Fpsyg 14 1092865

TYPE Systematic Review
PUBLISHED 02 June 2023

DOI 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1092865
The influence of leadership on

OPEN ACCESS employees’ employability: a
bibliometric analysis, systematic
EDITED BY
Llewellyn Ellardus Van Zyl,
North West University, South Africa
REVIEWED BY
Amit Mittal,
literature review, and research
Chitkara University, India
Kikooma Julius,
Makerere University, Uganda
agenda
*CORRESPONDENCE
Joost Hoedemakers Joost Hoedemakers1,2*, Arne Vanderstukken1 and Jol Stoffers1,2,3
[email protected]
1
RECEIVED 08 November 2022 Faculty of Management, Open Universiteit, Heerlen, Netherlands, 2 Research Centre for Employability,
ACCEPTED 11 May 2023
Zuyd University of Applied Sciences, Sittard, Netherlands, 3 Research Centre for Education and the
PUBLISHED 02 June 2023
Labour Market (ROA), Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
CITATION
Hoedemakers J, Vanderstukken A and Stoffers J
(2023) The influence of leadership on Introduction: Policymakers, researchers, and practitioners have recently begun
employees’ employability: a bibliometric treating employability-an individual’s ability to possess and continuously adjust
analysis, systematic literature review, and
research agenda. Front. Psychol. 14:1092865.
and acquire up-to-date competencies, flexibility, adaptability, and openness to
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1092865 change-as crucial to enabling employees to respond to ubiquitous and rapid
COPYRIGHT
changes in organizations (e.g., changing tasks and work-related processes).
© 2023 Hoedemakers, Vanderstukken and Research into ways to enhance employability, particularly through supervisor
Stoffers. This is an open-access article leadership, which, for example, facilitates training and competence development,
distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, has thus grown in popularity. A review on leadership as an antecedent of
distribution or reproduction in other forums is employability is both evident and timely. This review thus addresses the question
permitted, provided the original author(s) and of whether a supervisor’s leadership influences employees’ employability, and in
the copyright owner(s) are credited and that
the original publication in this journal is cited, in which contexts and through which mechanisms it does so.
accordance with accepted academic practice. Methods: As preliminary study we conducted a bibliometric analysis (which
No use, distribution or reproduction is
permitted which does not comply with these corroborated employability’s recent rise in popularity) and as main study we
terms. conducted a systematic literature review. For this, the authors independently
searched for articles, which met the inclusion criteria and subsequently were
included for full text analysis. The authors also independently used the forward
and backward snowballing technique for identifying additional articles which met
the inclusion criteria and subsequently were included for full text analysis. The
procedure resulted in 17 articles in total.
Results: Most of the articles identified positive relationships among several
conceptualizations of supervisor leadership and employee employability, such as
transformational leadership and leader-member exchange, and to a lesser extent,
servant leadership and perceived supervisor support. This review suggests that
such relationships occur across different work contexts, such as educational,
SMEs, healthcare, and several other industries, and these contexts also vary
geographically.
Discussion: The relationships among supervisor leadership and employee
employability are largely explained using a social exchange perspective, which
means that the positive influence of leadership on employability is itself influenced
by a two-way social exchange relationship between supervisor and employees.
The quality of the dyadic relationship between leader and followers thus
determines the extent to which leaders offer valuable resources such as training
and feedback, which subsequently enhances employees’ employability. This
review demonstrates that investing in supervisors’ leadership is a valuable HRM
strategy that fosters employability, and it identifies practical implications that
inform policy and practice and sets an agenda for future employability research.
KEYWORDS
employability, leadership, social exchange theory, supervisors, employees, systematic

literature review
Frontiers in Psychology 01 frontiersin.org

Hoedemakers et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1092865
1. Introduction The pandemic transformed job demands (e.g., increasement of

remote working), consequently employers focus on job resources
Employability, defined as the ability to adjust and acquire such as leadership to empower employees so that they are able to
up-to-date competencies, and being flexible, adaptable, and respond to challenging post-pandemic job demands (Manuti et al.,
open for change (Van der Heijden et al., 2018; Van Harten 2022). Employers seek HRM strategies that enhance employability
et al., 2020), has recently attracted policymakers’, researchers’, (Veth et al., 2018), and using such strategies, they facilitate job
and practitioners’ attention (OECD, 2019). Employability allows resources, such as leadership (e.g., contexts), so employees are
employees to respond to contemporary ubiquitous and rapid able to cope with job demands, including, for example, work
changes in organizational environments (e.g., changing tasks and overload (Bakker and Demerouti, 2017). Employability as a dual
work-related processes; Bozionelos et al., 2016), thus changing employer-employee responsibility namely suggests an increase of
job demands. Worldwide megatrends cause various rapid changes, the resources of the organization, which enhances the competitive
such as ongoing technological innovation (Baptista et al., 2020; advantage at the organizational level (Vermeeren and Van der
Henderikx and Stoffers, 2022), hyper-competition (D’Aveni, 1994), Heijden, 2022), and provides career perpective at the individual
aging of the populations, and the COVID-19 pandemic (Rudolph level (Van der Heijde et al., 2018). However, despite the obvious
et al., 2020). For example, COVID-19 influenced work-related benefits of employability to organizations, some employers remain
processes, and employees had to subsequently cope with work- reluctant to invest in employability. De Cuyper and De Witte (2011)
family challenges because work became increasingly organized due evidence the employability paradox, which demonstrates risks to
to working from home, telecommuting, and virtual teamwork organizations, such as increased turnover intentions. The question,
(Rudolph et al., 2020). then, is which HRM strategies foster employability. Extant studies
Employability helps employees cope with rapidly changing suggest that job resources (Bakker and Demerouti, 2017), such as
job demands for two reasons. First, employable employees are, training and development opportunities (Van der Heijden et al.,
by definition, more skilled and flexible than those who are less 2009; Froehlich et al., 2015) and job’s learning value (Le Blanc et al.,
employable; they climatize quickly to, and even thrive in, new 2019), foster employees’ employability. Several authors thus stress
environments (Van der Heijden et al., 2018). Second, employable the urgency of “learning to become employable” (Houben et al.,
employees are less likely to develop feelings of job insecurity and 2019, p. 1). Similarly, supervisors’ leadership, as a work-related,
panic in reaction to changes; they are confident that they can pursue contextual factor (e.g., a job resource), also stimulates employability
employment, outside of the current organization if necessary (Clarke and Patrickson, 2008; Van der Heijden and Spurk, 2019),
(De Cuyper and De Witte, 2011). Employability contributes to for example, by empowering followers and facilitating training and
optimal employee functioning (Vanhercke et al., 2014), which competence development (Becker, 1962). Such leadership, as both
subsequently enhances organizational success, for example, in context and determinant, might contribute to employability (Van
terms of performance (Camps and Rodríguez, 2011) and lower der Heijde and Van der Heijden, 2014).
turnover intentions (Nauta et al., 2009). Employability is thus From a relational perspective, leadership associates with “a
crucial to contemporary employees and employers. social influence process through which emergent coordination
Historical analyses suggest that employability associates (i.e., evolving social order) and change (e.g., new values, attitudes,
with transitions in both the labor market and organizations approaches, behaviors, and ideologies) are constructed and
(Thijssen et al., 2008). Over time, the meaning of employability produced” (Uhl-Bien, 2006, p. 655). This is particularly true
evolved, resulting in multiple conceptualizations (Forrier and because the influences of training and development on employees’
Sels, 2003). The current systematic literature review uses an employability are also influenced by both leadership and the quality
input-based approach of employability (Vanhercke et al., 2014), of the relationship between supervisors (e.g., employer or leader)
focusing on “the subjective perception held by an employee and the employee (Struzyna and Marzec, 2017). From an employer-
(or by his or her supervisor) about his or her possibilities in employee relationship perspective, better understanding of the
terms of competences, to obtain and maintain work” (Van der leadership-employability relationship is paramount (Fugate et al.,
Heijden et al., 2018, p. 237). Drawing from conceptualizations 2021), especially when talent is scarce and retraining employees
of employability in human resources management (HRM) is important to employers, and when investing in employability is
and career psychology literature (Fugate et al., 2021), we crucial. A literature review of supervisors’ leadership as antecedents
argue that employability manifests in employer-employee to employees’ employability enhancement is thus evidently needed
relationships, with employers (e.g., HRM professionals and (Chughtai, 2019; Wang et al., 2019).
supervisors) and employees as focal stakeholders. The individual To advance employability research, this review identifies,
challenge of retaining and enhancing employability is a selects, and evaluates extant studies to report on the state of
shared responsibility among employers and employees, and knowledge (Denyer and Tranfield, 2009) regarding the relationship
organizations must thus be adaptable since employers are between supervisors’ leadership and employees’ employability. To
unable to guarantee lifetime job security. Employers focus on address high-quality reporting, which is “transparent, complete
employability because it enhances agreements between employers and accurate” (8), this review uses Page et al. (2021)’s Preferred
and employees—that is, the psychological contract (Garavan, Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses
1999)—and, as a result, such contracts motivate employees to (PRISMA) to address the research question (Counsell, 1997)
agreements in the employer-employee relationship (Rousseau, of which work contexts and mechanisms influence supervisors’
2004). leadership’s influence on employees’ employability. This review

