Dental Materials Notes

Kruti Mehta
Lecture 1: Liquids and Surface Phenomenon:
What are dental materials:
- Can be classified as preventive materials, restorative materials, or auxiliary materials
- Preventive materials: pit and fissure sealants, liners, baes, cements, restorative materials, glass ionomer
cement (release fluoride or other therapeutic agents to prevent or inhibit progression of tooth decay)
- Restorative dental materials: synthetic compounds used to repair or replace tooth structure (primers,
boding agents, liners, cement bases, amalgam, RC, hybrid ionomers etc.
o Direct restorative materials or indirect restorative materials
Materials present in different states:
• Gas
• Liquid
• Solid
- Atoms and molecules are held together by atomic interactions
- The physical and chemical reactions of the atoms determine the properties of materials

Interatomic Bonds:
- The forces that hold atoms together (cohesive forces)
- Primary Bonds [aka chemical bonds]: formation of primary bonds depends on the atomic structures and
their tendency to assume a stable configuration
o Strength of these bonds and their ability to reform after breakage determine the physical
properties of a material
o Ionic bonds (ex. Na+ and Cl- stable compound)
▪ In dentistry: gypsum structures and phosphate-based cements
o Covalent bonds: (example: H2- single valence electron of each hydrogen atom is shared with that
of the other combining atom, and the valence shells become stable)
o Metallic bonds- high thermal and electrical conductivity
- Secondary bonds
o Unlike primary bonds, secondary bonds do not share electrons
o Instead, charge variation among atomic groups of the molecules induces dipole forces that attract
adjacent molecules or parts of a large molecules
o Hydrogen Bonding [polarization of the water]
o Van der Waals forces [momentary charge polarization]
- Different type of bonding indicates certain types of properties of the dental material
o The conditions of equilibrium are usually described in terms of energy rather than inter-atomic
forces
o The attraction of the atoms in the solid state is greater than in liquid of gaseous states
o Higher melting point usually accompanied by a greater stiffness and inversely to thermal
expansion
Materials used for the replacement of missing tooth structure:
- Metals and alloys
o Gold, Palladium, Platinum, Silver, Copper, Tin, Mercury, Zinc, Nickel
- Polymers
o Epoxies, Waxes, Silicone rubbers, PVC, Elastomers
- Ceramics
o Silicon Carbide, Dental Porcelain, Quartz, Alumina
- Composites
o Glass
o Filled polymers
 o Impression materials (hydrocolloid, elastomeric)
Atomic Arrangement
- In the solid state, atoms combine in a matter that ensures minimal internal energy, they form a regularly
spaced configuration known as a crystal
- A space lattice can be defined as any arrangement of atoms in space in which every atom is situated
similarly to every other atom.
Matter is usually in the form of
1. Crystalline
a. The primary and secondary forces hold the atoms or molecules
together
b. The atoms or molecules are arranged so that they form a regularly
spaced configuration known as a space lattice of the crystal
c. There are 14 possible space lattice types but many of the metals used
in dentistry are in the cubic system
d. Simplest and most regular lattice is a cubic → characterized by axes
that are all of equal length and meet at 90-degree angles, representing
the smallest repetitive volume of a crystal called a unit cell
e. Most metals used is dentistry belong to the cubic system
f. All metallic-based dental materials are crystalline
2. Non-crystalline (amorphous) structure
- Glass is a typical non-crystalline solid, waxes
- Structures may solidify as amorphous materials such that the molecules are distributed at random
- They do not have a definite melting point temperature, but rather they gradually soften
- Polymeric-based materials used in dentistry are usually non-crystalline
- Structural arrangements of the non-crystalline solids do not represent such low eternal energies as
crystalline arrangements of the same atoms and molecules
o Do not have a definite melting temperature but rather gradually soften as the temperature is
raised
- Tg= glass transition temperature = the temperature at which there is an abrupt increased in the thermal
expansion coefficient – indicating increased molecular mobility
o Characteristic of the glassy structure
Viscosity (n) of liquids
- A liquids resistance to motion (flow) is called viscosity
- Controlled by internal frictional forces within the liquid
- Success or failure of a given material may be as dependent
on its manipulation and handling properties in the liquid
states as it is on its performance properties as a solid
o Most dental materials are initially in a fluid state so
they can be placed and shaped as required → then
undergo transformation to a solid state, in which they are durable and perform their function
- Example: amorphous materials such as waxes and resins appear solid but are supercooled liquids that
can flow plastically (irreversibly) under sustained loading or deform elastically (reversibly) under small
stresses
- Image explained: A liquid occupies the space between 2 flat surfaces, for example when a spatula is
moved through a pasty fluid such as a dental cement to blend 2 components on a mixing pad
o Mixing surface fixed and the upper surface (e.g. Spatula blade) moves to the right at a given
velocity
o Force is required to overcome the frictional resistance within the fluid and cause the fluid to flow
- Stress = force per unit area that develops within a structure when an external force is applied
o Causes deformation, or strain, to develop
o Calculated as a change in length divided by the initial reference length
 - If 2 surfaces have an area (A) in contact with the liquid, a shear stress (T) can be defined as T=F/A
- The shear strain rate or rate of change of deformation is E=V/d where d is the shear distance of the upper
surface relative to the fixed lower surface and V is the velocity of the moving surface
- As the shear force (F) increases, V increases
- An “ideal” fluid produces a shear stress proportional to the
strain rate. That is, the greater the force applied, the faster the
fluid flows and the plot is a straight line. This is known as
Newtonian viscosity.
Thixotropic Behaviour:
- The viscosity of the fluid is a function of the previous
deformations to which the fluid has been subjected
- The viscosity for an increasing shear rate is different from the
viscosity for a decreasing shear rate (example of hysteresis)
- The viscosity of most fluids decreases rapidly with increasing
temperature
- Viscosity may also depend on previous deformation of the liquid
o Such fluids become less viscous and more flowable upon repeated applications of pressure =
thixotropic
Liquid State, Property
- The property of liquids that distinguish them from solids may be related to the greater porosity
- The density of a liquid differs at interfaces
- Liquids may be visualized as molecules and holes (black and open circle respectively)
Surface Tension
- Attraction forces between the molecules on the surface
- At the surface, the attraction forces are negligible outside the body of
liquid or between the gas phase and the liquid
- Within the body of the liquid, there is an attraction force operating in all
directions
- The energy on the surface per unit area = surface energy or tension
- Example: molten metal (has high surface tension) and may fail to fill the
mould details
o Increasing the temperature of the molten metal decreases the surface tension
- In general, there is a reduction in surface tension of all liquids as the temperature is increased
- Surface energy of a solid is equivalent to the surface tension of a liquid
Adhesion between Solids:
- When the molecules of 1 substrate adhere or are attracted to molecules of the other substrate, force of
attraction = adhesion
- Point to point contact of 2 solid surfaces at the microscopic level
- Localized adhesion (or cold-welding) at the asperities – results in frictional resistance when attempt is
made to slide 1 surface over the other but adhesion normal to the surface is undetectable
- Material used to cause bonding = adhesive and the material to which it is applied is called the adherend
o Adhesive bonding – surface attachment process, qualified by specifying the type of
intermolecular attraction that may exist between the adhesive and the adherend
- Fundamental requirement of adhesion is that the 2 substances to be bonded must contact each other
o We use a fluid or semi-fluid (adhesive) to act as an intermediary

