UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION

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 Introduction to Computer networks
• A computer network is defined as having two or more devices (such as
workstations, printers, or servers) that are linked together for the purpose
of sharing information, resources, or both.

• A computer network allows users to communicate with other users on the

same network by transmitting data on the cables used to connect them.

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 Characteristics

• Delivery – Deliver data to correct destination

• Accuracy – Delivery of same data
• Timeliness – Data delivered on time (audio-video)
• Jitter – Variation of packet arrival time

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Data Communication System Components

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 Five components
• Message – Information /data to be communicated.
• Eg: Text, Numbers, Pictures, Audio and Video.
• Sender – Device that sends data message.
• Eg: Computer, Workstation, Telephone, Video camera
• Receiver – Device that receives the message.
• Eg: Computer, Workstation, Telephone, Television
• Transmission medium – Physical path by which a message travels
• Eg: Twisted pair wire, Coaxial cable, Fiber optic cable and Radio waves
• Protocol – Set of rules

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A Perspective

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 Goals of Network

• Resource sharing

• High reliability

• Cost Reduction

• Improve Performance

• Communication Medium

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 Applications
• Business
• Client server application
• Home
• Peer to peer communication (Facebook, watsup)
• E-commerce
• Marketing and sales
• Financial services
• Manufacturing, CAD, CAM etc.
• Information services
• Cellular telephone
• Cable television
• Teleconferencing
• E-mail etc.
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 Transmission modes
Half duplex transmission
Simplex transmission

Full duplex transmission

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Example of Communication

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 Channel Access Techniques
• In multiplexing, our goal is efficiency.
• Several channels are combined into one

• Three types
• Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) - Combine several analog
signals into a single analog signal
• Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) - Combine several optical
signals into one optical signal.
• Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) - Several analog or digital signals
share a channel in time.

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 FDM

• It is used when the bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the
combined bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted.
• In FDM, signals generated by each sending device modulate different carrier
frequencies.
• These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal
that can be transported by the link.
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 FDM
• Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the
modulated signal.
• These bandwidth ranges are the channels through which the various signals
travel.
• Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth guard bands—to
prevent signals from overlapping.
• In addition, carrier frequencies must not interfere with the original data
frequencies.
• The transmission path is divided into three parts, each representing a channel that
carries one transmission.

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 FDM

Multiplexing Process
• Each source generates a signal of a similar frequency range.
• Inside the multiplexer, these similar signals modulate different carrier frequencies
( f1, f2, and f3).
• The resulting modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that
is sent out over a media link that has enough bandwidth to accommodate it.
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Demultiplexing Process
• The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to decompose the multiplexed
signal into its constituent component signals.
• The individual signals are then passed to a demodulator that separates
them from their carriers and passes them to the output lines.

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1. Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4 kHz. We need to
combine three voice channels into a link with a bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20
to 32 kHz. Show the configuration, using the frequency domain. Assume there
are no guard bands.

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2. Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be multiplexed
together. What is the minimum bandwidth of the link if there is a need for
a guard band of 10 kHz between the channels to prevent interference?

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 Applications of FDM

• Hierarchical system by AT&T

• AM and FM radio broadcasting
• Television broadcasting
• Cellular telephones

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Wavelength Division Multiplexing

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 TDM

• TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate

channels into one high-rate one.
• It allows several connections to share the high bandwidth of a link.
• Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in FDM, time is shared.
Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link.
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 TDM
• All the data in a message from source 1 always go to one specific
destination, be it 1, 2, 3, or 4.
• The delivery is fixed and unvarying, unlike switching
• Digital data from different sources are combined into one timeshared link.
• Two different schemes: synchronous and statistical

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 Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing

• The data rate of the link is n times faster, and the unit duration is n times shorter.
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 Interleaving
• On the multiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a connection, that connection
has the opportunity to send a unit onto the path. This process is called interleaving.
• On the demultiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a connection, that connection
has the opportunity to receive a unit from the path.

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 TDM

• Empty slots

• Data rate management

• Multilevel multiplexing
• Multiple-slot allocation
• Pulse stuffing

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Statistical Time Division Multiplexing

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 Statistical TDM
• There is no fixed relationship between the inputs and outputs because there are no
preassigned or reserved slots.
• Include the address of the receiver inside each slot to show where it is to be
delivered.
• The addressing in its simplest form can be n bits to define N different output lines
with n = log2 N.
• Block of data is usually many bytes while the address is just a few bytes
• No Synchronization Bit
• Capacity of the link is normally less than the sum of the capacities of each channel
• Disadv: During peak times, some slots need to wait.

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ISO/OSI MODEL

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 Layered Architecture for Communication
• Each layer is functionality independent

• Each layer has a defined interface to the previous and preceding layer

• Each layer builds on previous layer

• Virtual communication takes place between layers at same level

• It is also called as protocol stacks

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 Advantages - Layered architecture
• It increases flexibility, maintainability, and scalability.
• It enables teams to work on application parallel.
• It also makes it possible to configure different levels of security to different
components deployed on different boxes.
• It also helps you to test the components independently of each other.
• Multiple applications can reuse the components.
• Different components of the application can be independently deployed,
maintained, and updated, on different time schedules.
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 Examples
• The most common example of a layer architecture in the literature and in
practice is a three-tier architecture, normally used for client-server
applications

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 OSI Model
• Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, was created to define these multiple layers.
• ISO is the organization.
• Open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate.

