Nuclear and Particle Physics

78
Nuclear and Particle Physics

79
 ATOMIC EVOLUTION

20
cn
Parman

Mom
indivisible

1700 Bonding
mechanism

1900s

PlumPudding

1913

in
Nuclear and Particle Physics

Alpha scatteringexperiment
thingoldfoil
collimator
lead

Au Fe Na

Enscoating
createsscintillations

O Features of the experimental setup:

1. Alpha radiating source is placed inside the lead
collimator. This is to ensure that the radiation
does not move in all direction but rather in a
Amitter straight line.
2. ZnS coating is placed all around the chamber.
This is done to determine the location where
the alpha particles collided. ZnS when interacts
Vacuum
with highly energised particles releases light
known as scintillations
3. Vacuum is used to ensure that no other
particles are present to de ect the alpha
particles.
4. Thin gold foil is used to ensure that we have
a very thin layer of metal along with very
large atom. This is done to make the layer
contain as few atoms as possible. A
requirement for a reliable outcome.

80
Nuclear and Particle Physics

Charged particle interaction Conclusions:

with the nucleus: 1. Since most particles pass straight through, it
As the positively charged
can be assumed that the atom is mainly
alpha particle moves near the
charged nucleus, it empty space
experiences electrostatic 2. Few particles de ect by a small angle and
force from the nucleus. The this shows the presence of a positive
force is higher when the charged centre Important
particle is closer and
3. Very very few particles de ect by a large
decreases and it moves
further away. angle and this shows that the atom contains
a small, massive and dense nucleus.
This is the reason why the ermfs
particle de ects when it
moves through the gold foil.
v
I
so
in B
3

81
3
Nuclear and Particle Physics

Electricalenergy EV Thermionic Emission:

When a potential is provided across a lament, the
electrical energy provided to the electrons is
yzmraeledhengy.gr
kingcrgy converted into kinetic energy of the electrons
Mechanic Yzmr emitted.

Electrical
energy Kingficrgy We assume that the electrons are emitted from the
I qu yzmr outer layer of the lament and hence the velocity is
n.gg n i n
y the maximum velocity of the particle.
in
iii
deBrogliewavelength
a 10345.1
1
u
m 476.63
momentum
y
As an electron passes through a crystal, the electron undergoes
debrogliewaudength
diffraction and generates an interference pattern. This pattern can
reveal to us the structure of the crystals.
pomp Whyaballdoesnotdiffractatal
The electron which is a particle undergoes diffraction because it 200g
interacts with a gap similar to its de Broglie wavelength.
p.m Kgmb
To ensure that the electron has the right de Broglie wavelength, we 2tqxl0
34 3.3 10
use the appropriate pd to accelerate it. Idb Hp 6.6310 11
The idea that the electron which is a particle can demonstrate wave 82
like behaviour is known as wave-particle duality.
An electron is accelerated through
a p. d. of 4000V. Find the
de Broglie wavelength. Assume it was initially at
rest
As the PD increases, the
9.11 1031kg velocity increases and this
Me
34 leads to an increase in
é 1.6 1019C 1 6.63 10 momentum.

1.75
qr 42mV 4 4,1031 As momentum increases, the
wavelength decreases and the
pattern is now more closely
1 1019 4000 42 9.11 10 1 it
112
1.94 10
a
packed.
Nuclear and Particle Physics
Linear Accelerator

EKEie E
E
ftp.t I Me
samaelevation

t
Iii
t t t
Is É m

field
electric
uniform
la tenstnareases
t
Iggy Floyd
nigra
1.6km
400cavity
accelerator
loan

pit 100,000W
I É
Final velocity attheend
Hand If É
U Owls 400cavity

Mf Yd
Accelerator
as I
p 1.67 10 2719 10am 1.67 1027 A 100000

et 1.6 10 c 10100
1 6 1019
paps p
1115
9.58

I v
2 399 400

Cavity

v2 V Las
399 10
V2 2 9.58 1013 100

V 8.74
1071
83
 Working of a linear accelerator:
Linear accelerator consists of a high voltage, alternating high frequency supply connect to cavities/tubes.
These tubes are separated by a small distance.

As a proton is released into the system, the -ve terminal of a tube attracts the proton and it accelerates due
to the electric eld. As the proton travels through the tube it maintains a constant velocity due to net electric
eld.

Once the proton reaches the end of the tube, the supply alternates and the tube becomes +ve charge and
the next one becomes -ve charge. This causes the proton to accelerate once again in the gap. The tubes are
designed in such a way that the particle spends equal time in each tube. This is to allow the supply to
alternate when the particle reaches the end of the tube. In order to allow this, the tubes have increasing
length and this allows the particle to spend the same time in the tube even though the speed is
increasing.