has the potential to inform policy, practice, and research in data. Edges represent indications and the strength of relationships
management and organization studies (Denyer and Tranfield, between nodes (Van Eck and Waltman, 2014).
2009), especially those related to employability. From both career To discover such indications and the strength of relationships
(i.e., employees) and HRM (employers) perspectives, it is important between nodes in a bibliometric network, VOSviewer uses lines
to synthesize the findings in extant studies to assess for consistency to connect nodes. The thickness of a line and the size of a node
(Petticrew, 2001). This literature review is first to synthesize represent the strength and the occurrence, or co-occurrences,
empirical findings on relationships between supervisors’ leadership between nodes (e.g., keywords). As a result, a theme-related node
and employees’ employability, and it therefore represents a valuable forms a thematic cluster. VOSviewer shows nodes that relate to
contribution to employability literature. a thematic cluster using color schemes (Van Eck and Waltman,
2014; Donthu et al., 2021). Bibliometric methodology uses two
techniques—performance analysis and science mapping (Donthu
2. Overview of studies et al., 2021). Performance analysis considers contributions to a field
from research constituents (e.g., authors, topics, and countries)
A triangulation approach was used to enhance the consistency (Cobo et al., 2011), and science mapping analyzes relationships
of findings, and subsequently to increase the review’s validity between research constituents (Baker et al., 2021).
(Saunders et al., 2012). We, therefore, began with explorative
quantitively bibliometric analysis. We retrospectively report on
publication-related metric total publications (TP) on two topics—
employability and both leadership and employability. We then map
2.1.2. Performance analysis
We conducted performance analysis to assess publication-
these topics as they relate to employability, and we are thus able
related metric total publications (TP) retrospectively regarding
to identify research gaps in the literature (Donthu et al., 2021).
employability and both leadership and employability. These
Research gaps are relevant as a starting point when reporting on
topics associate with keyword searches of an article’s title,
the current state of research on a topic in the form of a literature
abstract, and author. We identified bibliometric data and
review, which additionally includes recommendations for future
subsequently extracted and analyzed them as output files of
research. As the main study, a qualitative systematic literature
the Web of Science (WoS) database using the search string
review (Denyer and Tranfield, 2009) is used to search for and
topic “employability,” publication years until year 2022, document
synthesize peer-reviewed Dutch and English studies systematically
types “article,” and language “English” OR “Dutch.” We also
and subsequently report on the present state of knowledge
used the Web of Science bibliographic database, using search
on the relationship between leadership and employability. Both
string topic “employability” AND “leadership,” publication years
methodologies allow a systematical, explicit, and replicable (Fink,
until year 2022, document types “article,” and language “English”
2005) investigation of employability literature.
OR “Dutch.”
2.1. Preliminary study: bibliometric analysis

2.1.3. Co-occurrence analysis
2.1.1. Methodology We applied a core technique—keyword co-occurrence
During December 2021, we began with a manual qualitative analysis—for science mapping. We visualized relationships
literature review (Denyer and Tranfield, 2009), and we used between keywords in a co-occurrence network (Van Eck and
a bibliometric methodology to explore the current state of Waltman, 2014), which is used commonly in management research
scientific research on employability, particularly the combination (Phulwani et al., 2020). Keyword co-occurrence analysis focuses
of leadership and employability. The purpose was to quantify on actual content (i.e., words) in publications, such as author
Chughtai (2019)’s and Wang et al. (2019)’s arguments of research keywords, words in article titles, and abstracts as a unit of analysis.
gaps on the relationship between leadership and employability. Co-occurrence refers to the degree to which two keywords are
Bibliometric methodology mitigates researcher bias (Zupic and included in an article’s keywords, title, and abstract (Van Eck and
Cater, 2015) and is thus relevant as a preliminary study to a Waltman, 2014). To identify, extract, and analyze bibliometric
literature review. The methodology uses quantitative techniques, data, we searched WoS database using the search string topic
including, for example, co-occurrence (i.e., co-word) analysis, “employability,” publication years until year 2022, document types
to identify and analyze large amounts of bibliometric data “article,” and language “English” OR “Dutch.” We downloaded
from scientific databases, such as Web of Science (Broadus, the resulting bibliographic data in ∗ .txt format in batches of
1987). It extracts bibliometric data (e.g., keywords, journals, and 1000 publications, which were included for further analysis.
researchers) from scientific databases and it uses them as inputs to To analyze and visualize the bibliometric network, we used
allow a researcher to map bibliometric networks using bibliometric data from WoS (e.g., output data) as input data in VOSviewer.
software (e.g., VOSviewer; Van Eck and Waltman, 2014; Donthu We applied all keywords as a unit of analysis and full counts
et al., 2021). Such networks consist of nodes and edges. Nodes as the counting method to visualize co-occurrence networks
represent bibliometric data (e.g., keywords), which depend on a of the search string (see Figure 3) (Van Eck and Waltman,
specific analysis (Liao et al., 2018). For example, co-occurrence 2014). We used 20 as the minimum number of occurrences
networks visualize relationships between keywords, and the size of of a keyword as a threshold, and we did not verify selected
a node represents the frequency of such occurrences in bibliometric keywords further.

2.1.4. Results research on the employability-leadership link from an employer-

2.1.4.1. Performance analysis employee perspective, thus within work contexts. We are thus
The search string topic “employability,” publication years able to identify research gaps and develop an agenda for
until year 2022, document types “article,” and language “English” new research directions to further explore these topics from
OR “Dutch,” resulted in 4453 articles, and search string topic that perspective.
“employability” AND “leadership,” publication years until year
2022, document types “article,” and language “English” OR “Dutch,”
resulted in 143 articles. Results suggest that education (34.9%; n
= 1,556), management (10.4%; n = 465), and applied psychology 2.2. Main study: systematic literature review
(9.1%; n = 405) are the best represented categories in WoS for
employability and both leadership and employability (education, 2.2.1. Methods
36.4%; n = 52; management, 17.5%; n = 25; applied psychology, This literature review uses PRISMA 2020’s recommendations
13.3%; n = 19). Outcomes from performance analysis appear regarding producing high-quality reporting (Moher et al.,
in Figures 1, 2, which report publication-related metric total 2009; Page et al., 2021). Following Page et al. (2021)’s
publications (TP) year-wise for both topics (Donthu et al., 2021). PRISMA 2020 flow diagram (Figure 5), this article reports on
PRISMA’s process to explore supervisors’ leadership influence
2.1.4.2. Science mapping and co-occurrence analysis on employees’ employability. To conduct the review, we use
Using VOSviewer, results from co-occurrence analysis on the Grant and Booth (2009)’s critical four stages—Search, AppraisaL,
topic of employability (Figure 3) returned 12,644 keywords, of Synthesis, and Analysis (SALSA)—so that the four principles of
which 267 met the threshold of 20 as the minimum number of systematic reviews—transparency, inclusivity, explanatory, and
occurrences of a keyword. The 267 keywords were distributed heuristic nature—are guaranteed (Denyer and Tranfield, 2009).
across 4 colored thematic clusters, with 14,134 links and a link Transparency means being clear and explicit about methodologies,
strength of 49,482. VOSviewer uses colors to reveal a cluster and procedures, and processes, such that readers are able to audit
links between keywords within a cluster. Results suggest that cluster them. Inclusivity requires assessing only studies that meet
1 (red) contained 80 keywords, which focus on education topics inclusion criteria, and subsequently addressing a research question.
(e.g., academic performance and curriculum development), and Explanatory means synthesizing findings from studies so that the
cluster 2 (green) contained 75 keywords, which associate with findings, in combination, “make a whole that should be more than
work-related topics such as HRM and career development. Cluster the sum of the parts” (680). Heuristic means reporting findings in
3 (blue) contained 69 keywords related to labor market topics, such a way that they have practical implications for practitioners and
as unemployment, and cluster 4 (yellow) contained 43 keywords policymakers (Denyer and Tranfield, 2009).
that focus on health-related topics that relate to employability, such Drawing from SALSA (Grant and Booth, 2009) and guided by
as mental health and depression. the review’s purpose, the Search stage identified relevant literature
using multiple search techniques, such as database searching using
free-text searches, with limited function and reference list checking
2.1.5. Conclusion (e.g., backward and forward snowballing). The AppraisaL stage
The performance analysis suggested an increase of comprised selecting studies systematically by assessing whether
research articles on both employability and the combination each met the inclusion criteria. Synthesis is concerned with seeking
of employability and leadership, particularly between 2017 and patterns, for example, by comparing findings from the reviews’
2022, during which 66.8% (n = 2,973) of articles on employability included studies (Gray and Malins, 2004). The Analysis stage
and 82.5% (n = 118) on employability and leadership were reports on the robustness of the Synthesis in terms of the quality
published. Since 2012, the number of employability articles has of included studies (Denyer and Tranfield, 2009) that reasonably
exceeded 100. Co-occurrence analysis of keywords suggested that demonstrate the current state of research regarding what is and
employability links to multiple keywords, including leadership is not known (Denyer and Tranfield, 2009) about the influence of
(Figure 4). supervisors’ leadership on employees’ employability.
Cluster 1 (red), which comprises education and work-related From January 2022 to 8 February 2022, we developed a
topics such as students, education, skills, competencies, work research protocol that began with determining initial search
experience, and employers, contained both main keywords— terms, and inclusion and exclusion criteria, and with searching
leadership and employability. Thus, the link between leadership research databases, such as Academic Search Elite (EBSCO),
and employability relates to the aforementioned topics, examining APA PsycARTICLES (EBSCO), Emerald Insight (management)
education and work-related topics. From the co-occurrence Psychology, Behavioral Sciences Collection, and WoS, to identify
analysis, we argue that employability researchers focus on major published peer-reviewed English and Dutch empirical articles.
topics such as employment, work, (higher) education, careers, We did not exclude conference articles, books, and book
skills, and competencies. From 1972 to 2021, there was an chapters. The initial search term was based on core concepts
increase to the year-wise number of articles on employability of the aforementioned research question—leadership and
and leadership. However, we are interested in the influence of employability—and was used to identify as many articles as
supervisors’ leadership as a job resource, and thus in a work possible, up to February 2022. Employability has been studied
context, on employees’ employability. A systematic literature from many perspectives, which led to a plurality of definitions
review is thus relevant to revealing the current state of and operationalizations of the concept. The current review uses