User support layers, software oriented

Links two subgroups and ensures data send

by lower layer is accepted by upper layers

Network support layers, both

hardware and software

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OSI Layers – peer to peer process

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 Data exchange using OSI model

H7 H7

H6 H6

H5 H5

H4 H4

H3 H3

T2 H2 T2 H2

010 010

Data in form of electromagnetic signal 33

 Encapsulation

• Packet at level N-1 carries whole packet from level N.

• Level N-1 does not know which part of encapsulated packet is data
and which part is header.

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OSI Layers – Physical layer

Responsible for movement of individual bits from one hop

(node) to next
• Physical characteristics of interface and medium
• Representation of bits
• Data rate
• Synchronization of bits
• Line configuration
• Physical topology
• Transmission mode

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Physical Layer

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OSI Layers – Data link layer

Responsible for moving frames from one hop to next

• Framing
• Physical addressing
• Flow control
• Error control
• Access control

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Data Link Layer

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Hop to Hop delivery

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Data Link Layer Example

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OSI Layers – Network layer

Responsible for delivery of individual packets from source

to destination host
• Logical addressing
• Routing

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Network Layer

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Network Layer Example

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OSI Layers - Transport Layer
Responsible for delivery of message from one process to another
• Service point addressing
• Segmentation and reassembly
• Connection control
• Flow control
• Error control

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Transport Layer

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Process to Process delivery

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Transport Layer Example

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OSI Layers - Session Layer

Responsible for
• Dialog control
• Synchronization

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Session Layer

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OSI Layers - Presentation Layer

Responsible for
• Translation
• Encryption
• Compression

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Presentation Layer

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OSI Layers - Application Layer

Responsible for providing service to the user

• Network virtual terminal
• File transfer, access and management
• Mail services
• Directory services

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Application Layer

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Peer-to-Peer Communication

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Summary of Layer Functions

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 Lack of OSI Model’s Success

• A lot of time and money is needed to change from TCP/IP.

• Some layers in the OSI model were never fully defined (presentation and
session layers) nor software developed.
• It did not show a high enough level of performance to entice the Internet
authority

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TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

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TCP/IP and OSI model

SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

FTP - File Transfer Protocol
HTTP - Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
DNS - Domain Name System
SNMP - Simple Network Management
Protocol
SCTP - Stream Control Transmission Protocol
TCP – Transmission Control Protocol
UDP – User Datagram Protocol
ICMP – Internet Control Message Protocol
IGMP – Internet Group Message Protocol
RARP – Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
ARP – Address Resolution Protocol

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Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP Protocol Architectures

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Communication through an internet

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Physical and Data Link Layer
• No specific protocol
• Support all standard and proprietary protocols
• TCP/IP network can be LAN or WAN.

Network Layer
• TCP/IP support all internetworking protocols
• IP uses ARP, RARP, ICMP, IGMP.

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 Internetworking protocol (IP)

• Host to host protocol

• Unreliable, connectionless protocol
• No error checking or tracking (best effort delivery)
• IP transmits data in packets called datagrams.
• Datagram travel along different routes and reach the destination in out of
sequence.
• IP does not keep track of routes and has no facility for reordering datagrams.
• IP gives maximum efficiency.

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 ARP, RARP, ICMP, IGMP

• ARP associate logical address with physical or station address (NIC). It

finds physical address when logical address is known. Eg: LAN

• RARP allows host to discover internet address when physical address is

known. Used when connected for first time to a network.

• ICMP is used by hosts and gateways to send notification of datagram

problem back to sender. It send query and error reporting messages.

• IGMP is used to transmit a message to a group of recipients

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 Transport layer
• UDP is a process to process protocol.
• It is connectionless protocol,
• Adds port address, checksum error control and length information to data
from upper layer.

• TCP provides full transport layer services to applications.

• It is reliable, connection oriented stream protocol.
• Segments and sequence numbers.

• SCTP provide support for newer applications Eg: VoIP.

• It has combined features of TCP and UDP.
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 Physical address

Physical address - Link address, By LAN or WAN, Used in data link layer.
07:01:02:01:2C:4B – 6 byte physical address as on NIC card
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IP Address

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 Logical Address

• Universal addressing system

• 32 bit address for IPv4 and 128 bit for IPv6

• No two public hosts will have same IP address

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 Port addresses

• Physical addresses change from hop to hop

• Logical and port addresses usually remain same
• 16 bit address 71
 Protocols

• The peer layers communicate by means of formatted blocks of data that obey a
set of rules or conventions known as a protocol.

• Key features of a protocol are as follows:

• Syntax: Structure or format of the data blocks
• Semantics: Meaning of each section of bits.
• Timing: When data should be sent and how fast they can be sent.

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 Protocol Data Units (PDUs) in TCP/IP
A PDU is a specific block of information transferred over a network and it describes
the different types of data that are transferred from each layer.

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TYPE OF NETWORKS

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 Classification of Networks

• Networks are usually classified based on:

• Geographically – LAN, WAN (MAN,VPN, PAN,VAN)
• Topology – Star, Bus, Ring, Tree, Mesh, Hybrid
• Protocol
• Architecture – Peer to peer, Client - Server

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Classification of Networks – Geographically
Local Area Network

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 Classification of Networks – Geographically
Wide Area Network
• Operate over a large geographical area
• Allow access over serial interfaces operating at lower speeds
• Provide full time and part time connectivity
• Connect devices separated over wide, even global areas
• Several types of WANs are
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Public Access Network (PAN)
• Value Added Network (VAN)
• Virtual Private Network (VPN)

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Classification of Networks – Geographically

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 Network Protocols

• Ethernet/ Token Ring protocol.

• For Internet - TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol).

