E (x, y,z,t) = AL [iˆ cos(ωt − kz) + ˆj sin(ωt − kz)]
 (28.16)
right : E (x, y,z,t) = AR [iˆ cos(ωt − kz) − ˆj sin(ωt − kz)]

Figure 28.4 shows the electric field vector at a fixed time

for the two circular polarization states. As time goes on the
€ pattern moves in the +z direction. If we look into the on-
coming beam and track the electric field vector at any
point, it moves in a circle with constant radius. By conven-
tion, clockwise rotation is called right circularly polarized
light because the helical path traced by the direction of
electric field at any fixed time follows the threads of a
right-handed screw.

The most general polarization state is a superposition of x

and y linearly polarized light with arbitrary amplitudes
and phases. This general polarization state can also be
considered as a superposition of left and right circularly
polarized light with arbitrary amplitudes and phases of the
two circular components.

© 2014, 2009 by S. Johnson and N. Alberding Adapted from PHYS 131 Optics Lab #3.
Unit 28 – Electromagnetic Waves and Polarization Page 28-15
Authors: Sarah Johnson and Neil Alberding

Figure 28.4: Left and right circular polarization.

Most light sources do not produce polarized light. Individ-

ual atoms in the source radiate independently. Although at
any instant in time light received from a radiating atom in
the source has a definite state of polarization the state of
polarization changes rapidly with time. You may think of
unpolarized light as having two polarization components
(left/right or x/y) which are radiated independently and
randomly. Between polarized light which has a fixed rela-
tion in time between the amplitude and phase of the two
polarization components and unpolarized light which has a
random relation in time between the two polarization com-
ponents, is partially polarized light. Partially polarized
light is a mixture of polarized and unpolarized light.

Polarization Filters and Retardation Plates

A linear polarizer produces polarized light by selectively

absorbing light polarized perpendicular to the polarization
axis and transmitting light parallel to the transmission
axis. Our HN22 linear polarizers absorb more than 99.99%
of the perpendicular component and transmit 44% of the
parallel component. Thus the linear polarizer transmits
22% of incident unpolarized light. A perfect polarizer
would transmit 50% of incident unpolarized light.

Consider unpolarized light falling on a polarizer which

only transmits the components parallel to the x-axis. The
filtered light has amplitude A and intensity I = A2. Let this

© 2014, 2009 by S. Johnson and N. Alberding Adapted from PHYS 131 Optics Lab #3.
Page 28-16 Studio Physics Activity Guide SFU

filtered light fall on a second polarizer whose polarization

axis xʹ′ is at an angle θ with respect to the x-axis. The inci-
dent light has components A cos θ and –A sin θ along the xʹ′
and yʹ′ axes. If both polarizers are perfect, the intensity af-
ter the second polarizer would be |A cos θ|2 but for the
non-ideal polarizers the transmitted intensity is
0.44 |A cos θ|2.

You use two retardation plates in this lab: a quarter-wave

plate and a half-wave plate. Both plates are made of a
clear plastic film whose index of refraction depends on the
polarization direction of the light passing through it. The
material has two perpendicular axes called the fast axis
and the slow axis. If the light beam passing through is po-
larized along the material’s fast axis, the index of refrac-
tion is nf. Likewise if the light’s axis of polarization is
along the slow axis the index of refraction is ns. The veloc-
ity of light in a material is c/n. Light polarized along the
fast axis travels faster than that polarized along the slow
axis implying nf < ns. Light polarized along an arbitrary
direction can be resolved into components parallel to the
fast axis and parallel to the slow axis. Because the faster
travelling component emerges from the material first, the
two polarization components which were in phase upon
entering the film, are shifted out of phase when they
emerge. The phase shift, δ, is given by:

d
δ = 2π (n s − n f ) (28.17)
λ

where d, is the thickness of the film and λ is the light’s

wavelength.
€
If (ns– nf) d/λ = 1/4 then the slower light component will
emerge from the film 1/4 wavelength behind the faster
component. The half-wave plates are designed so that the
two polarization components are 1/2 wavelength out of
phase after they have passed through the film:
(ns – nf) d/λ = 1/2.

Both the quarter- and half-wave plates work ideally for

only one wavelength in the middle of the visible spectrum.
The phase shift for other wavelengths deviates from ex-
actly one-quarter or exactly one-half.

© 2014, 2009 by S. Johnson and N. Alberding Adapted from PHYS 131 Optics Lab #3.
Unit 28 – Electromagnetic Waves and Polarization Page 28-17
Authors: Sarah Johnson and Neil Alberding

Combining linear polarizers and retardation plates

Several interesting effects occur when polarizing filters are

combined with either a quarter-wave plate or a half-wave
plate.