Factors which govern the ability of adhesive to make good contact with the substrate are:
 • Wettability of the substrate by the adhesive
o Ability of an adhesive to wet the surface of the adherence is influenced by a
number of factors; cleanliness of the surface, impurities on the solid surface
can yield a surface of lower energy than clean surface and prevents wetting
by the adhesive
o The wettability of a solid by a liquid can be observed by the shape of a drop
of the liquid on the solid surface
o Contact angle is dependent on the surface tension of the liquid and the surface energy of the solid
– the tangent line and the solid surface constitute an angle that defines the shape of the liquid
▪ If the force of attraction between molecules of the adhesive and molecules of the
substrate is stronger than the attraction between molecules of the adhesive, the liquid
adhesive will spread more broadly over the solid surface and result in smaller contact
angle
▪ Small contact angle – the adhesive forces at the interface are stronger than the cohesive
forces at the interface are stronger than the
cohesive forces holding the molecules of the
adhesive together
▪ If the adhesive beads up, it means that the force
of adhesion is weaker than the cohesive force of
the adhesive
▪ Complete wetting = at a contact angle of 0
degrees and no wetting occurs at an angle of 180
degrees
▪ The smaller the contact angle between adhesive
and an adherend, the better the ability of the
adhesive to flow into and fill in irregularities
within surface of the adherend
o Capillary Rise: the penetration of liquids into narrow crevices
▪ A differential capillary pressure develops when a small tube of radius r is inserted into a
liquid of surface tension gamma.
▪ Another aspect of capillary phenomenon is the adhesion of liquid bridges between solids
▪ The rate of movement of a liquid into a capillary defined by the penetration coefficient
(PC)
• Viscosity of the adhesive
• Morphology or roughness of the surface
o Surface roughness – roughness has the advantage of increasing the potential area for bonding,
but it can also give rise to the entrapment of air
▪ Contributes to adhesion by increasing surface area, and creating undercut areas that
promote mechanical retention
o Adhesives with a high viscosity are particularly prone to causing entrapment of air = weak bond
Mechanism of Adhesion:
- Mechanical (interlock through surface irregularities, pits, fissure, and microscopic undercuts)
- Physical (forces of attraction through dipole-dipole interaction)
- Chemical (absorption into the surface and bond by covalent or ionic forces)
- Molecules entanglement (penetration of the surface of the substrate)
Bonding:
- Wetting is essential for the success of all adhesion mechanisms (forming micromechanical interlocks
and chemical bonds). Bonding agents must spread and penetrate by into microscopic irregularities
o Wettability can be enhanced by increasing surface energy of substrates. A clean,
microroughened surface has a high surface energy (hence acid etching)
- The smear layer can either be removed prior to bonding: ‘etch and rinse’ approach or resin-based
 bonding agents can be used that penetrate the smear layer and incorporate it into the bonding layer:
‘self-etch approach’.
- Adhesive bonding to dentine is more difficult than bonding to enamel
o Dentine is hydrophilic whereas most adhesives are hydrophobic
o Dentine is a vital tissue with a tubular structure through which fluid can flow
o Dentine consists of both inorganic and organic material
o Dentine is covered with a smear layer
Mechanisms of enamel bonding
- Micromechanical interlocking via resin bonding (optimal resin boding is achieved when enamel is dry)
- Chemical adhesion
o to surface precipitates, inorganic, or organic tooth components
o by functional monomers in enamel-dentine adhesives
o by glass ionomer restoratives
Mechanisms of dentine bonding
- Micromechanical interlocking and the formation of a hybrid layer
- Chemical adhesion by glass ionomer restoratives
- Smear layer removal or modification allows access to the underlying dentine and is necessary for
effective bonding between restorative resin and dentine
Total-etch adhesives
- Utilize the ‘total-etch’ approach by phosphoric acid etching of dentine and enamel simultaneously, the
acid is then rinsed off and the tooth dried
o The priming and bonding steps may then be carried out
o The dentine primer may be contained in the same or separate mixtures as the bonding resin
o Disadvantages: the tendency to over-etch and or over-dry the dentine which results in collapse
of collagen fibrils, poor resin infiltration and compromises bonding
o Advantages: massively increases bond strength
Self-etch adhesives
- Utilize the ‘self-etch’ approach by acidic monomers (acidic primers) as the conditioning and the
priming agent
- Simultaneous demineralization of dentine and infiltration of the resin primer into the exposed
collagen fibrils occurs. The smear layer is partially removed, dissolved, or modified. The
bonding step is then carried out
o The approach involves no rinsing, therefore no drying and the risk of collapse of the exposed
collagen is eliminated or removed
o Theoretically more thorough infiltration of dentine is thought to occur than for total-etch
adhesives
o Fewer application steps are involved and thus the ‘self-etch’ approach is less technique
sensitive
- Disadvantages: lower bonding strength than total-etch when both performed correctly
6th Generation (self-etch/two-step)
- Less steps, less operator-sensitive
o Surface wetness no longer a critical step (cf. 4th and 5th generation)
- “Wet bonding” no longer critical as etching does not take place so there is no possibility of over drying
- Smear layer is not removed, is altered to become the hybrid layer, reduced likelihood of nano leakage
- Etching of an enamel surface results in – increase in surface energy and surface roughness
Lecture 2: Mechanical Properties
Hardness (Scratch and indentation tests)
Hardness: resistance of a material to plastic deformation, which is typically produced by an indentation force
- Resistance (force/load) to permanent indentation or penetration
- Gives an indication of a material’s ease of finish
 - Measured using Knoop, Vickers, Brinell and Rockwell tests
o Smaller diameter = harder material
o Enamel is the hardest tissue in the body and it helps to resist wear on the tooth’s surface
- Higher in GIC
- Exposure to water/moisture reduces hardness
Nano-hardness value of dentine (dentine is not uniform in hardness)
Peri-tubular (intratubular) material 250 kg/mm2