• Features determined by the protocol are:

• How the sending device indicates it has finished sending the message.
• How the receiving device indicates it has received the message.
• The type of error checking to be used.

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 Network Architecture

• A way to visualize how two

remote computers talk to each
other.
• It refers to the way a network is
designed and built. The two major
types are:
• Peer-to-peer architecture
• Client/server architecture

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Peer-to-Peer Networks

• In a peer-to-peer network, the

networked computers act as equal
partners, or peers, to each other.

• As peers, each computer can take on the

client or server function alternately.

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Client/Server Networks
• In a client/server network arrangement,
network services are located in a dedicated
computer whose only function is to respond
to the requests of clients.

• The server contains the file, print,

application, security, and other services in a
central computer that is continuously available
to respond to client requests.

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NETWORK TOPOLOGY

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 Topology
• Physical topology refers to the way in which network is laid out physically
• Two or more devices connect to a link
• Two or more links form a topology.
• Topology of a network is geometric representation of the relationship of all
links and linking devices to one another.
• Types are:

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 Network Topology
Topology refers to the way computers and peripherals are configured to form networks

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Star Topology

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 Star Topology

• Dedicated point to point link only to a central controller called hub

• Devices are not directly linked to one another
• Each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any
number of others.

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 Advantage of star topology

• Less expensive
• Easy to install and reconfigure
• Less cabling for addition, moving and deletion involved only one
connection (device and hub)
• Robustness (if one link fails only that link is affected)
• Easy fault identification and fault isolation.

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 Star Topology
• Disadvantage
• If hub goes down, entire system is dead.
• Each device is directly connected to hub so cable is needed for
each device.

• Application
• High speed LAN

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Ring Topology

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 Ring Topology
• Dedicated point to point connection with only 2 devices on either side.
• Signal is passed in only one direction from device to device until it
reaches destination.
• Each device in ring incorporates a repeater.
• When a device receives the signal intended for another device, repeater
regenerates the bits and passes them.
• Each device is linked to immediate neighbors.
• To add or delete a device requires changing only 2 connection.
• If one device does not receive a signal within a specified period, it can
issue an alarm.
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 Ring Topology

• Advantage
• Easy to install and reconfigure
• Simple fault isolation
• Disadvantage
• Unidirectional traffic
• Break in ring can disable the entire network
• Media and traffic consideration (maximum ring length and number of
devices)
• Application
• IBM use in LAN

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 Token Ring Topology
• A type of computer network in which all the computers are arranged in a circle.
• A token, which is a special bit pattern, travels around the circle.
• To send a message, a computer catches the token, attaches a message to it,
and then lets it continue to travel around the network.

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Bus Topology

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 Bus Topology
• Multipoint connection
• One long cable acts as backbone to link all devices in network.
• Nodes are connected to bus cable by drop lines and taps
• Drop line is a connection between device and main cable
• Tap is a connector either splices into main cable or punctures the
sheathing of cable to create a contact with metallic core
• As signal travels in backbone, some of the energy is transformed into
heat. So it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels far.
• There is a limit on number of taps a bus can support and distance
between taps.
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 Bus Topology
• Advantage
• Ease of installation
• Less cabling than mesh and star
• Disadvantage
• Difficult reconnection and fault isolation
• Difficult to add new devices (modification or replacement of backbone)
• Signal reflection at taps cause degradation in quality
• Fault or break in backbone stops all transmission
• Application
• Ethernet LAN
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 Mesh Topology
• Here every device has a point to point link to every other device.
• Node 1 must be connected with (n-1) nodes.
• A fully connected mesh can have n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n
devices.
• It must have (n-1) I/O ports.

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 Mesh Topology
Advantages:
• They use dedicated links so less traffic problem.
• If any one link get damaged it cannot affect others.
• It gives privacy and security (dedicated link).
• Fault identification and fault isolation are easy.

Disadvantages:
• Cabling and I/O ports required are very large.
• The sheer bulk of wiring is larger then the available space.
• Hardware required to connected each device is highly expensive.

Applications:
• Telephone Regional office.
• Wide Area Network 98
 Tree Topology
• Alternatively referred to as a star bus topology.
• A tree topology connects multiple star networks to other star networks.

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 Hybrid Topology
• A network which contain all type of physical structure and connected under
a single backbone channel.

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 Comparison of topology
Mesh Star Bus Ring
Less costly than
Ease of installation,
Robust, data mesh, easier fault Better reliability
Advantages cost-effective for
privacy identification and than bus
long line of devices
isolation
Difficult fault
Complex and Hub failure
isolation, path break Path break does not
costly for a causing total
Disadvantages causing isolation cause isolation into
large number of network
into two groups of a dual ring
devices breakdown
devices
Switching Long haul
Local area network Coaxial cable TV in
Application backbone transmission
in households or
examples connecting the backbone network
offices buildings
main computers connecting cities
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NETWORK DEVICES

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Networking Devices

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 Network Interface Card

• To connect two computers,

• Install a NIC card in each.

• Attach computers using a crossover cable

First LAN

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 Repeaters

• 100 meters or approx. 300 feet

• Repeaters amplify and re-time signals.
• If only two computers in a network.

Repeaters can be used to

increase the distance

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 Problem with Hub

• Hubs share bandwidth between all attached devices.

• Hubs are layer 1 devices. They cannot filter traffic.
• Most LANs use a “broadcast topology,” so every device sees every packet
sent down the media.

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 Bridge
• “Smarter hub” is called a Bridge
• Bridges filter network traffic based on MAC addresses

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 Bridge

• To lessen the amount of LAN traffic, businesses began to uses bridges

to filter frames based on MAC addresses.
• Now, if Host 1 pings Host 2, only the hosts on that LAN segment see
the ping. The bridges stop the ping.