FIGURE 1
Year-wise number of employability articles (1997–2021). This figure reports the publication trend of scientific articles on the topic of employability to
2022. Data were retrieved from the Web of Science database using the search string: topic “employability,” document type “articles,” language
“English” OR “Dutch,” and publication years to 2022.
FIGURE 2
Year-wise number of employability and leadership articles (1972–2021). This figure reports the publication trend of scientific articles on the topics of
employability and leadership to 2022. Data were retrieved from the Web of Science database using the search string: topic “employability” AND
“leadership,” document type “articles,” language “English” OR “Dutch,” and publication years to 2022.
HRM and career perspectives that encompass focal stakeholders in employability” AND “leadership.” Searches were restricted to
organizations—employees and employers (Fugate et al., 2021). English- and Dutch-language peer-reviewed articles because such
articles identify validated knowledge (Podsakoff et al., 2005), and
there is lack of knowledge or resources for clear translations. Table 1
2.2.2. Eligibility criteria reports our inclusion and exclusion criteria.
We used inclusion and exclusion criteria to select studies From January 2022 to 8 February 2022, the first and
that investigated the influence of leadership on employability second authors independently initially searched multiple major
among employees (i.e., subordinates) and supervisors (i.e., leaders). research databases using a combination of search techniques,
We searched major research databases using advanced filters, such as Boolean searching. The Appendix reports the full list
such as subjects that included “employability” OR “perceived of research databases that we searched. From a preliminary

FIGURE 3
Co-occurrence network visualization using VOS viewer on the topic of employability. This figure reports the publication trend of scientific articles on
the topic of employability to 2022. Data were retrieved from the Web of Science database using the search string: topic “employability,” document
type “articles,” language “English” OR “Dutch,” and publication years to 2022.
search, we identified “self rated employability” and “competence- the initial searches and using forward snowballing. Backward
based employability” as additional keywords, resulting in a final snowballing discovered additional articles that met the inclusion
search string that contained the keywords “perceived employability” criteria backward in time by using the reference lists in the 16
OR “self rated employability” OR “self rated employability” articles (Wohlin, 2014). The first and second authors examined the
OR “competence-based employability” OR “competence based titles in the reference lists of the 16 articles, which resulted in 1
employability” AND “leadership.” For inclusion, and using free-text additional article that met the inclusion criteria. The researchers
searching with a limit function, the search string was restricted to agreed on using these 17 articles as the final set to be analyzed (for
language “English” OR “Dutch” AND “peer-reviewed publications,” a PRISMA flowchart, see Figure 5).
with additionally content type “all,” publication date “all,” subjects
“employability,” “perceived employability,” and “leadership,” which
resulted in 134 articles that were included during full-text analysis. 2.2.3.2. Study characteristics
Since 2011, researchers have examined the influence of
supervisors’ leadership on employees’ employability, and since
2016, they have published at least one empirical, peer-reviewed
2.2.3. Results study each year (Figure 6).
2.2.3.1. Study selection Regarding context, and work contexts particularly, researchers
Of the 134 articles found during the searches, 10 met the have studied the relationship between leadership and employability
inclusion criteria. During the last stage of appraisal, the first in both non-profit and for-profit organizations. Most of the studies
and second authors independently conducted the forward and assessed in the current study (5), were conducted in education
backward snowballing technique (Wohlin, 2014) to discover contexts, such as universities (Camps and Rodríguez, 2011; Van der
additional articles based on the 10 already identified. Forward Heijden and Spurk, 2019), higher vocational education institutions
snowballing discovers additional articles forward in time (Wohlin, (Bhattacharya and Neelam, 2018; Gustari and Widodo, 2020), and
2014). We used Google Scholar to examine authors cited in the primary schools (Struzyna and Marzec, 2017), followed closely by 3
10 articles. Forward snowballing revealed 357 additional articles, studies conducted in small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)
which the first and second authors reviewed independently by (Bozionelos et al., 2016; Stoffers et al., 2019; Epitropaki et al., 2021).
assessing the articles’ titles and abstracts. We included articles Building (Van der Heijden and Bakker, 2011; Van der Heijde and
that met the inclusion criteria reported in Table 1. Forward Van der Heijden, 2014), and healthcare organizations, such as non-
snowballing returned 6 additional articles. The first and second academic hospitals (Van Harten et al., 2016), acute-care hospitals
authors also independently used backward snowballing (Wohlin, (Matsuo, 2022), and public healthcare units (Struzyna and Marzec,
2014) to identify additional articles based on the 16 found during 2017), have been assessed in several studies. Multiple public service

FIGURE 4
Co-occurrence network visualization using VOS viewer on the topic employability, which revealed the employability-leadership link. This figure
reports the publication trend of scientific articles on the topic employability to 2022. Data were retrieved from the Web of Science database using the
search string: topic “employability,” document type “articles,” language “English” OR “Dutch,” and publication years 2022.
(Struzyna and Marzec, 2017), information and communication conceptualizations of the constructs under study, and
technology (Wang et al., 2019), food and beverage (Chughtai, other information.
2019), automotive (Böttcher et al., 2018), insurance (Park, 2020),
and mixed-industry (e.g., construction, manufacturing, finance, 2.2.3.3. Measurements dependent variable: employees’
insurance, and communication; Yizhong et al., 2019) organizations perceived employability
have been assessed. Excepting Bhattacharya and Neelam (2018)’s qualitative
Regarding addressing participation by employees and measure of employees’ employability, all studies used a quantitative
supervisors, in most of the studies (8), data were collected in design, measuring employability quantitatively as a dependent
European organizations (Bass and Avolio, 1990a; Van der Heijden variable. Employability is operationalized disparately across the
and Bakker, 2011; Van der Heijde and Van der Heijden, 2014; quantitative studies using validated scales, in which employees
Bozionelos et al., 2016; Van Harten et al., 2016; Böttcher et al., reported their perceived employability on questionnaires.
2018; Stoffers et al., 2019; Van der Heijden and Spurk, 2019), Seven studies (Camps and Rodríguez, 2011; Van der Heijden
followed closely by Asia in 6 studies (Chughtai, 2019; Wang et al., and Bakker, 2011; Van der Heijde and Van der Heijden, 2014;
2019; Yizhong et al., 2019; Gustari and Widodo, 2020; Park, 2020; Bozionelos et al., 2016; Stoffers et al., 2019; Van der Heijden and
Matsuo, 2022) and South America (Camps and Rodríguez, 2011) Spurk, 2019; Park, 2020) assessed employability using Van der
(see Table 1). Two studies did not report in which countries they Heijde and Van der Heijden (2006)’s 47-item instrument, which
were conducted (Struzyna and Marzec, 2017; Bhattacharya and consists of five dimensions—occupational expertise (15 items),
Neelam, 2018). anticipation and optimization (i.e., whether an individual responds
Regarding methodology, and excepting one study, all to changes to internal and external job markets; 8 items), personal
studies used quantitative survey designs. Bhattacharya and flexibility (8 items), corporate sense (7 items), and balance (i.e.,
Neelam (2018) used a mixed-methods design to conduct balancing personal and a team’s or organization’s preferences; 9
both qualitative and quantitative research (Saunders items). Two studies (Park, 2020; Epitropaki et al., 2021) used
et al., 2012). Table 2 reports details on participants, a shortened version of Van der Heijde and Van der Heijden

FIGURE 5
Flowchart of study selection using PRISMA 2020.
TABLE 1 Inclusion and exclusion criteria.

(2006)’s 5-factor employability instrument, a 22-item, short-form
instrument that also measures the five dimensions—occupational
Inclusion criteria Motivation
expertise (5 items), anticipation and optimization (4 items),
Empirical studies on the personal flexibility (5 items), corporate sense (4 items), and
influence of supervisors’
leadership (e.g., managers, balance (4 items). Two studies (Struzyna and Marzec, 2017;
mentors, and coaches on Gustari and Widodo, 2020) used (De Lange et al., 2021)’s 47-
employees’ employability. item, 5-factor employability instrument to construct a valid fit-
Peer-reviewed journals Explicitly identify validated knowledge for-purpose employability scale, tailored to those studies. Drawing
(Podsakoff et al., 2005). from Van der Heijde and Van der Heijden (2006), Struzyna and
Content types Published empirical articles in peer-reviewed Marzec (2017) constructed a fit-for-purpose, 46-item employability
journals, conference articles, books, and book scale that comprises eight dimensions of public-organization
chapters
employees’ employability—social competences, adjustability to
Type of data Quantitative and qualitative data changes, civic competences, knowledge and professional skills,
Subjects Employability, perceived employability, and ability to maintain balance, ethical competences, professional
leadership proactivity, and anticipatory striving for professional development.
Contexts and participants Employees and supervisors in work Gustari and Widodo (2020) use a self-constructed fit-for-purpose,
contexts 10-item employability scale based on Van der Heijde and Van der
Publication date No restriction Heijden (2006)’s 47-item scale, which also comprises 5 dimensions,
Language English or Dutch
though labeled differently—specific work skills and competencies
that are more general, proactivity, adaptability, work feelings,
Exclusion criteria Exclusion criteria Motivation
and balance. Böttcher et al. (2018) and Yizhong et al. (2019)
Language: non-English or Dutch Lack of resources for clear translation use Rothwell and Arnold (2007)’s 11-item perceived employability
Content types Repetitive articles such as reviews scale, which assesses two dimensions—internal (4 items) and
and opinion articles. Scale construction external employability (7 items). The dimensions associate with
articles
employees’ ability to remain employable in (e.g., internal labor