1. Linear polarizer followed by half-wave plate

Consider a linear polarizer whose transmission axis is at

an angle θ with respect to the fast axis of the half-wave
plate. When the light emerges from the half-wave plate the
component polarized along the slow axis will lag the fast
component by 180° or π radians. Shifting a sine wave by
180° is the same as inverting it (multiplying by –1). There-
fore the plane of polarization is changed from θ to –θ. See
Figure 28.5.

incident slow λ/2 plate transmitted

y y
fast

A sin θ A cos θ
θ x
A cos θ x –θ –A sin θ

Figure 28.5: A half-wave plates changes the angle of linearly polarized light
to its negative.

2. Linear polarizer followed by quarter-wave plate

Let the transmission axis of the linear polarizer be ±45°

with respect to the fast axis. In this case the slow compo-
nent is shifted by 90° or π/2 radians. Shifting a sine wave
by π/2 changes it to a cosine wave. With the polarization at
45° to the fast axis, both fast and slow components will
have the same amplitude but the 90° phase shift will
change linear polarization to circular polarization. If θ is
+45° the light emerges left-circularly polarized (Fig. 28.6);
if θ is –45°, it is right-circularly polarized.

© 2014, 2009 by S. Johnson and N. Alberding Adapted from PHYS 131 Optics Lab #3.
Page 28-18 Studio Physics Activity Guide SFU

slow
incident λ/4 plate transmitted
y y
left circularly
fast polarized

45°
x x

Figure 28.6: Linearly polarized light passing through a quarter-wave plate

at 45° becomes circularly polarized.

3. Circular polarized light falls on a half-wave plate

Circular polarization results when one polarization compo-

nent lags the other by 90°. A half wave plate will add an
additional 180° lag to one component giving a total 270° or
3π/2 radians. A 3π/2 lag (phase shift = –3π/2) appears the
same as a π/2 lead (phase shift =+π/2). Thus right circular
polarization is transformed to left circular polarization or
left to right.
slow

incident λ/2 plate transmitted

y y
left circularly right circularly
polarized fast polarized

x
x
Figure 28.7: A half-wave plate changes the handedness of circularly polar-
ized light.

For the following experiments, mount the light source and

filters on the optical bench as shown in Figure 28.8.

Polarizing Filters or
Retardation Plates

Light Source

Figure 28.8: Experimental set-up for exploring polarization.

© 2014, 2009 by S. Johnson and N. Alberding Adapted from PHYS 131 Optics Lab #3.
Unit 28 – Electromagnetic Waves and Polarization Page 28-19
Authors: Sarah Johnson and Neil Alberding

For the next few activities you will need the following
equipment:

From the Optics Kit:

• Optical Bench
• Light Source
• All component holders
• Polarization Filters
• Viewing Screen

Also:

• Left circular polarizers: 2

• Right circular polarizers: 2
• Quarter-wave plate
• Half-wave plate

✍ Activity 28-6: Linear Polarization

(a) Look at the light source through a linear polarizer while rotating
the polarizer through 360°. Try to determine if the light source is po-
larized. Describe your findings below.

© 2014, 2009 by S. Johnson and N. Alberding Adapted from PHYS 131 Optics Lab #3.
Page 28-20 Studio Physics Activity Guide SFU

(b) Now produce linearly polarized light by placing a linear polarizer

in front of your light source. Look at this light through a second lin-
ear polarizer, called the analyser. For the angle θ between the two
polarizers’ axes given in the table below describe how the intensity
of the output light compares to the intensity at θ = 0. (i.e. brighter, a
lot brighter, dimmer, a lot dimmer, about the same)

θ (degrees) Intensity comparison

45

90

135

180

225

270

315

Malus’ Law

Malus’ Law States that the intensity of the light exiting

the analyser I depends on θ , the angle between the axes of
the first polarizer and the analyser (the second polarizer),
according to the following formula:

I = I0 cos2 θ (28.18)

where I0 is the intensity of the linearly polarized light en-

tering the analyser. The cosine indicates that only the
component
€ of the field parallel to the polarization axis is
allowed to pass through. The cosine-squared dependence
arises because the intensity is proportional to the electric
field strength squared. See Figure 28.9.

© 2014, 2009 by S. Johnson and N. Alberding Adapted from PHYS 131 Optics Lab #3.
Unit 28 – Electromagnetic Waves and Polarization Page 28-21
Authors: Sarah Johnson and Neil Alberding

Figure 28.9: Unpolarized light travelling through two linear polarizers.

✍ Activity 28-7: Malus’ Law

(a) Fill in the table below with the calculated value of the ratio of the
outgoing intensity to the incident intensity: I/I0 for the given angles.