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 Switch
• A switch (multi-port bridge), can effectively replace these four bridges.
• Another benefit of a switch is that each LAN segment gets dedicated
bandwidth.

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 Switch
• Link layer device
• Stores and forwards Ethernet frames
• Examines frame header and selectively forwards frame based on MAC
destination address
• When frame is to be forwarded on segment, uses CSMA/CD to access
segment
• Transparent
• Hosts are unaware of presence of switches
• Plug-and-play, self-learning
• Switches do not need to be configured
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 Switch
• Switches used to add functionality to an internetwork LAN
• Switches only “switches” frames from one port to other within a “switched
network”
• Switches break-up collision domains.
• Collision domain – one device sends a packet on a network, forcing other
devices on the same segment to pay attention to it. At the same time, a different
device tries to transmit, leading to collision, then both the devices must re-
transmit (Eg: Hub)
• Each and every port on a switch represent its own collision domain
• Hub represents only one collision and one broadcast domain

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 Layer 2 Switch

• MAC addresses are learned from the incoming frames’ source addresses.
• A table of MAC addresses and their associated bridge and switch ports is
built and maintained.
• Broadcast and multicast frames are flooded out to all ports (except the one
that received the frame).
• Frames destined for unknown locations are flooded out to all ports (except
the one that received the frame).

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 Layer 2 Switch
• Bridges and switches communicate with each other using the Spanning Tree
Protocol to eliminate bridging loops.
• Performs essentially the same function as a transparent bridge.
• May have many ports and can perform hardware-based bridging.
• Frames are forwarded using specialized hardware, called Application-
Specific Integrated Circuits (ASIC).

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 Drawback to Layer 2 switch
• Cannot be scaled effectively.
• Switches must forward broadcast frames to all ports, causing large switched
networks to become large broadcast domains.
• In addition, Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) can have a slow convergence time
when the switch topology changes. STP also can block certain switch ports,
preventing data transfer.

Benefit
• Hardware-based bridging (MAC)
• Wire speed
• High speed
• Low latency
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 Layer 2 Switch

Top brands for layer 2 switch

• Cisco Network Switch.

• D-Link Network Switch.
• Cisco Catalyst Switches.
• Tp Link Network Switch.
• HP Network Switch.
• Netgear Network Switch.
• Aruba Switches.
• Linksys Network Switch.
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 Layer 3 Switch

• Packets are forwarded at Layer 3, just as a router would do.

• Packets are switched using specialized hardware, ASIC, for high speed and
low latency.
• Packets can be forwarded with security control and quality of service
(QoS) using Layer 3 address information.
• Layer 3 switches are designed to examine and forward packets in high-
speed LAN environments. Whereas a router might impose a bottleneck to
forwarding throughput, a Layer 3 switch can be placed anywhere in the
network, with little or no performance penalty.

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 Layer 3 Switch

• Determine paths based on logical addressing

• Run layer 3 checksums (on header only)
• Use Time to Live (TTL)
• Process and respond to any option information
• Update Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) managers with
Management Information Base (MIB) information
• Provide Security

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 Benefit of Layer 3 Switch

• Hardware-based packet forwarding

• High-performance packet switching
• High-speed scalability
• Low latency
• Lower per-port cost
• Flow accounting
• Quality of service (QoS)

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 Layer 3 switch

Top brands for layer 3 switch

• NETGEAR.
• Cisco.
• Juniper Networks.
• Generic.
• TP-Link.
• HP.
• TRENDnet.
• Ubiquiti Networks.
• ZyXEL.
• MikroTik.

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 Router
• Routers filter traffic based on IP addresses.
• IP address tells router which LAN segment ping belongs to.

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 Router
• Routers break up broadcast domain
• Broadcast domain – Set of all devices on a network segment that hear all the
broadcasts sent on that segment
• Breaking-up of network broadcast is important – because when a host or server
sends a network broadcast, every device on the network “must” read and process
that broadcast.
• When a router’s interface receives this broadcast – it discards the broadcast
without forwarding it on to other network
• Router also breaks up “collision domain” as well

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123
124
 Gateway

• Gateway is a device which is used to

connect multiple networks.
• A gateway is a network point that acts
as an entrance to another network.
• It allows the computer programs, either
on the same computer or on different
computers to share information across
the network through protocols.

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 OSI Layer Purpose TCP/IP Protocol Packet Data Address Device Troubleshoot
Layer Unit

Application Interface (API) Application HTTP, Message - - Wireshark

SMTP,
etc.
Presentation Formatting, Application HTTP, Message - - Wireshark
Encryption, SMTP,
Compression etc.
Session Authentication Application HTTP, Message - Gateway NSLOOKUP,
, Authorization SMTP, NBTSTAT, Wireshark
etc.
Transport Reliability Transport TCP, UDP Segment (TCP), Port Firewall TELNET, NETSTAT,
Datagram(UDP) Wireshark
Network Addressing, Internet IP, ICMP Packet IP Router IPCONFIG, PING,
Routing Address TRACERT,
Wireshark
Data Link Logical Link Link Ethernet, Frame MAC Switch, Lights on device,
Control, Media Wi-Fi, Address Bridge, ARP, Wireshark
Access Control PPP, etc. Access Point
Physical Transmission Link CAT 5, RJ- Bit - Hub, NIC, Lights on device
45, etc. Cable 126
Physical Layer
• Transmission media
• Signal encoding techniques