market) and outside (e.g., external labor market) the organization 0.001 for supervisor’ ratings of employees’ employability and ß =
(Rothwell and Arnold, 2007). Van Harten et al. (2016) assessed 0.17, p < 0.01 for employee’s ratings of employability; Struzyna and
employees perceived employability using two constructs—up-to- Marzec, 2017, γ = 0.12, p < 0.01; Yizhong et al., 2019, ß = 0.21, p
date expertise and willingness to change. Up-to-date expertise was < 0.01; Gustari and Widodo, 2020, ß = 0.34, p < 0.01).
measured using Thijssen and Walter (2006)’s 9-item, 3-dimension Böttcher et al. (2018) argue that the relationship between
scale, which contains the dimensions technical expertise (3 items), transformational leadership and internal employability (ß = 0.31,
economic expertise (3 items), and perceptional expertise (3 items). p < 0.01 for the full item scale and ß = 0.24, p < 0.01 for the
Willingness to change was measured using a self-constructed fit- one-item scale) is stronger than that with external employability
for-purpose, 4-item scale based on Wittekind et al. (2010) and Van (ß = 0.15, p < 0.01). They found that when the subdimensions
Dam (2004). Multiple studies treated perceived employability as a of transformational leadership were entered simultaneously,
unidimensional construct. Chughtai (2019) used De Vos and Soens three dimensions—idealized influence attributed (ß = 0.12, p
(2008) 3-item scale, Wang et al. (2019) used Eby et al. (2003)’s 6- < 0.05), idealized influence behavior (ß = 0.11, p < 0.05), and
item scale, and Matsuo (2022) used De Cuyper et al. (2011)’s 4-item individualized consideration (ß = 0.20, p < 0.01)— had a greater
scale. Table 3 reports greater details on these studies’ participants, positive influence on internal employability (full item scale), in
conceptualizations of constructs, and other information. contrast with inspirational motivation (ß = −0.45, p = 0.45, n.s.)
and intellectual stimulation (ß = −0.05, p = 0.38, n.s.). When
2.2.3.4. Measurement leadership as a determinant of the subdimensions of transformational leadership were entered
employability enhancement: content and effects simultaneously, idealized influence attributed (ß = 0.15, p <
The determinant of interest is supervisors’ leadership. We 0.05) and individualized consideration (ß = 0.20, p < 0.01) also
now discuss how such leadership was measured and contributes influenced internal employability (one-item scale) positively. This
to employees’ employability (See Figure 7 for conceptualizations contrasts with non-significant influences of idealized influence
of supervisor leadership in included articles). The 17 studies behavior (ß = 0.02, p = 0.73, n.s.), inspirational motivation
were heterogeneous concerning research models. The majority (ß = −0.00, p = 0.94, n.s.), and intellectual stimulation (ß =
(Van der Heijden and Bakker, 2011; Van Harten et al., 2016; −0.05, p = 0.73, n.s.) on internal employability (one-item scale)
Struzyna and Marzec, 2017; Chughtai, 2019; Yizhong et al., when the subdimensions were entered simultaneously. When
2019; Gustari and Widodo, 2020; Matsuo, 2022) examine the subdimensions of transformational leadership were entered
leadership as a determinant of employability enhancement using simultaneously, Böttcher et al. (2018) found no relationship
a mediated model. Researchers also investigate the relationship between them and external employability. When entered
between leadership and employees’ employability using moderated separately, the idealized influence attributed (ß = 0.15, p < 0.01),
(Böttcher et al., 2018; Van der Heijden and Spurk, 2019), moderated idealized influence behavior (ß = 0.14, p < 0.01), inspirational
mediation (Camps and Rodríguez, 2011; Bozionelos et al., 2016; motivation (ß = 0.13, p < 0.01), intellectual stimulation (ß = 0.11,
Stoffers et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2019; Epitropaki et al., 2021), mixed p < 0.01), and individualized consideration (ß = 0.15, p < 0.01)
methods (Bhattacharya and Neelam, 2018), and main effects (Van influenced external employability positively.
der Heijde and Van der Heijden, 2014; Park, 2020) models. Assessing the second most common leadership model,
Findings suggest that supervisors’ leadership has been multiple authors report a positive influence of leader-member
conceptualized in several ways. Most of the studies focus on exchange (LMX) (Graen and Uhl-Bien, 1995) on employability.
relationships between transformational leadership (Burns, 1978) LMX represents perceived quality of social exchanges between
and employability. Transformational leadership contains four followers and immediate supervisors, characterized by dyadic
dimensions, the four I’s (Avolio et al., 1991), including idealized affection, loyalty, contribution, and professional respect (Liden
influence (e.g., charisma), inspirational motivation, intellectual and Maslyn, 1998), and their influence on both leaders’ and
stimulation, and individualized consideration. These four I’s followers’ attitudes and behaviors (Graen and Uhl-Bien, 1995), such
encourage followers to transform their attitudes, values, and as employability.
behaviors through empowerment, such that followers achieve Epitropaki et al. (2021) found that both follower- (ß =
outstanding performance (Burns, 1978; Bass and Avolio, 1990a; 0.570, p < 0.01) and leader-rated (ß = 0.632, p < 0.01)
Bass, 1999). Idealized influence associates with a leader’s behaviors employability are influenced positively by agreement on LMX
that make employees perceive their leaders as role models. among followers and leaders. In the context of LMX disagreement,
Inspirational motivation is concerned with leaders having a vision leader-rated employability was higher when leaders perceived that
of a future state that inspires and motivates followers so that they LMX was higher than followers’ perceived LMX. Stoffers et al.
achieve outstanding performance and increase job satisfaction. (2019) find a positive influence of immediate supervisors’ LMX
Intellectual stimulation describes a leader’s behaviors that stimulate on employees’ employability, which was influenced by national
and recognize followers’ creativity and innovation by, for example, context in Belgium and the Netherlands. Findings suggest that a
fostering autonomy. Individualized consideration is concerned positive relationship in a Dutch sample (ß = 0.341, p < 0.001)
with a leader’s behaviors that focus on followers’ developmental was greater than in a Belgium sample (ß = 0.296, p < 0.05).
needs through, for example, support and coaching (Bass and Struzyna and Marzec (2017) found that LMX fosters employees’
Avolio, 1990a; Bass, 1999). employability (γ = 0.45, p < 0.01), but Van der Heijden and
Several authors have found that transformational leadership Spurk (2019) found no support for an influence of LMX on
relates positively with employability (Van der Heijden and Bakker, all dimensions of perceived employability (Van der Heijde and
2011, ß = 0.14, p < 0.05; Camps and Rodríguez, 2011, ß = 0.62, p Van der Heijden, 2006)—occupational expertise, anticipation and
< 0.01; Van der Heijde and Van der Heijden, 2014, ß = 0.23, p < optimization, personal flexibility, corporate sense, and balance.

FIGURE 6
Yearly publication of included articles on the relationship between leadership and employability.
FIGURE 7
Conceptualizations of supervisor leadership in included articles (n = 17).
TABLE 2 Overview of countries in which data were collected.

Some studies instead assess employees’ perceived supervisor
support, with one suggesting that leadership influences employees’
Country Number of articles
perceived employability positively, including informal mentoring
The Netherlands 6 (Bozionelos et al., 2016, ß = 0.26, p < 0.01), but perceived
China, Germany, Greece, Italy, and 2 supervisor support does not (Matsuo, 2022, ß = −0.11, ns).
Poland Mentoring represents a relationship between two individuals,
Belgium, Costa Rica, Great Britain, 1 traditionally of unequal status, during which the mentor provides
Indonesia, Japan, Norway, Pakistan, and multiple development opportunities through, for example,
South Korea
coaching and counseling (Kram and Isabella, 1985). Supervisor
Unspecified 2 support associates with supervisory support, which contributes
Some studies collected data in multiple countries, and thus the total number of articles to positive work outcomes, such as job satisfaction (Miglianico
in combination with the countries in which the studies were conducted exceeded the 17 et al., 2020). Van Harten et al. (2016) demonstrate that supervisors’
included articles.
support of employees’ wellbeing and functioning (ß = 0.24,
p < 0.001) influences employability, conceptualized as up-to-
date expertise, positively, but not employability conceptualized
Park (2020) found that LMX associates with only one dimension of
as willingness to change. Supervisors’ support of employees’
perceived employability (Van der Heijden et al., 2018)—corporate
development influences employability conceptualized as
sense (ß = 0.245, p < 0.01).
willingness to change, but not that conceptualized as up-to-date
Examining a third leadership model, Chughtai (2019) and
expertise. Table 3 reports greater details on these articles.
Wang et al. (2019) demonstrate contrary findings of a positive
influence of servant leadership (Greenleaf, 1977) on employees’
perceived employability. Servant leadership concerns fulfilling
followers’ needs by providing support that subsequently enhances 3. The mechanisms: mediators and
followers’ potential (Greenleaf, 1977), such as career potential (e.g., moderators
employability). Wang et al. (2019) found that servant leadership
fosters employees’ perceived employability (ß = 0.19, p < 0.01), but While reporting on direct influences of supervisor leadership
Chughtai (2019) found no support for the same (ß = −0.09, ns). on employee employability, findings from the 17 articles suggested