Inter-tubular material near the DEJ 52 kg/mm2

Inter-tubular material near the 15.2kg/mm2

pulp

Compressive and tensile properties

- Compressive load produces contraction
- Tensile load produces elongation
- Ultimate compressive strength: the maximum compressive stress a material can resist before fracturing.
- In brittle materials, ultimate strength=fracture strength. In elastic materials, they can elongate before
fracturing, thus decreasing the cross-sectional area and stress calculated before fracture, so ultimate
strength in this case is not the same value as the fracture strength.
- In dentistry, ultimate strength is used to estimate the cross-sectional area or dimensions of an alloy
necessary for a particular restoration.
Elastic modulus (E)
- Stiffness defined by the linear portion of the graph
- the relative stiffness or rigidity of a material within its elastic range (stress/strain)
- Dental materials have different requirements for rigidity and flexibility according to their use e.g.
while it is beneficial for the clasp arm of a removable partial denture to be flexible, the denture base
resin is required to be rigid.
Proportional limit (PL)
- Limit of the linear elastic region
- Elastic Limit: maximum stress a material is able to sustain before permanent deformation
- In linearly elastic materials proportional limit often equals elastic limit
- In super elastic materials such as nickel-titanium alloys, a non-linear elastic behaviour is observed,
and thus proportional limit may not equal elastic limit.
Yield Point (YS)
- End of elastic, start of the plastic, usually 0.2% off set from linear
stress/strain region
Ultimate Strength (UTS)
= Fracture (X)
- Enamel is stronger but more brittle than dentine

Poisson’s ratio: the ratio of relative contraction to relative expansion

(typically about 0.3 for rigid materials)
- Brittle materials e.g., enamel, dental amalgam show low Poisson’s
ratio
- while more ductile materials e.g. soft gold alloys show a high degree of decrease in cross-sectional area
during testing and a higher Poisson’s ratio
Shear modulus (G) – force is parallel to the surface
- stress-strain curve can also be used to obtain shear modulus (G) due to coupling shear forces
Fracture/Fatigue
Critical Fracture stress:
- When you have a crack on the surface of the tooth – the ultimate strength can vary dramatically
Fracture Toughness (Kc)
- Critical combination of stress and crack length at which fast fracture commences is a material constant
(Kc)
- describes the critical stress intensity factor at the point of rapid crack propagation in a solid containing a
crack of known shape and size
Fatigue Curve:
- a typical fatigue curve separates characteristic regions (survival, fracture) and asymptomatically levels
off at an endurance limit
Fatigue Stress:
- the strength at which a material fails below repeated dynamic loading
- Dental materials undergo low to moderate stresses repeated many times in service. Hence it is
important to know the amount of stress a material can resist for a given number of cycles to estimate
the lifetime of a restoration.

Work of Fracture (toughness and resilience)

Resilience – the resistance of a material to permanent deformation
- The area under the elastic portion of a stress-strain curve.
- Indicates amount of energy needed to deform the material to its proportional
limit.
- Is of particular importance with orthodontic wires as it shows the amount of
force that can be exerted on a tooth before the wire loses its elasticity and how
far the tooth can move because of this.
Toughness: the amount of energy needed to fracture the material
- The area under the elastic and plastic portion of a stress-strain curve.
- Brittle materials undergo very little, if any plastic deformation while ductile materials undergo
more pronounced plastic deformation before fracture, thus toughness is generally higher in ductile
materials
- Describes the amount of energy required to fracture a material
- Fracture toughness describes the critical stress intensity factor at the point of rapid crack propagation
in a solid containing a crack of known shape and size.
Visco-elastic properties:
- Characteristic of an elastic solid and a viscous fluid
- Stress relaxation and creep
- Creep: if a stress is held constant, the strain increases with time
o Property of viscoelastic materials
o Creep implies a relatively small deformation under a
relatively large stress over a period of time e.g. amalgam
restorations
- Relaxation: if a strain is held constant, the stress decreases with
time
o Property of viscoelastic materials
o Includes orthodontic plastic and latex bands with use which creates the need to regularly change
the bands.
Thermal Properties
- Dental pulp is very sensitive to temperature change and is surrounded by dentine and enamel which are
relatively good insulators
- Thermal Diffusivity (D)
o Describes the rate at which a body with a non-uniform temperature approaches equilibrium
 o A gold inlay or crown or dental amalgam serves to create a thermal shock more readily than
normal tooth structure
o Thermal conductivity divided by the temperature-dependent specific heat at constant pressure
times the temperature density
o Indicates the rate of temperature rise in a material at one end due to applied heat at another
- Coefficient of thermal expansion – fractional increase in length of a body for each Celsius
increase in temperature
o For a filling material, the most ideal combination of properties would be for a lower
value of thermal diffusivity combined with a coefficient of thermal expansion value
similar to that of tooth substance
o Ideally equal to that of tooth