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TRANSMISSION MEDIA

128
Transmission medium and physical layer

129
 Classes of transmission media

Guided media provide a physical path along which the signals are propagated.
Unguided media employ an antenna for transmitting through air, vacuum, or water.
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 Overview
• Transmission medium is the physical path between transmitter and receiver.
• Guided media – Guided along a solid medium.
• Unguided media – Atmosphere, space, water.
• Characteristics and quality determined by medium and signal.
• Guided media - Medium is more important.
• Unguided media - Bandwidth produced by the antenna is more important.
• Signals transmitted by antenna is directionality, lower frequency -
omnidirectional, higher frequency - signal into directional beam.
• Key concerns are data rate and distance (high data rate over longer distance).
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Design Factors determining Data Rate and Distance
Bandwidth
• Greater the bandwidth gives higher data rate

Transmission impairments
• Impairments, such as attenuation, limit the distance
• Impairment: Twisted pair > Coaxial cable > optical fiber

Interference
• Overlapping frequency bands can distort or wipe out a signal
• Shielding reduces interference

Number of receivers
• More receivers introduces more attenuation and distortion
limiting distance and date rate.
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Electromagnetic Spectrum

133
 Transmission Characteristics of Guided Media

Frequency Typical Typical Delay Repeater

Range Attenuation Spacing
Twisted pair 0 to 3.5 kHz 0.2 dB/km @ 1 50 µs/km 2 km
(with loading) kHz

Twisted pairs 0 to 1 MHz 0.7 dB/km @ 1 5 µs/km 2 km

(multi-pair kHz
cables)
Coaxial cable 0 to 500 MHz 7 dB/km @ 10 4 µs/km 1 to 9 km
MHz
Optical fiber 186 to 370 THz 0.2 to 0.5 5 µs/km 40 km
dB/km
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135
 Twisted Pair

Twisted pair is the least expensive and most widely used guided transmission medium.

 Consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern

 A wire pair acts as a single communication link
 Pairs are bundled together into a cable
 Most commonly used in the telephone network and for communications
within buildings
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 Twisted Pair - Transmission Characteristics

Analog Digital Limitation

Can use either

Needs amplifier
analog or digital Distance
every 5 to 6km
signals

Needs repeater Bandwidth

Susceptible to every 2 to 3km (1MHz)
interference and noise
Data rate
(100MHz)

137
 Unshielded vs. Shielded Twisted Pair
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

• Enclosed in thermoplastic jacket

• Ordinary telephone wire
• Cheapest
• Easiest to install
• Suffers from external electromagnetic interference

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

• Has metal braid or sheathing that reduces interference

• Provides better performance at higher data rates
• More expensive
• Harder to handle (thick, heavy)
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 Twisted Pair Categories and Classes

Category 5e Category 6 Category 6A Category 7 Category 7A

Class D Class E Class EA Class F Class FA
Bandwidth 100 MHz 250 MHz 500 MHz 600 MHz 1,000 MHz
Cable Type UTP UTP/FTP UTP/FTP S/FTP S/FTP
Insertion loss 24 21.3 20.9 20.8 20.3
(dB)
NEXT loss 30.1 39.9 39.9 62.9 65
(dB)
ACR (dB) 6.1 18.6 19 42.1 44.1

UTP = Unshielded twisted pair

FTP = Foil twisted pair
S/FTP = Shielded/foil twisted pair
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 Insertion loss

• Amount of attenuation across the link from transmitting to receiving

system.
• Lower dB values are better.

140
 Near End Crosstalk (NEXT)

• Coupling of signal from one pair of conductors to another

• Occurs when transmit signal entering the link couples back to the receiving
pair - (near transmitted signal is picked up by near receiving pair).
• Higher dB values are better.
• Higher NEXT loss means less crosstalk noise.

141
 Attenuation to Crosstalk Ratio (ACR)

• Measure of how much larger the received signal strength is

compared to crosstalk on same pair.
ACR(dB) = NEXT(dB) - A(dB)

142
Signal Power Relationships

143
 Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable can be used over longer distances and support more stations on a shared line than
twisted pair.
 consists of a hollow outer cylindrical conductor that surrounds a single inner wire conductor
 is a versatile transmission medium used in a wide variety of applications
 used for TV distribution, long distance telephone transmission and LANs 144
Coaxial Cable - Transmission Characteristics

Frequency
characteristics Analog signals Digital signals
superior to
twisted pair • Amplifiers • Repeater every
needed every 1km - closer for
few kilometers - higher data rates
Performance closer if higher
limited by frequency
• Usable spectrum
attenuation &
extends up to
noise 500MHz

145
 Optical Fiber

Optical fiber is a thin flexible medium capable of guiding an optical ray.

 various glasses and plastics can be used to make optical fibers
 has a cylindrical shape with three sections – core, cladding, jacket
 widely used in long distance telecommunications
 performance, price and advantages have made it popular to use
146
 Optical Fiber

• Core - innermost section, thin strands made of glass or plastic, diameter 8 to

62.5 micrometer.
• Cladding - Outer section, made og glass or plastic coating with optical
properties, diameter 125 micrometer.
• Buffer coating - outermost layer, hard plastic coating
• Applications: long distance telecommunication, military applications

147
 Optical Fiber - Benefits
• Greater capacity
• Data rates of hundreds of Gbps are used
• Smaller size and lighter weight
• Considerably thinner than coaxial or twisted pair cable
• Less weighht reduces structural support requirements
• Lower attenuation
• Electromagnetic isolation
• Not vulnerable to interference, impulse noise, or crosstalk
• High degree of security from eavesdropping, difficult to tap.
• Greater repeater spacing
• Few repeaters so low cost and fewer sources of error
148
 Optical Fiber

• Applications:
• Long haul trunks
• Metropolitan trunks
• Rural exchange trunks
• Subscriber loops
• Local Area Networks

149
Optical Communication

150
Optical Fiber Transmission Modes

151
 Optical Fiber Transmission Modes
• Step Index Multimode - rays are reflected and propagated along fiber,
multiple propagation path, very short distance transmission.
• Single mode propagation - no distortion, long distance application like
telephone and cable TV.
• Graded index multimode - core curves helically, shorter paths, higher
speed, used in LANs.