θ (degrees) I/i0

45

90

135

180

225

270

315

© 2014, 2009 by S. Johnson and N. Alberding Adapted from PHYS 131 Optics Lab #3.
Page 28-22 Studio Physics Activity Guide SFU

(b) Compare the numerical values for the intensity ratios in the table
above with the qualitative intensity comparisons you did in the pre-
vious activity. Do the two agree with each other for all of the angles?

✍ Activity 28-8: Linear Polarization Puzzler

(a) Orient the first polarizer and the analyser so that a minimum
amount of intensity exits the analyser. (This should mean that the
polarization axes are oriented at a 90 degree angle with respect to
each other.) Take a third linear polarizer and place it in between the
first polarizer and the analyser. Start this middle polarizer oriented
with its axis aligned parallel to the first polarizer. Now rotate it
through 360 degrees and record the relative intensity of the light
emitted by the analyser (as compared to the intensity seen at 0 de-
grees) in the table below.

θ (degrees) Intensity comparison

45

90

135

180

225

270

315

© 2014, 2009 by S. Johnson and N. Alberding Adapted from PHYS 131 Optics Lab #3.
Unit 28 – Electromagnetic Waves and Polarization Page 28-23
Authors: Sarah Johnson and Neil Alberding

(b) Can you think of an explanation for what you see. Why does add-
ing a third linear polarizer between the other two allow more light to
pass when very little light is emitted when there are only two? (Hint:
Think about Malus’ Law and what happens to the angles of orienta-
tion when you add the third polarizer. Look at Figure 28.9 again.)

(c) If we call the intensity leaving the first polarizer I0, the intensity
leaving the second I and the intensity leaving the third I’, show that:

I ʹ′ = I0 cos2 θ cos 2 (θ ʹ′ − θ )

where θ is the angle between the axes of the first and second polariz-
ers and θ’ is the angle between the axes of the first and third polariz-
ers.
€

© 2014, 2009 by S. Johnson and N. Alberding Adapted from PHYS 131 Optics Lab #3.
Page 28-24 Studio Physics Activity Guide SFU

(d) If θ’ = 90 degrees, calculate the ratio of I’ to I0

for θ = 45, 90, 135 and 180 degrees.

(e) Are your results in (d) consistent with your observations in (a)?
Explain.

✍ Activity 28-9: Circular Polarization

(a) Look at the light source through a left and a right circular polar-
izer. Record what you see. What happens when the polarizer is ro-
tated through 360°? Is the light from the source circularly polarized?

© 2014, 2009 by S. Johnson and N. Alberding Adapted from PHYS 131 Optics Lab #3.
Unit 28 – Electromagnetic Waves and Polarization Page 28-25
Authors: Sarah Johnson and Neil Alberding

(b) Produce left circularly polarized light by allowing light from the
light source to exit the polarizer through the face marked "left circu-
lar polarizer." Look at this light through a left and then a right circu-
lar polarizer run backwards as a circular analyser, i.e., through the
faces marked "left circular analyser" and "right circular analyser."
What do you see? What happens when you rotate the analysers? Ex-
plain your results based on what you just learned about linear polar-
izers.

✍ Activity 28-10: Polarizers and Quarter and Half Wave Plates

(a) Mount two linear polarizers some distance apart with their polari-
zation axes oriented at 90° with respect to one another. Observe that
no light is transmitted through the pair. Mount the half-wave plate
between the two polarizers. Observe and record what happens when
the half-wave plate is rotated through 360 degrees. Is this what you
expect based on the theory given in this unit? Explain.

© 2014, 2009 by S. Johnson and N. Alberding Adapted from PHYS 131 Optics Lab #3.
Page 28-26 Studio Physics Activity Guide SFU

(b) Mount a linear polarizer with its polarization axis at 45°. Next
mount a quarter-wave plate with one of its axes vertical. For your
convenience the quarter-wave plate has been cut so that its axes are
parallel to its edges. Look at the light transmitted through the combi-
nation with a right and then by a left circular polarizer run backwards
as a circular analyser. What can you conclude about the light that
exits the quarter-wave plate? Explain.

(c) Rotate the quarter-wave plate by 90° and again look at the light
transmitted through the combination through the two circular analys-
ers. How does this compare to what you saw in (b)?

(d) Produce left (right) circularly polarized light. Next mount a half-
wave plate. Look at the light transmitted through a right and a left
circular polarizer run backwards as a circular analyser. What hap-
pens? Explain what the half-wave plate is doing to the circularly po-
larized light.

© 2014, 2009 by S. Johnson and N. Alberding Adapted from PHYS 131 Optics Lab #3.