Frontiers in Psychology
Hoedemakers et al.
TABLE 3 Details of included studies.
References Empirical context Research design Sample/participants Conceptualization of Conceptualization of Theories used in
leadership employability research frameworks
Van der • The Netherlands • Quantitative cross-sectional Employees/supervisors pairs • Perceived supervisors’ • Perceived employees’ Job demands-resources (JD-R)
Heijden and • One large Dutch building survey research (n = 303) transformational leadership employability measured using theory (Bakker and Demerouti,
Bakker (2011) company • Mediation research model assessed using employee ratings supervisor ratings for a 2017)
• Five of the nine original maximum of three employees
subscales (45 items) from • Van der Heijde and Van der
Alimo-Metcalfe and Heijden (2006)’s 47-item,
Alban-Metcalfe (2001)’s 5-factor employability
transformational leadership instrument; α ranged from 0.83
questionnaire; α ranged from to 0.95 within dimensions
0.82 to 0.95
Camps and • Costa Rica • Quantitative cross-sectional Employees (n = 795) • Perceived Head of Department Perceived employees’ employability Social exchange theory (SET;
Rodríguez • One large university survey research leader’s transformational measured using Van der Heijde and Cropanzano and Mitchell, 2005;
(2011) • Two-level data structure leadership assessed using Van der Heijden (2006)’s 47-item, Blau, 2017)
• Department-level (n = 75) lecturers’ and professors’ ratings 5-factor employability instrument
• Employee-level • Perceived transformational
• Moderated mediation leadership measured using
model Podsakoff et al. (1990)’s
5-dimensional scale (18 items)
Van der Heijde The Netherlands One large • Quantitative cross-sectional • Employees (n = 314) • Perceived supervisors’ • Perceived employees’ Authors revealed no theory for
and Van der Dutch building company survey research • Immediate supervisors (n transformational leadership employability assessed using explaining the findings.
Heijden (2014) • Main effect research model = 334) assessed using employee ratings both self-ratings and supervisor
11
• Multi-source data • Employee/supervisor pairs • Five of the nine original ratings of Van der Heijde and
collection (n = 290) subscales (45 items) of Van der Heijden (2006)’s
Alimo-Metcalfe and 47-item, five-factor
Alban-Metcalfe (2001)’s employability instrument; α
transformational leadership ranged from 0.78 to 0.90 for
questionnaire; α ranged from self-ratings, and 0.83 to 0.95 for
0.82 to 0.95 supervisor ratings
Van Harten • The Netherlands • Quantitative cross-sectional • Employees (n = 1,626): • Perceived supervisors’ support • Perceived employees’ Authors revealed no theory for
et al. (2016) • Three Dutch non-academic survey research • Nursing staff (39%), of employees’ wellbeing and employability measured using explaining the findings.
hospitals • Mediated research model medical office assistants or functioning assessed using Knies two constructs:
clerical staff (25%), and Leisink (2014)’s 4-item scale; • Thijssen and Walter (2006)’s
non-nursing medical α was 0.91 3-dimension, 9-item, up-to-date
employees (24%), middle • Perceived supervisors’ support expertise scale; α was 0.78, and
or higher managers or staff of employees’ development willingness to change assessed
members (12%). assessed using Knies and Leisink using a 4-item scale based on
(2014)’s 4-item scale; α was 0.87 Wittekind et al. (2010) and Van
Dam (2004); α was 0.71
10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1092865
Bozionelos • Greece, Italy, and Poland • Quantitative cross- Information technology (IT) Perceived mentoring receipt Perceived employees’ employability Authors revealed no theory for
et al. (2016) • Small and medium-sized sectional survey design professionals (n = 207) from assessed using Dreher and Ash assessed using supervisor ratings of explaining the findings.
enterprises (SMEs) • Moderated mediation Greece (n = 50), Italy (n = (1990)’s 5-item scale; α was 0.83 Van der Heijde and Van der
model 43), and Poland (n = 114) Heijden (2006)’s 47-item, 5-factor
frontiersin.org
• Multi-source data employability instrument; α ranged

collection: IT professionals from 0.81 to 0.92 within
and line managers dimensions
(Continued)
TABLE 3 (Continued)
Hoedemakers et al.
Struzyna and • Unspecified • Quantitative cross- • Employees (n = 566) • Perceived quality of • Perceived employees’ LMX (Graen and Uhl-Bien, 1995)
Marzec (2017) • Several public sectional survey design specified by public supervisor-employee employability measured using an
organizations: • Mediated model organizations: relationships (i.e., LMX) 8-dimensional constructed scale,
• Municipal/commune • Municipal/commune measured using Liden and drawing from Van der Heijde
centers of culture (n = 14) centers of culture (n = 80) Maslyn (1998)’s scale and Van der Heijden (2006)’s
• Public health care units (n • Public health care units (n • Perceived transformational 47-item, 5-factor employability
= 14) = 80) leadership was measured with a instrument
• County labor offices (n = • County labor offices (n = constructed scale based on scales • The scale contains the
14) 80) developed by Hartog et al. dimensions of social
• Municipal/commune units • Municipal/commune units (1997) and Avolio et al. (1999). competences, ability to adjust to
of social assistance (n = 14) of social assistance (n = 80) changes, civic competences,
• Primary schools (n = 14) • Primary schools (n = 80) knowledge and professional
• Commune centers for • Commune centers for skill, ability to maintain balance,
family support (n = 44) family support (n = 80) ethical competences, pro-active
• Municipal commune offices • Municipal commune offices professional attitude,
(n = 33) (n = 86) anticipatory strive for
professional development
Böttcher et al. • Germany • Quantitative cross- White-collar employees (n = • Perceived transformational • Perceived employability Authors revealed no theory for
(2018) • Two organizational units in sectional survey design 1,006) leadership assessed using a measured using Rothwell and explaining the findings.
one large German • Moderated model 20-item, multi-dimensional Arnold (2007)’s 11-item scale,
automotive company German version of the which contains sub-dimensions
Multifactor Leadership Scale 5X internal employability (four
short (Felfe, 2006), developed by items; α = 0.55) and external
12
Bass (1985) employability (seven items; α =

• This multi-dimensional scale 0.79)
contains five dimensions (each
dimension assesses 4 items), (I)
idealized influence attribute, (II)
idealized influence behavior,
(III) inspirational motivation,
(IV) intellectual stimulation, and
(V) individual consideration; α
ranged from 0.80 to 0.91, and
0.96 for the overall scale
Bhattacharya Unspecified One business • Mixed-method research • Quantitative survey: first Characteristics of supervisors that Intern’s satisfaction in terms of LMX (Graen and Uhl-Bien, 1995)
and Neelam school Two large design with two data year students/interns (n = leads to intern’s satisfaction from future employability
(2018) multinational conglomerates, collections: first was a 110) from human LMX-perspective.
two retail companies, two quantitative survey and resources, sales/marketing,
financial services companies second was operations, and finance
and three IT companies semi-structured, in-depth • Qualitative research using
10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1092865
interviews semi-structured, in-depth
• Multi-source data interviews among 14 pairs
collection of students/interns and
their mentors from two
large multinational
conglomerates (n = 4), two
frontiersin.org
retail companies (n = 2),

two financial services
companies (n = 2), and
three IT companies (n = 6)
(Continued)
TABLE 3 (Continued)
Hoedemakers et al.
Yizhong et al. • China • Quantitative survey with Employees (n = 760) who • Perceived transformational • Perceived employability assessed • Job characteristics theory
(2019) • Organizations in industries two waves of data collection worked under line manager leadership assessed using the using Rothwell and Arnold (Hackman and Oldham, 1975)
such as construction, • Mediated model for more than 1 year 20-item, 5-dimensional (2007)’s 10-item scale, which • Social exchange theory (SET;
manufacturing, finance, Multifactor Leadership Scale contains sub-dimensions Cropanzano and Mitchell, 2005;
insurance, and (Bass and Avolio, 1995). internal and external Blau, 2017)
communications • This 5-dimension scale contains employability; α was 0.882 for • LMX (Graen and Uhl-Bien,
dimensions (I) idealized the overall scale 1995)
influence attribute, (II) idealized
influence behavior, (III)
inspirational motivation, (IV),
intellectual stimulation, and (V)
individual consideration; α was
0.938 for the overall scale
Chughtai • Pakistan • Quantitative cross- Full-time employees (n = Perceived servant leadership Perceived employability measured Authors revealed no theory for
(2019) • One large food and sectional survey design 176) who worked in the head measured using Liden et al. using De Vos and Soens (2008)’s explaining the findings.
beverage company • Mediated model office (2015)’s 7-item servant leadership 3-item scale; α was 0.84
scale; α was 0.86
Van der • The Netherlands • Quantitative cross- Academic employees across Perceived LMX measured using Perceived employability measured • Job demands-resources (JD-R)
Heijden and • One University sectional survey design science, technology, Graen and Uhl-Bien (1995)’s using Van der Heijde and Van der theory (Bakker and Demerouti,
Spurk (2019) • Moderated model engineering and mathematics, 7-item scale; α was 0.92 Heijden (2006)’s 47-item, 5-factor 2017)
and social science disciplines employability instrument; α ranged • Conservation of resources
13
(n = 139) from 0.79 to 0.92 within (COR) theory from Hobfoll

dimensions (1989)
• LMX (Graen and Uhl-Bien,
1995)
Wang et al. • China • Quantitative survey design Employees (n = 283) Perceived servant leadership Perceived employability measured Authors revealed no theory for
(2019) • One internet technology with two waves of data measured using Liden et al. using Eby et al. (2003)’s 6-item explaining the findings.
company collection (2015)’s 7-item servant leadership scale; α was 0.89
• Moderated mediation scale; α was 0.89
model
Stoffers et al. • Belgium and the • Quantitative cross- • Employees/immediate Perceived LMX measured using Perceived employability measured LMX (Graen and Uhl-Bien, 1995)
(2019) Netherlands sectional survey design supervisor pairs: Graen and Uhl-Bien (1995)’s using Van der Heijde and Van der
• Small and medium-sized • Moderated mediation • Belgian sample (n = 105) 7-item, multi-dimensional scale, Heijden (2006)’s 47-item, 5-factor
enterprises (SMEs) model • Dutch sample (n =4 87) which contains dimensions respect employability instrument; α ranged
(two items, α 0.70 to 0.76), trust in the Belgian sample from 0.75 to
(two items, α 0.61 to 0.69), 0.90, and in the Dutch sample from
obligation (two items, α 0.74 to 0.78 to 0.91
10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1092865
0.75), and relationship quality (one
item)
Park (2020) • South Korea • Quantitative cross- Employees (n = 257) Perceived LMX measured using Perceived employability measured LMX (Graen and Uhl-Bien, 1995)
• One life insurance sectional survey design Graen and Uhl-Bien (1995)’s using Van der Heijden et al.
company • Main-effects model 7-item scale; α was 0.768 (2018)’s 22-item, short-form,
frontiersin.org
5-factor employability instrument;