152
 Optical Fiber - Transmission Characteristics
• Uses total internal reflection to transmit light
• Effectively acts as wave guide for 1014 to 1015 Hz (this covers portions of
infrared & visible spectra)
• Light sources used:
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
• Cheaper, operates over a greater temperature range, lasts longer
Injection Laser Diode (ILD)
• More efficient, has greater data rates
• Has a relationship among wavelength, type of transmission and achievable
data rate

153
Frequency Utilization for Fiber Applications

Wavelength (in Frequency Band Fiber Type Application

vacuum) range Range (THz) Label
(nm)
820 to 900 366 to 333 Multimode LAN
1280 to 1350 234 to 222 S Single mode Various
1528 to 1561 196 to 192 C Single mode WDM
1561 to 1620 192 to 185 L Single mode WDM

WDM = Wavelength Division Multiplexing

154
Attenuation in Guided Media

155
 Wireless Transmission Frequencies
• Referred to as microwave frequencies
• Highly directional beams are possible
1GHz to • Suitable for point to point transmissions
40GHz • Used for satellite

• Suitable for omnidirectional applications

30MHz to • Referred to as the radio range
1GHz

• Infrared portion of the spectrum

• Useful to local point-to-point and multipoint applications within
3 x 1011 to confined areas
2 x 1014 Hz

156
 Antennas
Transmission Reception
antenna antenna
• Electrical conductors used to
radiate or collect
Radiated into electromagnetic energy
surrounding Fed to receiver
environment

Converted to Converted to radio • Same antenna is often used for

electromagnetic frequency electrical
energy by antenna energy both purposes
Radio frequency Electromagnetic
energy from energy impinging on
transmitter antenna

157
 Radiation Pattern
• Power radiated in all directions
• Does not perform equally well in all directions
• Radiation pattern (graphical representation) characterise performance of
antenna.
• An isotropic (Omnidirectional) antenna is a point in space that radiates
power
• In all directions equally
• With a spherical radiation pattern

158
Parabolic Reflective Antenna

159
 Radiation Pattern
• Parabolic Reflective Antenna - used in terrestrial microwave and satellite
applications.
• A parabola is the locus of all points equidistant from a fixed line and a
fixed point not on the line.
• The fixed point is called the focus and the fixed line is called the directrix
• Parabola is revolved about its axis, the surface generated is called a
paraboloid.
• Applications: Automobile headlights, optical and radio telescopes,
microwave antennas

160
 Antenna Gain
• Measure of the directionality of an antenna.
• Antenna Gain = Power output in particular direction verses that produced by
an isotropic antenna.
• Measured in decibels (dB).
• Results in loss in power in another direction.
• Effective area relates to physical size and shape.

GdB = 10 log (P2/P1)

where G = antenna gain,
P1 = radiated power of directional antenna
P2 = radiated power from reference antenna
161
 Antenna Gain

• where
G = antenna gain
Ae = effective area (related to physical size and shape)
f = carrier frequency
c = speed of light
λ = carrier wavelength

162
 Terrestrial Microwave

Most common type is a parabolic

dish with an antenna focusing a
narrow beam onto a receiving
antenna
Located at substantial heights
above ground to extend range and
transmit over obstacles

Uses a series of microwave relay

towers with point-to-point
microwave links to achieve long
distance transmission

163
 Terrestrial Microwave Applications

• Used for long haul telecommunications, short point-to-point links

between buildings and cellular systems.
• Used for both voice and TV transmission.
• Fewer repeaters or amplifiers but requires line of sight transmission
• 1-40GHz frequencies, with higher frequencies having higher data rates
• Main source of loss is attenuation caused mostly by distance, rainfall and
interference

164
Microwave Bandwidth and Data Rates

Typical Digital Microwave Performance

Band (GHz) Bandwidth (MHz) Data Rate (Mbps)

2 7 12
6 30 90
11 40 135
18 220 274

165
 Satellite Microwave
• A communication satellite is in effect a microwave relay station.
• Used to link two or more ground (earth) stations.
• Receives on one frequency (uplink), amplifies or repeats signal and transmits
on another frequency (downlink).
• Frequency bands are called transponder channels or transponders.
• Requires geo-stationary orbit.
• Rotation match occurs at a height of 35,863 km at the equator.
• Need to be spaced atleast 3° (12/14 GHz band) - 4° (4/6 GHz band) apart
to avoid interfering with each other.
• Spacing limits the number of possible satellites.