Lecture 3: Biomechanics of tooth structure and Dental Materials

Composite Material:
Enamel
- Mineral 92% volume, 95% weight
- Organic 2% volume, 1% weight
- Water 6% volume, 2% weight
Dentine:
- Mineral 48% by volume, 69% by weight
- Organic 29% by volume, 20% by weight
- Water 23% by volume, 11% by weight
Bone:
- Mineral 41% by volume, 64% by weight
- Organic 48% by volume, 31% by weight
- Water 11% by volume, 5% by weight

Force Deformation
Axial tensile Elongation - The strongest influence on
Axial Compressive Contraction mechanical properties was filler volume
Shear Shear whereas the influence on material category
Twisting movement Torsion was low
Bending movement Bending - Large varieties between test
materials within 8 material categories
In linear elastic fracture mechanics, there are 3 modes of fracture:
- Mode 1 = simple crack opening or tensile
o Most important for crack propagation in ceramics
- Mode 2 = sliding mode or opening or shear
- Mode 3 = opening by tearing or torsional
Fracture Toughness:
- Increase in fracture toughness with filler volume until 57%
 - The ability of a restorative material to withstand fracture, dependent
on material category
- Large variation of the fracture toughness within material category
2 types of Principle stress:
- Tensile stress
o Always accompanied by tensile strain
o Can be generated when structures are flexed
o Most dental materials are quite brittle, meaning they are
highly susceptible to crack initiation in the presence of surface
flaws when subjected to tensile stress, such as when they are
subjected to flexural loading
- Compressive stress
o When a body is placed under a load that tends to compress or shorten it, the internal resistance to
such a load = compressive stress
o Associated with compressive strain
- Most things fail in tension, but compressive stresses will generate
some tensile stress and vice versa

Stress – Strain Curve:

- Exhibit different mechanical properties: UTS, PL
- Proportional limit: the limit of the linear elastic region
- Resilience: area under the elastic portion of a stress-strain curve. The
amount of energy needed to deform the material to its proportional limit.
- Toughness: total area under the stress strain graph
o Increases with increases in strength and ductility
- Young’s Modulus: The relative stiffness or rigidity of a material within its
elastic range (stress/strain). Can be calculated by finding the slope of the linear part of a stress-strain graph.
 Material A: stronger, stiffer, and more ductile
- Material B: has less ductility, and thus more brittle
- Material C: no ductility and is perfectly brittle, weakest of the three
- Brittleness: relative inability of a material to sustain plastic deformation
before fracture of material occurs
- A brittle material fractures at or near proportional limit

Load Curve for Ni-Ti Orthodontic wire, Pseudo-elastic strain:

- Load deflection curve for the Ni-Ti orthodontic wire. Note that the loading (activation) portion of the
curve is different from the unloading (deactivation) portion, indicating hysteresis in the material.
Orthodontic Tooth Movement (OTM):
- Low, continuous and constant forces produce the most efficient OTM
- NiTi alloys have largely replaced SS as the material of choice for aligning wires
 - Multi-strand orthodontic wires give reduce stiffness
Stress- Strain behaviour of hydrated and dehydrated dentine
- A typical stress vs strain plot from the compressive testing of hydrated
and dehydrated dentine samples
Dentinal Anatomy:
- The tubules of peripheral dentine (near DEJ) are relatively far apart,
and the inter-tubular dentine makes up 96% of the surface area
- The inter-tubular matrix of deep dentine is only 12% of the surface
area
Work of fracture:
- for enamel, work of fracture is higher perpendicular to prisms (200 Wf)
than parallel to prisms (13 Wf)
- for dentine, work of fracture is higher parallel to the tubules (550 Wf) than
perpendicular to tubules (270 Wf)
To avoid fracture potential between rods, the enamel must have dentine support
- enamel rods unsupported by dentine base are fractured away by pressure
from a hand instrument
- the dentine is highly compressive and acts like a cushion for the enamel
Causes of non-carious cervical lesion:
- Erosion: chemical dissolution dietary, environmental, or gastric acids
- Abrasion: from repetitive means such as brushing
- Stress induced: from repetitive tooth flexure away from the point of loading
Composites should be introduced into large cavities in increments (~2 mm thick)
- To maximize the quality of cure
- To reduce polymerization stress

Lecture 4: Impression and Model Material (Alginate, PVS, and gypsum)

Impression Materials:
- Function: to make a negative copy, which records the dimensions of the oral tissue and their spatial
relationships
- Used in dentistry to make models and casts of the oral hard and soft tissue
- Impression must be accurate so that the model, cast or die (poured in dental stone) will also be accurate
o The positive copy of the oral structure will be accurate
Initial Requirements of an impression material:
- Must be a semi-liquid material that will flow and adapt itself around the structure of interest
- It must set and harden into a solid that is rigid enough to be removed from the mouth without becoming
deformed
Other characteristics of an impression material:
- Copy details accurately down to 25 um
- Dimensional stability after removal from the mouth
- Appropriate working time (from the start of the mix)
- Appropriate time to harden in the mouth (setting time)
- Biocompatibility/aesthetic, odour/taste
- Chemically compatible with material used to pour cast or dies
- No significant degradation of properties as a result of disinfection

Use Impressions to make gypsum:

- Study model: physical model of the oral tissue for study. Used in diagnosis and treatment planning
- Cast: A model requiring very exact (within 0.1%) replication of size and shape
- Die: replica of a single tooth (Cut from cast)
Classification of Dental Impression Materials:
- Mechanical Properties
o Inelastic or elastic
▪ Inelastic (including plaster of Paris and zinc oxide-
eugenol) – set rigid material highly resistant to flexure,
and it fractures suddenly when stressed (like chalk)
• Impression compounds (dental compounds) →
cools to mouth temperature to set
• ZOE – chemical reaction to set
• Impression plaster – chemical reaction to set
▪ Elastic materials – material is flexible and can be
deformed and still return to its original form when unstressed.
• are further classified as hydrocolloids (such as agar and alginate) and elastomeric
impression materials (such as elastomers, polysulfides, and condensation
silicones).
• Rubber: Polysulfides, condensation silicones, polyether, addition silicones – set
via polymerization
• Aqueous: Reversible (Agar) → cooling to 15-20C to set, Irreversible (alginates)
→ chemical reaction to set
o Agar = Most accurate impression material
o Alginate = Not as accurate as other elastomeric impression materials,
o Initial viscosity (elastomeric: extra low, low, medium, heavy, and putty)
- Mechanism of hardening
o Reversible – thermal
o irreversible – chemical
Alginate Process
Mixing the alginate
1. fluff the powder, wait 30 seconds for the dust to settle before opening the lid
2. measure amount of alginate into rubber mixing bowl
3. measure amount of water as specified by the manufacturer
4. hold bowl in 1 hand and spatula with the other, gently stir to wet alginate with the water
5. once the powder and water have been incorporated, stir vigorously to create a homogenous mix –
creamy or like peanut butter consistency
- Alginate is supplied in pre-weighted envelopes or bulk containers
- Dustless alginates: additives to reduce the silica dust that occurs when alginate used
- Supplied in regular set and fast set varieties
o Regular set material gel: 3-4 minutes
o Fast set material gel: 1-2 minutes
o Typical mixing time is < 1 minute
- Select the stock tray
o Small, medium, large
o Must cover all anatomical features
o Must be a gap of 3 mm from the edge of tray to the oral structures
o Adhesive must be applied to the tray to prevent separation of alginate from the tray
Filling the tray
- Load the tray from a posterior lingual aspect working towards the facial aspect
- Eliminate entrapped air
- Maxillary tray: load the tray from a posterior aspect working anteriorly. With the bulk of the material in
the anterior region, fill to the tray periphery - eliminate entrapped air
o Load the tray
o Eliminate the entrapped air
 o Moisten and smooth the alginate
o Posterior portion of the tray seated first and then the anterior
- Regardless of the mixing time – delayed removal for 2-3 minutes after gelation. (Strength and elasticity
improve during this additional setting time)
- If an alginate impression cannot be immediately poured,
o Sprayed with disinfectant, sealed in a plastic bag 100% humidity, poured asap
o There is no satisfactory method to store hydrocolloid materials more than 30 minutes

Gypsum Products
- Models, casts and dies are made from impression of hard and soft tissue
- The accuracy of the model depends on the accuracy of the impression, and any flaws present in the
impression will be reproduced in the model
- The accuracy also depends on the material used to pour the impression
- Main properties of the material used to pour models
o Ability of the material to flow into details of the impression
o Minimal expansion or contraction on setting
- The primary applications of gypsum products in dentistry include the production of study models for
oral and maxillofacial structures and their use as auxiliary materials for dental laboratory operations
involved in the production of dental prostheses
o Study model (usually of the whole mouth) is used to plan treatment and to observe treatment
progress
o A cast is a replica in which restoration or appliance is fabricated, it is a replica of more than 1
tooth, such as a quadrant or a full arch
▪ Can be partially or completely edentulous
o Die: working replica of a single tooth
- Qualities required:
o Accuracy
o Dimensional stability
o Ability to reproduce fine detail
o Strength and resistance to abrasion
o Ease of adaption to the impression
o Colour
o Biological safety
o Ease of use
- Classification of gypsum products
o Type 1: impression plaster
▪ Traditional term: impression plaster
o Type 2: model plaster
▪ Traditional term: lab or model plaster
o Type 3: dental stone
▪ Traditional term: cast 1 stone. Cast stone or hydrocal
o Type 4: die stone, high strength, dental stone
▪ Traditional term: cast 2 stone. Densite or improve stone
o Type 5: high strength, high expansion, die stone
To manufacture plaster/stone (hemihydrate)
- Type II: gypsum heated at 100-120 C at atmospheric pressure to produce B-hemihydrate
o The powder particles are rough, randomly shaped, and porous
- Type III: gypsum heated at steam pressure to produce a-hemihydrate
o The powder particles of dental stone have a regular crystalline shape and smoother surface than
those of plaster
- Type IV: dehydration of gypsum in a solution of CaCl2 (calcium chloride) to produce a-hemihydrate
 o Powder particles of type IV stone are larger than those of type 3 nonporous and smooth
To set the material, the reaction is reversed: Plaster/stone + Water -> gypsum (+ heat)

Solubility:
- Plaster/stone solubility = 0.8 grams per 100 mL
- Gypsum solubility = 0.2 grams per 100 mL
- When plaster is dissolved in water, the solution is supersaturated with respect to gypsum
- Therefore, gypsum crystals precipitate
- Crystals of gypsum are nucleated and grow until all the plaster dissolves
- Crystals intermesh and become entangled which give the gypsum its final properties of strength and
rigidity
- Increasing the amount of water used when mixing decreases the strength and hardness + increases
setting time
Setting time for Gypsum:
- The time elapsed between start of mixing and when the set materials harden sufficiently to use
o Hard enough to use = subjective and depends on product and its application
- Loss of gloss from the surface of the mixed mass of model plaster or dental stone = indication of the
setting stage in the chemical reaction and is sometimes used to indicate initial set of the mass
- Hardening rate = measured by a penetration test (like hardness indentation)
- Vicat penetrometer – used to determine the initial setting time of gypsum products
o Rod weighing 300 g with a needle 1 mm diameter is lowered on the mix
o When the needle fails to penetrate the bottom of the container, the material has reached the initial
setting time
- Gillmore needles
o Determine the initial and final set of the material
o When the surface of the materials has developed sufficient strength to support
the weight of ¼ and 1lb respectively
- Compressive strength (MPa) of type 2 model plaster during setting
o Mixing Time (MT) = 1 minute
o Working (WT) = 3 minutes
o Loss of Gloss (LG) = 9 minutes
Control of the Setting Time:
- The greater the number of nuclei of crystallization per unit volume the shorter the
setting time
- If the water/powder ratio is increased. The number of nuclei per unit volume
decreases and the setting time increases, the strength also decreases
- Within limits the mixing is important. The longer and the more rapid the gypsum is mixed the shorter
the setting time. Gypsum crystals that start to form are broken up to act as further nuclei. This decreases
the setting time. The strength also decreases.
- Air bubbles reduce the strength of the set material, cause surface inaccuracies and produce an unsightly
cast or impression.
o Mechanically mixing under a vacuum is the best way to avoid the incorporation of air bubbles.
- Exposure to moisture results in a marked change in setting time and reduction in strength and hardness