α ranged from 0.790 to 0.892
within dimensions
(Continued)
that the relationship between leadership and employability

can be explained by several mechanisms, such as mediators,
• Job demands-resources (JD-R)

theory (Bakker and Demerouti,
No information about used theory
Sponsorship theory (Rosenbaum,
• Positive psychology (Seligman,

moderators, or both. Mechanisms represent “the basis for the
research frameworks
to embed the findings within
effect, i.e., the processes or events that are responsible for
1979; Wayne et al., 1999)

Theories used in
the change; the reasons why change occurred or how change

came about” Kazdin (2007, p. 3). Van der Heijden and Bakker
(2011) found that work-related flow is a mediator and thus
represents a mechanism in the positive relationship between
2017)
2019)
theory
transformational leadership and employability. Work-related flow

is “a short-term peak experience at work that is characterized
by absorption, work enjoyment and intrinsic work motivation”
employability measured using both
leaders and followers from Van der
using a 10-item scale based on Van
short-form, 5-factor employability

Perceived employability measured
Perceived employability measured

instrument; composite α was 0.89
(2006)’s 5-dimension scale; α was
(Bakker, 2005, p. 27).

for follower-rated employability
der Heijde and Van der Heijden
Conceptualization of
Heijden et al. (2018)’s 22-item,
using De Cuyper et al. (2011)’s

Follower/employee-rated and
Van der Heijde and Van der Heijden (2014) demonstrate

and 0.94 for leader-rated
that the influence of leadership on employability enhancement is
4-item scale; α was 0.84

leader-rated perceived
employability
moderated by both an employee’s work role (e.g., managerial/no

managerial work role) and personality. Findings suggest that
employability
among employees without a managerial work role, the relationship

between transformational leadership and employability was
0.875
positive only for supervisors’ ratings of employability (ß = 0.35, p <

0.001) and not for employees’ ratings of the same. However, among
and Uhl-Bien, 1995); α was 0.88 for
strengths use (PSSSU) was assessed

using Keenan and Mostert (2013)’s
perceived LMX measured using an
(Scandura and Graen, 1984; Graen
employees who had a managerial work role, the relationship was

adapted 7-item version of LMX-7
Perceived supervisor support for

follower-rated LMX and 0.85 for
12-item scale based on Bass and
Conceptualization of
positive for both supervisors’ (ß = 0.17, p < 0.05) and employees’

modified, multi-dimensional,
Avolio (1990b); α was 0.966

Perceived transformational
leadership assessed using a
Follower- and leader-rated
(ß = 0.22, p < 0.01) ratings (Van der Heijde and Van der Heijden,
8-item scale; α was 0.97
2014).
leader-rated LMX
Böttcher et al. (2018) argue that transformational

leadership
leadership, particularly idealized influence behavior and

individual consideration, moderates the negative relationship
between age and both internal and external employability.
Transformational leadership diminishes the negative influence of
Nurses and assistant nurses (n
age on internal employability, contrary to external employability.

988); leader-follower dyads (n
Sample/participants
(ICT) employees (n = 1,127)

communication technology
Yizhong et al. (2019) found that job characteristics, such

and 988 supervisors (n =
Permanent (n = 170).
as job demands, skill discretion, and decision authority,

and social exchanges, particularly perceived organizational
Information and
support and team member exchanges, explain the positive

effects of leadership on employability. Chughtai (2019)
= 967)
= 221)
demonstrate that servant leadership indirectly and positively

influences employability through mediators such as proactive
career behaviors (e.g., career planning, skill development,
• Quantitative cross-sectional
• Quantitative survey design
and networking).
sectional survey design
with two waves of data

• Moderated mediation
Research design
Van der Heijden and Spurk (2019) use leadership, particularly

• Quantitative cross-
• Mediated model
• Mediated model
LMX, to explain the relationship between learning value of

survey design
a job and employability. In a context of LMX, relationships

collection
between learning value of a job and all five dimensions of

model
employability (Van der Heijde and Van der Heijden, 2006) are
positive and strengthened. Wang et al. (2019) demonstrate a
positive association between servant leadership and employability,
influenced by two mechanisms—career skills (i.e., a mediator)
• Small and medium-sized
• Germany, Greece, Italy,
References Empirical context
• One acute care hospital

Norway, Poland, The
Netherlands, and the
and proactive personality (i.e., a moderator). Servant leaders

enterprises (SMEs)
higher-education
United Kingdom
foster employees’ career skills, which subsequently enhance

• Three private
employees’ employability. The degree of a proactive personality

institutions
• Indonesia
strengthens the influence of servant leadership on career skills,

• Japan
which subsequently enhances employees’ employability. Stoffers

TABLE 3 (Continued)
et al. (2019) demonstrate that employees’ national context (i.e.,

Belgium and the Netherlands) moderates minimally the positive
Matsuo (2022)
influence of LMX on employability. Matsuo (2022) found that

Gustari and
et al. (2021)
Epitropaki
perceived supervisor support enhances employees’ employability

Widodo
(2020)
(De Cuyper and De Witte, 2011) through the mechanism (i.e., a

mediator) strength.

4. Discussion employees succeeding with their task performance, which enhances

work performance (Van Woerkom et al., 2016) and influences
This review is first to provide an overview of the influence employability positively.
of supervisors’ leadership on employees’ employability at work To explain the positive influence of supervisor leadership on
(i.e., internal, external, and subdimensions of employability). employee employability, Van der Heijden and Spurk (2019) use
Despite a lack of studies that assess leadership as a predictor conservation of resources (COR) theory from Hobfoll (1989),
of employability enhancement, we identify and review 17 which is generally similar to Yizhong et al. (2019)’s use of
empirical articles, most of which report positive relationships. job characteristics theory (Hackman and Oldham, 1975). COR
This review suggests that supervisors’ leadership influences associates with JD-R theory (Bakker and Demerouti, 2017) because
employees’ employability positively, thus demonstrating that both focus on employees who use resources to cope with
investment in such leadership represents a valuable HRM strategy organizational stress such as job insecurity. According to Hobfoll
regarding employability. et al. (2018), COR suggests that “individuals strive to obtain, retain,
As a result of the preliminary study, and according to Chughtai foster and protect those things they centrally value” (p. 104), such
(2019) and Wang et al. (2019), we argue that there exists scant as employment. Using this coping strategy, employees obtain and
research that assesses the leadership-employability link explicitly. retain resources by, for example, investing in skill development
To develop a research agenda from an employer-employee (i.e., a personal resource) and LMX, the quality of a supervisor-
relationship perspective, it is paramount to recognize the current employee relationship (i.e., a social resource; Hobfoll et al., 2018).
state of research on the leadership-employability relationship Froehlich et al. (2019) demonstrate that skill development through
(Fugate et al., 2021). When talent is scarce and retaining task variety fosters employability indirectly, and Wayne et al. (1997)
employees is important to employers, identifying how leadership, argue that degree of access to job resources is affected by the
as a job resource, contributes to employability enhancement quality of supervisor-employee relationships, which subsequently
is crucial. contributes to employees’ employability enhancement.
To explain the positive influences, both direct and indirect, Job characteristics (JC) theory (Hackman and Oldham, 1975)
of supervisors’ leadership on employees’ employability, researchers appears suitable to explaining the positive influence of supervisor
use various theories of perceived support from leaders in terms of leadership on employee employability. JC (Hackman and Oldham,
job resources, and subsequent outcomes such as employability. We 1975) suggests that resources such as autonomy, job feedback, task
found that the 17 reviewed articles use social exchange perspectives significance, and task identity influence feelings and behaviors, such
to explain this influence. From a social exchange perspective, the as motivation. From this perspective, supervisor leadership, as a
articles use social exchange theory (SET; Cropanzano and Mitchell, contextual resource, influences employees’ work experiences (i.e.,
2005; Blau, 2017) (n = 2) or LMX (Graen and Uhl-Bien, 1995; n work meaningfulness and responsibility for work outcomes), which
= 6) to explain the positive influence of supervisors’ leadership subsequently enhance employability.
on employees’ employability. SET and LMX suggest that two-way According with JD-R, COR, and JC theory, Epitropaki
social exchange relationships between supervisors and employees et al. (2021) use sponsorship theory (Rosenbaum, 1979; Wayne
affect employees’ perceptions of organizational support strongly et al., 1999), to explain the positive link between supervisors’
(Wayne et al., 1997). High LMX is dominated by high dyadic leadership and employees’ employability. The theory suggests that
respect, trust, commitment, and interest in each other’s wellbeing, supervisors provide resources such as sponsoring activities and
which subsequently foster employees’ access to job resources (e.g., career mentoring, and they subsequently contribute to career
support and both informal and formal learning opportunities). success and thus employability. Sponsorship theory is, therefore, a
Employees’ improved access to job resources positively affects suitable lens to explain the positive association between supervisor
workplace outcomes (Liden et al., 1997) such as employability. leadership and employee employability.
The articles also use other theories to explain the positive Excepting Bhattacharya and Neelam (2018)’s mixed-method
influence of supervisor leadership on employee employability. study, a design that combines quantitative and qualitative methods
Van der Heijden and Spurk (2019) and Matsuo (2022), for (Creswell, 1999), all studies used cross-sectional, quantitative, and
example, use job demands-resources (JD-R) theory (Bakker and deductive (i.e., hypothesis testing) approaches. All also collected,
Demerouti, 2017). According to Bakker and Demerouti (2017), JD- at most, two waves of data, which means that they used cross-
R involves a human resources management approach, suggesting sectional, not longitudinal, designs. Ployhart and MacKenzie (2015)
that job resources, defined as “physical, psychological, social or argue that longitudinal designs include three waves of measurement
organizational aspects of the job are functional in achieving of the same variables, which provides insights into cause-and-
work goals” (p. 274), influence employees’ work motivation, effect (i.e., causality) among them. Since cross-sectional designs
especially under challenging work conditions. Job resources, such involve one-time specific measurement from a single source (e.g., a
as performance feedback, LMX, and opportunities for growth, help respondent), the design inherently includes validity concerns, such
employees cope with job demands, which subsequently enhance as common method bias and causal inference (Rindfleisch et al.,
employability. Drawing on this theory, Matsuo (2022) found that 2008). We are thus unable to argue a case for causal relationships
a positive psychology (Seligman, 2019) lens explains the link between supervisor leadership and employee employability (Setia,
between supervisors’ leadership and employees’ employability. As 2016).
a job resource, supervisor support fosters employees’ confidence to Despite the advantages of quantitative, deductive hypothesis
succeed with task performance, and the result such confidence is testing, including the ability to conduct surveys quickly,