166
Satellite Point-to-Point Link

167
Satellite Broadcast Link

168
 Satellite Microwave Applications
 Private business networks
• Satellite providers can divide capacity into channels to lease to individual
business users.
 Television distribution
• Public Broadcasting Services (PBS) distributes TV program using
satellite channels.
• Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) transmits video signals directly to the
home user.
 Global positioning
• Navstar Global Positioning System (GPS)

169
170
 Transmission Characteristics

 The optimum frequency range for satellite transmission is 1 to 10 GHz

• Below 1GHz, significant noise from natural sources
• Above 10GHz, signal attenuated by atmospheric absorption and
precipitation

 Satellites use a frequency bandwidth range of 5.925 to 6.425 GHz from

earth to satellite (uplink) and a range of 3.7 to 4.2 GHz from satellite to earth
(downlink)
• this is referred to as the 4/6-GHz band
• because of saturation the 12/14-GHz band has been developed
(uplink: 14 - 14.5 GHz; downlink: 11.7 - 12.2 GH
171
 Broadcast Radio
• Radio is the term used to encompass frequencies in the range of 3kHz
to 300GHz
• Broadcast radio (30MHz - 1GHz) covers
• FM radio
• UHF and VHF television
• Data networking applications
• Omnidirectional
• Limited to line of sight
• Suffers from multipath interference
• Reflections from land, water, man-made objects

172
 Infrared
• Achieved using transceivers that modulate noncoherent infrared light
• Transceivers must be within line of sight of each other directly or via
reflection
• Does not penetrate walls
• No licenses required
• No frequency allocation issues
• Typical uses:
• TV remote control

173
 Frequency Bands
Band Frequency Range Free-Space Propagation Typical Use
Wavelength Range Characteristics
ELF (extremely 30 to 300 Hz 10,000 to 1000 km GW Power line frequencies; used
low frequency) by some home control
systems.
VF (voice 300 to 3000 Hz 1000 to 100 km GW Used by the telephone system
frequency) for analog subscriber lines.
VLF (very low 3 to 30 kHz 100 to 10 km GW; low attenuation Long-range navigation;
frequency) day and night; high submarine communication
atmospheric noise level
LF (low frequency) 30 to 300 kHz 10 to 1 km GW; slightly less Long-range navigation;
reliable than VLF; marine communication radio
absorption in daytime beacons
MF (medium 300 to 3000 kHz 1,000 to 100 m GW and night SW; Maritime radio; direction
frequency) attenuation low at night, finding; AM broadcasting.
high in day;
atmospheric noise
HF (high 3 to 30 MHz 100 to 10 m SW; quality varies with Amateur radio; military
frequency) time of day, season, and communication
frequency.
VHF (very high 30 to 300 MHz 10 to 1 m LOS; scattering because VHF television; FM broadcast
frequency) of temperature and two-way radio, AM
inversion; cosmic noise aircraft communication;
aircraft navigational aids
UHF (ultra high 300 to 3000 MHz 100 to 10 cm LOS; cosmic noise UHF television; cellular
frequency) telephone; radar; microwave
links; personal
communications systems
SHF (super high 3 to 30 GHz 10 to 1 cm LOS; rainfall Satellite communication;
frequency) attenuation above 10 radar; terrestrial microwave
GHz; atmospheric links; wireless local loop
attenuation due to
oxygen and water vapor
EHF (extremely 30 to 300 GHz 10 to 1 mm LOS; atmospheric Experimental; wireless local
high frequency) attenuation due to loop; radio astronomy
oxygen and water vapor
Infrared 300 GHz to 400 1 mm to 770 nm LOS Infrared LANs; consumer
THz electronic applications
Visible light 400 THz to 900 770 nm to 330 nm LOS Optical communication
THz 174
 Wireless Propagation - Ground Wave

 Ground wave propagation follows the contour of the earth and can propagate
distances well over the visible horizon
 This effect is found in frequencies up to 2MHz
 The best known example of ground wave communication is AM radio
175
 Wireless Propagation - Sky Wave

 Sky wave propagation is used for amateur radio, CB radio, and international broadcasts
such as BBC and Voice of America
 A signal from an earth based antenna is reflected from the ionized layer of the upper
atmosphere back down to earth
 Sky wave signals can travel through a number of hops, bouncing back and for the
between the ionosphere and the earth’s surface
176
 Wireless Propagation - Line of Sight

Ground and sky wave propagation modes do not operate above 30 MHz
- communication must be by line of sight
177
 Refraction
• Velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of the density of the
medium through which it travels
• ~3 x 108 m/s in vacuum, less in anything else
• Speed changes with movement between media
• Index of refraction (refractive index) is
• Sine(incidence)/sine(refraction)
• Varies with wavelength
• Gradual bending
• Density of atmosphere decreases with height, resulting in bending of
radio waves towards earth

178
179
 Line of Sight Transmission

Free space loss Atmospheric Multipath

Absorption Refraction
• Loss of signal • Multiple
with distance • From water vapor • Bending signal
interfering
and oxygen away from
signals from
absorption receiver
reflections

180
Free Space Loss

181
Multipath Interference

182
 Summary
• Transmission Media
• Physical path between transmitter and receiver
• Bandwidth, transmission impairments, interference, number of receivers
• Guided Media
• Twisted pair, coaxial cable, optical fiber
• Wireless Transmission
• Microwave frequencies
• Antennas, terrestrial microwave, satellite microwave, broadcast radio
• Wireless Propagation
• Ground wave, sky wave, line of sight
183
SIGNAL ENCODING TECHNIQUES

184
 x(t)

g(t) x(t) g(t)

Encoder Decoder
digital or digital t
analog

(a) Encoding onto a digital signal

fc(t) S(f)
carrier

m(t) s(t) m(t)

Modulator Demodulator
digital or analog f
analog fc

(b) Modulation onto an analog signal

Figure 5.1 Encoding and Modulation Techniques 185

 Encoding types
• Digital data, digital signal: Equipment is less complex and less expensive.

• Analog data, digital signal: Use modern digital transmission and switching
equipment.