The best method to alter setting time is to add chemicals called accelerators or retarders.
- Accelerators that decrease setting time: K2SO4, NaCl in small amounts
o K2SO4 (potassium sulphate) is an effective accelerator. A 2% solution instead of water will
reduce the setting time from 10 min to 4 min
- Retarders that increase setting time: Borax Na2B4O7, 10H20, Na-citrate, NaCl in large amounts
o Borax powder will prolong the setting time of some gypsum products to several hours
Mixing
 - Rubber bowl and stiff-bladed spatula
- Mix should be smooth, homogeneous, workable and free of air bubbles
- Spatulate against the sides of the bowl for ~ 1 minute – don’t create bubbles
Filling the impression
- Needs to fill slowly ahead of itself to prevent the entrapment of air
- Use dental vibrator, this is particularly important when filling elastomeric materials which are in many
instances water repellent

Dental Materials Summary:

Characteristics of an ideal dental material
- Biocompatibility
- Mechanical stability and durability
- Resistance to corrosion or chemicals
- Dimensional stability
- Minimal thermal and electrical conductivity
- Aesthetics
- Easy to manipulate
- Adherence to tissues
- Tasteless and odourless
- Cleanable and repairable
- Cost-effective

Resin Composite:
- Composite materials can vary from a simple unfilled resin (fissure sealant) to a packable composite (lots
of filler particles)
- Shrinkage is a function of the filler content – the higher the filler, the less then resin, the less the
shrinkage
- 2 components:
o Resin Matrix
▪ Comprises 10-60% of the weight of the RC
▪ The higher the matrix content, the more viscous the material
▪ Contains coloring pigments, photo-initiator and stabilizers
▪ Can have a chemical setting agent
o Filler material
▪ 40-90% by weight of the RC
▪ Provides rigidity, hardness, toughness and reduces setting shrinkage
▪ More filler material, harder the resulting material
▪ Typically, an inorganic radio-opaque glass to allow visualization on radiographs
- Advantages:
o Aesthetically good
o Conservative of tooth structure
o Good polish ability – can be polished on the day unlike GIC which need hours to set first
o Nonmetal – therefore, no conductive and mercury free
o Non-staining
o Can strengthen teeth – debatable
o Good bond to enamel so optimum adhesive marginal seal
o Higher patient acceptance
o Ease of refurbishment and repair
- Disadvantages:
o Polymerization shrinkage
o Technique sensitive
 ▪ Moisture control important – moisture contamination prevents successful bonding
▪ Contact areas for approximal restoration – contact with adjacent tooth can be difficult to
achieve
o Limited bond to dentine
o Time consuming
o Wears in high stress areas
o No fluoride released
Mechanisms of enamel/dentine adhesion:
- Micromechanical interlocking
- Chemical adhesion to surface precipitate, inorganic, or organic tooth components
- Wetting, penetration, and formation of a hybrid layer (dentine)
Resin bonding to enamel involves 2 stages
1. Acid-etching:
a. Alteration to enamel surface by application of acid or acidic primers
b. Increases surface area and wettability by increasing microscopic surface roughness making it
more receptive to bonding procedures
c. Creates holes in enamel prisms which are easily dried and then easily infiltrated with adhesive
bond to create resin tags
d. 37% phosphoric acid = applied for 20 seconds and then rinsed thoroughly
e. Factors affect extent of etching: prism orientation, acid strength, and duration of application
f. Resin applied to etched surface will penetrate and interlock mechanically with the enamel
surface upon curing
2. Application of bonding resin
a. Bond applied with a micro brush to all surfaces, and gently blown on to prevent pooling, cured
for 10 seconds
b. Resin is then viscous enough to penetrate the rough surface of enamel, creating resin tags that
mechanically interlock with enamel surface and increase bond strength
*A fissure sealant does not need a primer or bond because it is easily able to infiltrate the dry surface of the
enamel
* There is no technical need to apply primer to enamel surfaces, but it is usually done as dentine is most often
exposed in a filling
Dentine Bonding:
- More difficult than enamel bonding because dentine is hydrophilic and contains water whereas bond
resin is hydrophobic – negated with the use of a primer
- Dentine is also a “vital” tissue with tubular structure through which fluid can flow causing outward
pressure and changing liquid properties of bonding agents
- Dentine contains much more organic material – when etched the surface energy drops because you are
removing the inorganic materials which have high surface energy
- Aim of dentine bonding is to have the bond enter the dentine tubules, and engage space between the
collagen fibres as well as with the accessory tubules (communications of odontoblastic processes)