Over multiple tubes and gaps the particle accelerates substantially and gains a large amount of energy
required for impact with a target at the end of the tube.
Cavity
Fixedfrequency

Highvoltage
alternating as particle

power
supply

Electricfield

p.cl 10000W
10000V
p.d
ENERGYTRANSFER

Electrical Kinetic
N
que Yami
since same chargemass
andp.d thevelocity
d isthesame 42
Nuclear and Particle Physics
Linear Accelerator

84
Nuclear and Particle Physics
Cyclic Accelerator
Highvoltage
f fixedfrequency
alternatingsupply

UNIFORM
MAGNETIC
FIELD f

Speedremains
g
thesame
radius
increases

mi
KE y
Mo
µ
I ve
70
1111
I 10.99994

70
49499hr
UNIFORM I gag
ELECTRIC
FIELD

Working of a cyclotron:
A cyclotron consists of 2 D’s that are connected to an alternating high voltage xed frequency
supply. There is a strong uniform magnetic eld across the D’s.

When the positively charged particle is released in the gap between the D’s, the particle accelerates
towards the side that is connected to the -ve terminal. It then enters the magnetic eld and
undergoes circular motion at a constant speed. The particle then reaches the gap once again and
the supply changes its polarity. This causes the particle to undergo acceleration in the gap.

The particle gains velocity and undergoes circular motion once again with an increasing radius due
to increase in velocity. This process repeats multiple times and the particle eventually gain very
high velocity and energy.

It is then made to collide with a stationary target.

85
Radius andfrequency relationship Also
r my
rar
a
FB Fa Bq

NOTI
Centripetalforce
Magneticforce particlespends th duration inside each D
after
Sincetheterminalscompleteonecycle
Bgr mat theparticlecompletes a fullcircle the
BqWr mwt timespent ineachDis halfthefullcycle
Bq
M2 t Theequationisindependentof
velocityandradius
Thisshows

f Bfm thattheparticlemaintains
Constantfrequency even
if u
and r changes

Mass variation at relativistic speed Find m whenparticletravels at

Mo Mo
Mi
Mo Restmass a lot.CM go.pt
o5
I go.gg I
I Ve 3 108m s
Mo
b
r
speed 97t.cm l go.am
4
tn
Relativistic
mass
c 99.9997 C Mo
According to Einstein, when a particle M fm
gggggjz223
travels close to the speed of light (commonly
known as relativistic speed), the particle
f
cannot travel any faster so instead it uses the
energy to gain mass. Hence, at relativistic
speeds particles become heavier.

Time becomes slower.

 SYNCHROTRON LHC
Collider
LargeHadron

f Bgm

Synchrotron:
LINEAR FEET
This is a combination of all
v
the accelerators. As the
particle is accelerated to
relativistic velocities, the
1 increase in mass causes the
system to fail as that leads to
change in frequency of the
system.

Synchrotron ensures that the

magnetic ux across the
particle changes in synchrony
with the change in mass and
Why is it ideal to collide two particles in opposite
direction rather than into a stationary particle? this allows further energy
The total momentum of the system before impact gain.
will be 0 hence the total momentum after impact
will be 0 as well. This allows us to predict and nd
unknown particles or undetectable particles using
the laws of momentum conservation.

Relativisticmotiongraphs
KE increases
Hml KE J Yffeases
3h08m1s

Hs 3h08m1s Hs
Nuclear and Particle Physics
Cyclic Accelerator

86
Nuclear and Particle Physics

87
 PARTICLE DETECTION

IET
HYDROGEN BUBBLE CHAMBER

INEFFEEE
t

o
µ XMyFpjgyggg.Fs.mu Working of a Hydrogen Bubble Chamber:
ggg mngg
The hydrogen bubble chamber consists of super
saturated hydrogen gas which is in a mixed state of
liquid and gas. It is maintained at this state by keeping
the temperature xed.

When the particles move through the chamber, they

field
uniformelectric
provide kinetic energy to the liquid hydrogen particles
and these gain the energy to become gas. The gas
Tnifommagnetic forms bubbles which are trapped and visible and they
field
show the path that the particles take.

We provide a magnetic eld to de ect the particles

based on charge and an electric eld to accelerate
them so they have energy to produce a track. Analysis
of the tracks reveal their mass and charge.
 To determine the type of particles, we look for the following:
1. The radius of the de ection determines the mass. Radius
and mass are directly proportional
Ea 2. The direction of de ection in the magnetic eld
determines the nature of the charge
m 3. Sudden formation of particles or missing momentum
shows presence of neutral particles.

These tracks show two particles moving in opposite direction in

a magnetic eld. This shows that the particles are oppositely
o charged. The amount of de ection reveals the relative masses.
Heavier particles have a large radius of de ection.

t initialparticleisneutral Also, since the particles emerge from nothing it shows they
came from a neutral particle.

These particles are identical in charge and mass since they

produce exactly the same path but in opposite direction.

These are most likely particle and antiparticle pairs.