quantitative research does not include in-depth analyses of resources and subsequently influence both leaders’ and followers’
individuals’ characteristics (e.g., beliefs, values, and assumptions; behaviors (Wayne et al., 1997). The quality of dyadic relationships
Neuman, 2014). Due to the quantitative designs used in the between leaders and followers determines the extent to which
studies assessed, we are unable to discover greater insights into leaders offer valuable resources such as training and feedback (Liao
participants’ behaviors, and thus we are able only to test existing et al., 2009), which subsequently enhance employees’ employability
theories, instead of constructing new ones (Neuman, 2014). (Froehlich et al., 2019). Perceived supervisor support of employee
The studies were conducted in various work contexts, such development, wellbeing, functioning, strength use, and mentoring
as educational, SMEs, healthcare, and several industries at once, associates with employees’ perceptions of whether supervisors
and the studies’ contexts also varied geographically. Some were care about them and value their work (Eisenberger et al., 2002,
conducted in Europe (Van der Heijden and Bakker, 2011; Van der p. 565). However, the strength of this positive influence differs
Heijde and Van der Heijden, 2014; Bozionelos et al., 2016; Van among leadership conceptualizations. Transformational leadership
Harten et al., 2016; Böttcher et al., 2018; Stoffers et al., 2019; Van der (Camps and Rodríguez, 2011), followed closely by LMX (Epitropaki
Heijden and Spurk, 2019; Epitropaki et al., 2021), followed closely et al., 2021), are the types of leadership that associate most
by Asia (Chughtai, 2019; Wang et al., 2019; Yizhong et al., 2019; positively with employability. Wang et al. (2019) demonstrate a
Gustari and Widodo, 2020; Park, 2020; Matsuo, 2022) and North positive influence of servant leadership on employability, and in
America (Camps and Rodríguez, 2011). This suggests that we contradiction, Chughtai (2019) found no support for the same
found support for a mostly positive relationship between supervisor relationship. Instead of assessing explicit leadership styles, the
leadership and employee employability in various work contexts remainder of the studies assess employees’ perceived supervisor
across countries. However, from a “cross-context scholarship” support, with inconclusive results reported. Depending on the
(Whetten, 2009, p. 29) perspective is this an important finding. conceptualization of employees’ perceived supervisor support, such
Namely, outcomes of supervisors’ leadership are influenced by support might enhance employees’ employability, but to a lesser
context effects (Oc, 2018) defined as “the set of factors surrounding degree than major leadership concepts such as transformational
a phenomenon that exert some direct or indirect influence on it leadership and LMX.
(Whetten, 2009, p. 31). Namely, overall, and based on the studies Regarding the influence of supervisor leadership on employee
assessed, we argue that results do not differ greatly among these employability, findings suggest the importance of mediators
work contexts. and moderators. Mediators such as work-related flow (Van der
Research conceptualizes supervisor leadership and employee Heijden and Bakker, 2011), job demands, skill discretion, and
employability in several ways. We argue that leadership influences, decision authority (e.g., job characteristics), and social exchange
that is enhances, at least one dimension of employees’ employability mechanisms, particularly perceived organizational support and
both directly and indirectly. Chughtai (2019) found contradictory team-member exchange (Yizhong et al., 2019), career planning,
results; that is, no support for a direct influence of supervisors’ skill development, and networking (e.g., proactive career behaviors;
leadership on employees’ employability. We refer to Fiedler (1964)’s Chughtai, 2019), career skills (Wang et al., 2019), and strength use
contingency theory of leadership as an explanation for different (Matsuo, 2022), are crucial to explaining the influence of supervisor
results within several conceptualizations of the constructs. Fiedler leadership on employee employability. Moderators such as work
(1964) suggests no universal leadership style that fits every context. roles, personality (Van der Heijde and Van der Heijden, 2014),
Findings suggest that major leadership concepts, such as proactive personalities (Wang et al., 2019), and national contexts
transformational leadership, LMX, and servant leadership, and (Stoffers et al., 2019) influence the relationship between supervisor
leadership concepts related to employees’ support of employees’ leadership on employee employability. This implies that in addition
development, perceived supervisor support of employees’ wellbeing to several leadership concepts and mediators discussed above, the
and functioning, and perceived supervisor support for strength use positive influence of leadership on employability differs among
and mentoring, are leader-support leadership concepts (Cheong work roles, personalities (Van der Heijde and Van der Heijden,
et al., 2019) that have a positive and direct influence on 2014), proactive personalities (Wang et al., 2019), and national
employability. Such leadership encourages followers to transform contexts (Stoffers et al., 2019). As mechanisms, both mediators
their attitudes, values, and behaviors through empowerment so and moderators are crucial to explaining the positive influence of
that followers achieve outstanding performance (Burns, 1978; supervisor leadership on employee employability.
Bass, 1985, 1999). Transformational leaders motivate employees
by being role models, sharing inspired visions of a desired
future, and recognizing and stimulating employees’ creativity and
development (e.g., stimulate self-development) (Bass, 1999), and 4.1. Setting an agenda for employability
using power and authority to focus on change (e.g., progress research
and development; Tucker and Russell, 2004), which subsequently
enhances employability. Similar to Bass (1999), Greenleaf (1977) This review suggests how supervisors’ leadership influences
also focuses on transforming employees’ attitudes, values, and employees’ employability, but more research is needed to
behaviors by putting service first instead of leading, such that explore this relationship further. We therefore propose multiple
employees “grow healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous and directions for future research, setting an agenda, from (1)
more likely themselves to become servants” (Greenleaf, 1977, theoretical perspective that investigates how other, unapplied
p. 13). LMX represents the quality of social exchanges between leadership frameworks and other mechanisms (e.g., mediators and
a leader and follower, which associate with exchanges of job moderators) operate in the relationship; (2) from methodological