Resin bonding to dentine involves three stages

1. Dentine conditioning (etching)
a. For the partial or complete removal or modification of the smear layer to allow access to the
underlying dentine [essential for effective bonding between restorative resin and dentine]
b. Widening of the inter-tubular and peritubular dentine and exposure of collagen fibrils
c. Dentine conditions (10-20% polyacrylic acid) or can use 30-40% polyspohoric acid to etch
dentine and enamel at the same time
2. Priming
a. Primer infiltrates the exposed dentinal tubules and exposed collagen fibrils
b. Difunctional monomers with 1 side that has an affinity for adhesive resin and the other has an
affinity for dentine collagen
 c. The monomer is carried in an organic solvent such as ethanol that displaces water as it penetrates
the dentine, promoting monomer infiltration
d. Priming makes the dentine surface hydrophobic and more receptive to resin bonding
e. The primer is applied with a micro-brush, gently blow dried until the solvent has evaporated and
then left to sit for 20 seconds
3. Bonding
a. Bonding agent applied with a micro-brush to the primed dentine surface, and gently blown on to
prevent pooling and then cured for 10 seconds
b. Upon curing, the intermediate/hybrid layer is produced (made up of resin and the smear layer of
dentine)
c. Resin has a low enough viscosity to penetrate the tubules of the dentine, creating resin tags that
mechanically interlock with the enamel surface and increase bond strength. The resin also
chemically bonds with the hydrophobic primer which is adhered to collagen fibrils
Dentine bonding systems and the smear layer:
- Option 1: leave the smear layer and infiltrate creating a resin modified smear layer. The primer and
etchant are used together and not rinsed off. Then the adhesive is added which penetrates the primed
surface and into the dentine.
o 6th generation: 2 bottle system, etch and prime and then bond
o 7th generation: all in 1, one bottle system, don’t bond as well
- Option 2: remove the smear layer to infiltrate the whole of the organic dentine matrix along with the
dentine tubules creating a hybrid dentine-resin layer. The primer is necessary to stop the collagen matrix
from drying out
o 4th generation: etch, prime, and bond
o 5th generation: etch and the bond (contains primer)

Enamel-dentine adhesive systems:

- Divided into 2 groups: resin-based adhesive and glass-ionomer cements
Resin Based Adhesives
- Total-etch adhesives
o Utilizes phosphoric acid to etch the enamel and dentine simultaneously, rinsed and dried before
priming and bonding occurs
▪ Primer and bond can be one mixture or two
o Disadvantages: tendency to over-etch or over-dry the dentine, resulting in collapse of the
collagen fibrils, resulting in poor resin infiltration and compromised bonding
o Advantage: massively increased bond strength if done correctly
- Self-etch adhesives
o Acidic primer (acidic monomers) is used in place of independent etch
▪ Acts as the conditioning agent (etching) and the priming agent
o Simultaneous demineralization of the dentine and infiltration of resin into the collagen network.
The smear layer is dissolved or modified in the process before bonding is carried out
o Advantage: no rinsing, therefore no drying and risk of collagen collapse is less. More resin
infiltration, fewer steps involved so less technique sensitive than total etch
o Disadvantages: lower bonding strength than total-etch when both performed correctly
o 6th generation:
▪ Reduced length of resin tags compared to 4th generation but does not appear to affect
bond strength
Glass Ionomer Restoratives (GIC- Cements) – Fuji
- Chemically adhere to HA by the formation of ionic bonds between the carboxylate of polyalkenioic acid
and the calcium of HPA
- Pre-treatment of enamel/dentine with polyalkenioic acid conditioned also allows for micromechanical
interlocking and further improves adhesion of glass-ionomers
Role of Solvents in Primers:
 - Important for diffusion of monomers into demineralized dentine and elimination of water
- Completes removal of solvent vital to avoid dilution of the monomer, creation of voids and increased
permeability of the hybrid layer

Fissure Sealants
Usage:
- High caries risk patients with no active caries in the fissures
- Pits, fissures, and grooves trap food and MO
- Fissure can be occluded by low viscosity sealants
- Should be used as part of a program including fluoride, dietary, and plaque control
Etching and fissure sealants: - acid etch enamel to increase surface area, surface tension, and thus sealant
retention

Sealant materials:
- Resin Based
o A resin polymer – very low viscosity
o Far higher retention rates
o Can be:
▪ Unfiled, clear or tinted
▪ Lightly filled, tooth-colored or white
▪ Self-cure or light cure
o White light-cured is preferred so that it is visible to other practitioners
o Lightly filled is good because it is stronger than unfilled – downside is an increase in viscosity
making it harder to place
o May contain fluoride
o Moisture intolerant
- Glass ionomer
o Chemically adhesive to enamel so no need to etch
o Release fluoride – advantageous
o Brittle – fracture under pressure, must sit well in patient’s bite
o Low wear resistance – wear very quickly and erode easily
o Moisture tolerant – easier to place in children or in teeth still erupting
o Only really used for deciduous teeth
Placing a fissure sealant: Resin based
- Rubber dam for moisture control
- Pumice and rinse thoroughly with water, dry area thoroughly
- Ensure no dentine caries
- Etch for 20 seconds with 37% phosphoric acid, wash and dry completely, examine for frosty appearance
- Dispense conseal F just before use
- Use dycal applicator/perio probe or dental explorer to place on pits and fissures
- Light cure
- Use the perio probe to check margins
- Check with patient for feel in the bite, also check with articulating paper
- If too high, polish down fine finishing diamond burs
Placing a fissure sealant: glass ionomer
- Same as resin sealants but
- Isolate the tooth as much as possible with cotton rolls, saliva ejector etc.
- Do not etch enamel [unless manufacturer’s instructions say otherwise, in which case 20% polyacrylic
acid conditioner]
- Do no dehydrate enamel by over-drying
 - Takes 24 hours to fully set and cannot dry out of become over wet – requires placement of a protection
of some sort

GIC cements
Use:
- Temporary restorations (e.g., Temporary crown)
- Permanent restoration – usually cervical lesions
- Liner – thin layer, barrier to chemical irritation, therapeutic
o Anything less than 1 mm thick
o Calcium hydroxide based → Dycal (use only when there is pulp exposure as a spot application)
o RM GIC → vitrabond, used as a liner for the whole base of a restoration
- Base – thick layer, barrier to chemical irritation, thermal irritiation, structural (dentine replacement)
o Fuji 2 – RM GIC, light cured, comes in a capsule
o Fuji 9 – Conventional GIC, auto cured (5 min setting time)
o Placed when the cavity is deep to ‘replace dentine’ and to release fluoride
o Enough placed to allow space for at least 2mm of composite filling material on top if being used
in an occlusal filling
▪ Or can be placed to level of natural dentine in a cervical filling
- Lute
- Pulp cap
- Root canal sealer
General Properties
- Often acid base setting reaction
- Relatively weak – cannot be even remotely too high into the bite
- Often soluble
- Often not adhesive
- NB: GIC contain silicate
- We use RM GIC a lot in Aus.