In this scenario, the thick track shows that there is charged particle
travelling at high speeds since it has a straight line. It then
undergoes decay and splits into a smaller charged positive particle
and a neutral particle. The neutral particle does not produce a track.
We know another particle was generated since there was sudden
change in direction of the + particle meaning there must have
been another particle released.
t
j
 Explain the movement of the particle
The particle is moving from B to A. This is because the
particle curves more as it passes through the lead sheet
meaning it loses energy. The curve is greater at the top
part.

gun

I 04pm I 25am

OUTOF
B
PAGE
Nuclear and Particle Physics
Particle and Anti-Particle

Particle and anti particle

antiproton proton
antiproton

M 167 1027kg
PARTICLE
E 16 1019C ANDANTIPARTICLE PAIRS

Antiparticles are particlesthathavethesame

mass charge magnitude
properties
of a particlesuch as
but areofdifferentnatureofcharge

Exampf
e et
Mass 9.11 1031kg 9.11 1031kg
Charge 1.610190 1.610190

When a particleandantiparticle interact it resultsin annihilation

convertedinto
This means all themasstheyhaveis energy
electromagneticwaves Gammaradiation
in theformof

To conservethetotalinitial momentum usually a

88
released
pairof photons are
Example Electron Positron

These particles interact at very low speeds.

é é Find the frequency of the photons released.
Mass 9.11 1031kg 9.11 1031kg 2 photons are released.
Charge 1.6 10190 1.6 10190

Mass energy conservation andexchange

E me

to energy
allmass is
converted
When annihilationtakesplace

i totalenergy available Calixto xDx 3 108 1.6411

2 photon released hence eachphoton

41
8.2 10

ofphoton
Frequency

Ehf
8 24014 6.63 10
34
f
f 10212
1.24
Nuclear and Particle Physics

89
Nuclear and Particle Physics

90
 i

detentions

Time dilation:
When particles are moving close to the speed of light, they
experience time dilation. This is when the particle is observed
for longer duration from an observer point of view even
though its lifespan did not change from its own point of view.

r
u 1
310 This is why muons which have a very short lifespan are seen to
last longer. It is mainly due to the dilation of time as they are
moving at very high speeds making it possible for us to
observe them for longer duration.

This is bene cial for particle detection since it allows us to

observe very short lifespan particles for longer duration.
Nuclear and Particle Physics

91
 STANDARD MODEL

STRONGNUCLEAR

titic
WEAKNUCLEAR

QUARKS
St b LEPTONS

d
quarks antiquarks leptons anti leptons
Up U 4 antiup J 4 electron e i
elections
et t
down of Y antidown I t's electanutrinove
o
elechthino
to
top t 4 antitop I 43 moon a mini F
bottom b Y anti bottom I t's moonnettino
Mumneutrino
Ya o to
charm c 4 anticharm I 43
you e taunt E
strange s Y antistrange 5th tauneutrinov o
tauntitiinot

Quarks must combine Leptonsdonot

combine

HADRONS

PROTON

Netcharge
Egypt's
U
BARYON MESON d 1

He yet Ye
NEUTRON
Combination Combination the
U
of3 quarks ofonly 2 quarks d Netcharge

ofanymanner of quarkand d ftp.jfy

mostequalto anti quark O

tho I
To
1,0 1
Yd
Nuclear and Particle Physics

92
 Particle Charge Baryonno Leptonno Strangeness
Baryon number:
Up 213 113 O O This determines the number of baryon
involved. The baryon number of a baryon
down Ys Ys O o is 1 and an anti baryon is -1. Mesons
have no baryon number and quarks have
e I 0 I 0 baryon number of 1/3.

antiop 23 Lepton number:

113 O O This determines the number of leptons.
Since leptons do not combine, we do not
1
Strange 3 43 O l get fractional lepton numbers. Lepton
number for an anti-lepton is -1.
antistrange Y 113 0 1 Strangeness:
Strangeness is the number of strange
Moon 0 I 0
I quarks in an interaction. Strangeness is
conserved in all interactions.

VI pig 1 O O O Strangeness of a strange quark is -1

and strangeness of an anti strange
quark is +1.
so II 1 O O 1
In all subatomic interactions, charge,
Yahata 0 1 O l strangeness, baryon and lepton numbers
are always conserved.

R'fega t I 0 3

antiproton I I 0 0

NEUTRON PROTON ELECTRON

odd oud to
CHARGE O 1 t t
BARYON 1 a 1 to
LEPTON O S O 1
STRANGE O S O to

NEUTRON PROTON ELECTRON

odd oud e tve

CHARGE O I t 1 to
BARYON 1 a 1 to to
LEPTON O S O 1 11
STRANGE O S O 0 0
 so
su
sd

Vos it
ILIFF I

so
If
Strangeness 1

odd suds di odd vast 45 45tettve

o o to x o o to to 1 to
I 1 to I t to to to to
o o to
X O o to to 1 f1
O 1 1
X O 1 1 1 t O to
 Mass representation in Mere

Example Find the massof proton in Merle

E omg
27
Massproton 1.67 10 Kg 939.4MeyyxY
divide
dy 939.4mg
27 3 108
1.67 10
106
19
1.6 10

94.6Gove
939.414 en
Review Questions:

1 Crystal structure can be investigated using the diffraction of an electron beam.

A typical diffraction pattern is shown.

In a particular investigation the atomic spacing of the crystal is 2.3 ´ 10−11 m and the
electrons are accelerated through 3000 V.
(a) Calculate the wavelength of these electrons.
(3)

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..

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..

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..

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..

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..

Wavelength = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m
(b) State with a reason whether these electrons will produce a suitable diffraction pattern.
(1)

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..

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..

(Total for Question = 4 marks)