perspective, i.e., how other methodologies might be pursued in are also needed regarding whether moderators, such as a leader’s
future empirical studies which might enhance the understanding gender (Cheong et al., 2019), influence the relationship. Thus, for
of the supervisors’ leadership and employees’ employability this, we propose to answer, for instance, the research questions: Will
which consequently represents a valuable contribution to mutual respect and trust, hope, and psychological empowerment
employability literature. mediate the leadership-employability relationship? And, how will
To enhance theoretical knowledge within the leadership- leader gender moderate the leadership-employability relationship?
employability relationship, findings suggest little research on the From a methodological perspective, cross-sectional designs
influence of other leadership concepts, such as relational (Clarke, dominated this review, which suggests validity concerns such
2018), authentic (Avolio et al., 2004) and empowering (Cheong as common method bias and causal inference (Rindfleisch
et al., 2019) leadership, on employees’ employability. Relational et al., 2008). We suggest therefore that longitudinal designs
leadership is a social-process leadership style that stresses the role with at least 3 waves of data collection, such as experiments
played by social interactions, which are dominated by mutual (e.g., pretest-posttest, control-group designs) and multi-level
respect and trust between supervisors and employees (Clarke, designs, are needed to increase validity by assessing causal
2018). Carifio (2010) argues that relational leadership includes relationships between leadership and employability (Setia,
5 attributes—inclusive, empowering, caring, ethical, and vision 2016). Researchers should use multisource data (e.g., two-level
and intuition—which might enhance employability. Authentic data structures) among employees and immediate supervisors
leadership (Avolio et al., 2004) is associates with followers’ who work in under-researched contexts, such as healthcare
motivation and engagement enhancement, which subsequently and SME. Therefore, we propose to conduct research in
foster employees’ work outcomes (e.g., performance). Cheong new under-researched contexts, such as healthcare and SME,
et al. (2019) argue that empowering leadership relates closely to especially because outcomes of the supervisors’ leadership—
transformational and process leadership that provides relational employability relationship are influenced by context effects (Oc,
support by, for example, fostering employees’ autonomy. These 2018).
leadership styles might operate as a job resource, enhancing
employability. Therefore, we suggest further research directions
by answer research questions such as: How will supervisors’ 4.2. Practical implications
leadership’s (e.g., relational, authentic and empowering leadership)
influence employees’ employability? For instance, will supervisors’ This review offers several implications that inform policy,
relational leadership enhance employees’ employability more practice, and research in management and organization
strongly, compared with authentic or empowering leadership? studies (Denyer and Tranfield, 2009), particularly related
Moreover, despite the growing literature on collective forms to employability and leadership. Findings demonstrate the
of leadership such as shared leadership (Sweeney et al., 2019) possibilities of supervisor leadership as a job resource that
which also may influence the employee-employer relationship enhances employability, contributing to employees’ subjective
in terms of employees’ employability enhancement, we propose career success. Employees are thus able to cope with rapidly
further research guided by the research question: How will shared changing jobs (Van der Heijden et al., 2018) and are less likely
leadership influences employees’ employability? to develop feelings of job insecurity and panic in reaction
Furthermore, the current systematic literature review uses an to change because they are confident that they can pursue
input-based approach of employability (Vanhercke et al., 2014), employment both inside or outside of the current organization
focusing on “the subjective perception held by an employee (or if necessary (De Cuyper and De Witte, 2011). Policymakers
by his or her supervisor) about his or her possibilities in terms of should facilitate conditions that enhance supervisors’ leadership
competences, to obtain and maintain work” (Van der Heijden et al., as a job resource (e.g., contextual variable), which subsequently
2018, p. 237), which is a limitation of this paper. Namely, according fosters employees’ employability (i.e., a personal variable).
to De Lange et al. (2021), employability operationalizations can From an organizational perspective, policymakers are able to
be categorized as “input- or competence-based” (p. 1) or “output- foster supervisors’ transformational leadership, for example, by
or labor market-based” (p. 1). In addition to this SLR, we facilitating training such as workshops (Bass and Avolio, 1990a), or
therefore suggest to examine in future research how “output- or feedback (Kelloway et al., 2000).
labor market-based” employability operates within the leadership- Supervisors should focus on the quality of LMX, being aware
employability relationship. of the influence of shared self-identities and personal values
We found that mechanisms such as mediators (e.g., work- between leaders and followers, which subsequently enhance the
related flow; Van der Heijden and Bakker, 2011) and moderators, quality of relationships (Jackson and Johnson, 2012). Organizations
for instance proactive personality (Wang et al., 2019), operate should be aware of the role supervisors play as delegates of
as mechanisms in the leadership-employability relationship. To the organization, facilitating job resources such as perceived
explore further how supervisor leadership influences employee supervisor support. Supervisors should thus pay greater attention
employability, we propose including other mediators and to providing job resources such as enhancing work experiences
moderators as a starting point. We suggest assessing whether by offering informal social learning opportunities that foster
mediators, such as mutual respect and trust (Clarke, 2018), hope employability (Froehlich et al., 2019). Among supervisors, insights
(Avolio et al., 2004), and psychological empowerment (Amundsen suggest opportunities to enhance employability by creating a
and Martinsen, 2015), operate in the relationship. More insights supportive work context with fit-for-purpose job resources.

This is an important finding for policymakers, researchers, Data availability statement

and supervisors.
The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be
made available by the authors, without undue reservation.
4.3. Limitations
This review’s methodology was crucial to assessing the current Author contributions
state of scientific research (Snyder, 2019), but it has some
limitations. This review was influenced by several types of reporting JH, AV, and JS presented the main idea of the manuscript. JH
biases, such as publication, location, and language biases (Higgins wrote the first draft of the manuscript, and AV and JS helped in the
et al., 2019). Higgins et al. (2019) argue that publication bias, revision of the manuscript. All authors approved it for publication.
regardless of the expertise of the researcher, derives from whether
articles get published. We are unable to review research findings
in unpublished articles, which might influence results. Regarding
Funding
location bias, we were restricted to using the university’s interface.
This work was supported by the Library Committee Open
Thus, when identifying articles that met the inclusion criteria,
Universiteit—OA Fund.
we were restricted by access to a limited number of databases
that are connected to the university’s interface. Such restrictions
determine access to articles that might influence findings. Language Acknowledgments
biases also affected results. Our inclusion criteria included peer-
reviewed journal articles, conference articles, books, and book We are grateful to our colleague Maartje Henderikx who helped
chapters published in English and Dutch. Due to a lack of resources us to conduct the preliminary bibliometrics analysis.
to translate languages unknown to the researchers, findings were
restricted to both languages, which might have influenced findings.
We did not assess the quality of the methodologies used in Conflict of interest
the articles, which is also a limitation. Thus, the quality of the
methodologies affected the quality of this review. When conducting The authors declare that the research was conducted in the
a systematic review, the number of authors affects the review’s absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be
quality. Two of the three authors independently identified, selected, construed as a potential conflict of interest.
and reviewed the articles used during the review, but a greater
number of authors might have enhanced its quality. Despite
the growing literature on collective forms of leadership such as Publisher’s note
shared leadership (Sweeney et al., 2019) we focus exclusively on
the individual leadership-employability relationship which is a All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the
limitation of this paper. Finally, we exclusively look at “input- authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated
or competence-based” (De Lange et al., 2021, p. 1) employability, organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the
consequently we not search for “output- or labor market-based” reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or
(p. 1) employability, which is a restriction and thus a limitation of claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or
this paper. endorsed by the publisher.
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Appendix
TABLE A1 Full list of searched major research databases using university’s
interface—January 2022 to February 2022.
• Academic Search Premier (EBSCO) • MUSE Humanities Collection

• ACM Digital Library • NARCIS
• AIS (Association for Information • Nature
Systems) • NDFR (Nederlandse
• APA PsycArticles (EBSCO) Documentatie Fiscaal Recht)
• APA PsycInfo (EBSCO) • Nederlandse historische
• Ars Aequi parlementaire documenten
• Beeld en Geluid op school • Nexis Uni (Lexis Nexis)
• Business Source Complete (EBSCO) • NLFiscaal
• Cambridge Journals • OA journal browser
• CINAHL (EBSCO) • Open Book Publishers
• Cochrane Library • OpMaat Premium Plus
• Company.info • Overheid.nl
• Delpher • Oxford Historical Treaties
• DOAJ – Directory of Open Access (OHT)
Journals • Oxford International
• EBSCO Host (EBSCO) Organizations Database (OXIO)
• Electronic Journals Service (EBSCO) • Oxford Reports on International
• Embase on OvidSP Law (ORIL)
• Emerald Insight [management] • Oxford Scholarly Authorities on
• ERIC EBSCO International Law (OSAIL)
• Europeana • Oxford University Press
• Europeana Newspapers • Psychology and Behavioral
• Factset Sciences Collection (EBSCO)
• Google Scholar • Pubmed
• Greenfile (EBSCO) • Regional Business News
• HeinOnline (EBSCO)
• IEEE Digital Library • Sage Business Cases
• Jesuit Online Bibliography • Sage Journals Online
• JSTOR • Science
• Kluwer Navigator • Sciencedirect (Elsevier)
• Lecture Notes in Computer Science • SpringerLink
• Legal Intelligence • Strada Lex
• Library Information & Technology • Taylor & Francis Online
Abstracts (EBSCO) • UN-iLibrary
• LibSearch: discovery tool UM • Van Dale online woordenboeken
• LiteRom (Nederlandstalig) • Web of Science
• Max Planck Encyclopedias of • Westlaw UK
International Law (MPIL) • WestlawNext
• Medline (EBSCO)
• Wiley Online Library
• Worldcat

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TYPE Systematic Review

PUBLISHED 02 June 2023

The inﬂuence of leadership on

employability, leadership, social exchange theory, supervisors, employees, systematic

Frontiers in Psychology 01 frontiersin.org

1. Introduction The pandemic transformed job demands (e.g., increasement of

Frontiers in Psychology 02 frontiersin.org

2.1. Preliminary study: bibliometric analysis

Frontiers in Psychology 03 frontiersin.org

2.1.4. Results research on the employability-leadership link from an employer-

Frontiers in Psychology 04 frontiersin.org

Frontiers in Psychology 05 frontiersin.org

Frontiers in Psychology 06 frontiersin.org

Frontiers in Psychology 07 frontiersin.org

TABLE 1 Inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Frontiers in Psychology 08 frontiersin.org

Frontiers in Psychology 09 frontiersin.org

TABLE 2 Overview of countries in which data were collected.

Frontiers in Psychology 10 frontiersin.org

• Multi-source data employability instrument; α ranged

Bass (1985) employability (seven items; α =

retail companies (n = 2),

(n = 139) from 0.79 to 0.92 within (COR) theory from Hobfoll

5-factor employability instrument;

that the relationship between leadership and employability

• Job demands-resources (JD-R)

Sponsorship theory (Rosenbaum,

• Positive psychology (Seligman,

to embed the findings within

effect, i.e., the processes or events that are responsible for

1979; Wayne et al., 1999)

the change; the reasons why change occurred or how change

transformational leadership and employability. Work-related flow

short-form, 5-factor employability

Perceived employability measured

(Bakker, 2005, p. 27).

Heijden et al. (2018)’s 22-item,

using De Cuyper et al. (2011)’s

Van der Heijde and Van der Heijden (2014) demonstrate

that the influence of leadership on employability enhancement is

4-item scale; α was 0.84

moderated by both an employee’s work role (e.g., managerial/no

among employees without a managerial work role, the relationship

positive only for supervisors’ ratings of employability (ß = 0.35, p <

strengths use (PSSSU) was assessed

(Scandura and Graen, 1984; Graen

employees who had a managerial work role, the relationship was

Perceived supervisor support for

positive for both supervisors’ (ß = 0.17, p < 0.05) and employees’

Avolio (1990b); α was 0.966

Follower- and leader-rated

Böttcher et al. (2018) argue that transformational

leadership, particularly idealized influence behavior and

age on internal employability, contrary to external employability.

(ICT) employees (n = 1,127)

Yizhong et al. (2019) found that job characteristics, such

as job demands, skill discretion, and decision authority,

support and team member exchanges, explain the positive

demonstrate that servant leadership indirectly and positively