Glass ionomer adhesives

- Comprise a reactive ion-leachable glass and an aqueous solution of polyalkenioic acid
- Chemically adhere to HA by forming ionic bonds between the acid and the calcium of HA
- Clinical uses:
o Fissure sealants
o Anterior approximal restoration
o Cervical restoration – carious and non-carious
o Deciduous tooth restoration
o Lining cement
o Luting cement – dental cement used to attach indirect restorations to prepared teeth, luting agent
primary function is to fill the void at restoration-tooth interface and mechanically lock the
restoration in place to prevent dislodgement during mastication
Classification of GICs:
- Type 2 A: restorative aesthetic cements
o Conventional
▪ Self-cure
▪ Example, Fuji 2 – relatively low reactivity of glass
▪ Must not get wet for 24 hours, must not dehydrate for several months
▪ Little rougher and thus more plaque retentive than composites
▪ Less strong
o High P:L ratio GIC
▪ Self-cure
 ▪ Fuji 9
▪ Always keep wet after setting
o Resin Modified
▪ Bonding mechanism:
• Enamel – resin tags
• Dentine – unsure
▪ Bond strength improved by surface conditioners – polyacrylic acid preferred
▪ Higher bond strength
▪ Immediate set
▪ Less sensitive to water balance but keep wet at all times after setting
▪ Better aesthetics due to RC
▪ Better bonding to dentine
▪ Stronger
- Type 3 – Lining Cements
o Conventional
o Resin modified
▪ Vitrabond – does not require conditioning because it is being used as a liner
Bonding mechanism of self-cure GICs
- Wetting tooth surface by polyacrylic acid – conditioner that comes with most systems
- Ionic bonding between the calcium of the GIC powder and the hydroxyl group of the HA in the tooth
- The acid within the GIC can cause HA to dissociate
Advantages:
- Fluoride release (drops after first few days)
- Tooth colored
Disadvantages:
- Water sensitive during early setting – particularly conventional GIC
- Brittle
o Conventional GIC have particularly bad tensile and flexural strength, has been improved by
addition of resin in RM GIC

Resin Composite
Description - Restorative materials
- Made of resin monomers infused with filler particle material for bulk,
strength, rigidity, hardness, and decreases thermal expansion coefficient
- Glass filler particles (macro, micro, nano and hybrid) – the larger the particle
the more strength, rigidity and hardness, smaller particles is better aesthetic,
wettability and polish-ability
- Silicone coupling agent – to hold filler particles within the resin matrix
- Photo initiator reacts with accelerator and initiates cross linking resin
Uses - Fissure sealant in high load areas
- Preventative restorations, minimal restoration
- Posterior occlusal restoration (small to medium)
- Anterior restoration (aesthetic)
- Anterior and posterior approximal restoration
- Cervical restorations – better than GIC less wear due to abrasion
- Bonding resins
Contra-indications - Avoided in extreme dry mouth patients
- High stress areas
- Areas of difficult moisture control
 - Dentine predominant areas (root caries) because bonding is not the best with
dentine
Advantages - Aesthetic
- Conservative
- Polishable, directly after curing
- Good bonding to enamel – micromechanical
- Mercury free
- Non-conductive
- Mostly non-staining
- Can reinforce teeth – strength (provided by the bulk of the material
micromechanically adhering to the tooth structure)
-
Disadvantages - Polymerization shrinkage esp in dentine
- Wear and fractures in high stress areas
- Moisture sensitive
- Poorer bond to dentine
- Unknown F release
- Microleakage can cause secondary caries

GIC
Description - Liquid acid powder base reaction
- Can have resin modified – for fast cure
- Acid attacks glass and then reacts with Ca/Sr, and then Al
- Cross-linking
- Adheres chemically to the tooth, resin modified – chemical and
micromechanical
Uses - Moisture problem areas
- As a base and liner
- Temporary filling
- Ant approximal resto
- Cervical resto
- Deciduous tooth resto
- Posterior resto
- Fissure sealant
- Orthodontic cement
Contra-indications Avoid is high acidic environments, like anterior teeth [if in area not quite visible –
exception because F release is important]
Advantages - Chemical bond, no thermal conductivity
- No mercury
- F release
- Moisture tolerant
- Helps to prevent caries
- RM-GIC is higher bond strength, immediate set, better aesthetic

Amalgam
Description - Alloy of mercury, silver, copper and tin
- Reaction occurs between silver-tin and mercury → mercury acts as cement to
the silver and tin bricks
- Undergoes amalgamation that involves dissolution and precipitation
 - Reaction takes some hours to reach its full strength
- Amalgam uses mechanical retention
Uses - High occlusal load restorations
- Posterior restorations
- Patients with dry mouth
Contra-indications - Anterior teeth
- Extensive tooth structure loss
- Not enough room for bulk (small restorations) – resto needs to be minimum
2 mm
Advantages - Strong, handle high occlusal stress
- Has corrosive products to stop secondary caries
Disadvantages - Mercury
- Non-aesthetic
- Not conservative
- Thermal expansion coefficient high
- Thermal conductivity high

Why are liners/bases used under metallic restorations?

- Act as barriers to chemical irritation to prevent toxicity by mercury in the case of amalgam
- Barrier to thermal irritation and thermal protection – and since metal are thermal conductors the
liner/base acts as a buffer reducing sensitivity to heat/cold
- Decreased polymerization shrinkage (for resin)
- Structural function as it acts as dentine in deep restorations
- Prevents micro-leakage or corrosion ions into the tooth
- GIC liners release fluoride
Why do we place adhesive beneath RC at a cervical restoration?
- Adhesives improve the bonding of RC to teeth tissue
- There are different types of adhesives (total etch and self-etch) but they function to improve bonding
through the same general method
o Utilize acid to etch the enamel or dentine
o in enamel – that increases SA for micromechanical interlocking
o in dentine – causes demineralization of surface layer (smear layer) giving the RC restorative
material access to the collagen fibrils and dentinal tubules