• Digital data, analog signal: Transmission media like optical fiber and
unguided media,are used.

• Analog data, analog signal: Voice transmission over voice-grade lines.

186
 Digital Data, Digital Signal

 Digital signal
 Sequence of discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses
 Each pulse is a signal element
 Binary data are transmitted by encoding each data bit into signal
elements

187
 Terminology
 Unipolar – All signal elements have the same sign (positive or negative)
 Polar – One logic state represented by positive voltage and the other by
negative voltage
 Data rate – Rate in bits per second that data are transmitted
 Duration or length of a bit – Time taken for transmitter to emit the bit
 Modulation rate – Rate at which the signal level is changed; the rate is
expressed in baud, which means signal elements per second
 Mark and space – Refer to binary digits 1 and 0

188
 Key Data Transmission Terms

Term Units Definition

Data element Bits A single binary one or zero
Data rate Bits per second (bps) The rate at which data
elements are transmitted
Signal element Digital: a voltage pulse of That part of a signal that
constant amplitude occupies the shortest interval
Analog: a pulse of constant of a signaling code
frequency, phase, and
amplitude
Signaling rate or Signal elements per second The rate at which signal
modulation rate (baud) elements are transmitted

189
 Interpreting Signals
Tasks involved in
Factors affecting signal
interpreting digital signal at
interpretation
the receiver

Timing of bits - when they

Signal to noise ratio
start and end

Signal levels Data rate

Bandwidth

190
Definition of
Digital Signal
Encoding
Formats

191
 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
NRZ-L

NRZI

Bipolar-AMI
(most recent
preceding 1 bit has
negative voltage)

Pseudoternary
(most recent
preceding 0 bit has
negative voltage)

Manchester

Differential
Manchester

192
Figure 5.2 Digital Signal Encoding Formats
193
 Encoding Schemes
• A good signal design should concentrate the
Signal spectrum transmitted power in the middle of the transmission
bandwidth

• Need to synchronize transmitter and receiver either

Clocking with an external clock or sync mechanism

• Responsibility of a layer of logic above the signaling

Error detection level that is known as data link control

Signal interference • Certain codes perform better in the presence of noise

and noise immunity

Cost and complexity • The higher the signaling rate the greater the cost
194
 Non Return to Zero
 Easiest way to transmit digital signals is to use two different voltages for 0
and 1 bits.
 Voltage level is constant during a bit interval
 No transition (no return to a zero voltage level)
 Absence of voltage for 0, constant positive voltage for 1
 More often, a negative voltage represents one value and a positive
voltage represents the other (NRZ-L)
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
NRZ-L
195
 Non-return to Zero Inverted (NRZI)
 Non-return to zero, invert on ones
 Maintains a constant voltage pulse for duration of a bit time
 Data are encoded as presence or absence of signal transition at the
beginning of the bit time
 Transition (low to high, high to low) denotes binary 1
 No transition denotes binary 0

196
 Is an example of differential encoding

• Data are represented by changes rather than levels

• More reliable to detect a transition in the presence of noise than to compare a value to a
threshold
• Easy to lose sense of polarity

• Limitation of NRZ
• Presence of DC component
• Lack of synchronization capability (continuous 1’s or 0’s)
• Advantage of NRZ
• Simplicity and low frequency response characteristics
197
 1.4

B8ZS, HDB3
1.2
AMI = alternate mark inversion
B8ZS = bipolar with 8 zeros substitution
HDB3 = high-density bipolar—3 zeros
NRZ-l, NRZ-L = nonreturn to zero level

Mean square voltage per unit bandwidth

NRZI NRZI = nonreturn to zero inverted
1.0
f = frequency
R = data rate

0.8

AMI, pseudoternary

0.6

0.4
Manchester
differential Manchester

0.2

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

Normalized frequency (f/R)

198
Figure 5.3 Spectral Density of Various Signal Encoding Schemes
 Multilevel Binary
Bipolar-AMI
 Use more than two signal levels Advantage of Bipolar AMI
 Bipolar-AMI  No loss of synchronization if
 Binary 0 - no line signal a long string of 1s occurs
 Binary 1 - positive or  No net DC component
negative pulse
 Lower bandwidth
 Binary 1 pulses alternate in
polarity  Easy error detection

199
 Multilevel Binary
Pseudoternary
 Binary 1 - absence of line signal
 Binary 0 - alternating positive and negative pulses
 No advantage or disadvantage over bipolar-AMI and each is the basis
of some applications

200
 Multilevel Binary Issues
 Synchronization with long runs of 0’s or 1’s
 Can insert additional bits that force transitions
 Scramble data
 Not as efficient as NRZ
 Each signal element only represents one bit
• Receiver distinguishes between three levels: +A, -A, 0
A 3 level system could represent log23 = 1.58 bits
Requires approximately 3dB more signal power for same probability of
bit error
201
 1.0

10–1
AMI, pseudoternary,
ASK, FSK
10–2

Probability of bit error (BER)

10–3
NRZ, biphase
PSK, QPSK
10–4

10–5
3 dB
10–6

10–7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
(Eb/N0) (dB)

202
Figure 5.4 Theoretical Bit Error Rate for Various Encoding Schemes
 Biphase
Manchester Encoding

 There is a transition at the middle of each bit period

 Midbit transition serves as a clocking mechanism and also as data
 1 - Low to high transition
 0 - High to low transition

203
 Biphase
Differential Manchester Encoding

 Midbit transition is only used for clocking

 0 - transition present at the beginning of a bit period
 1 - transition absent at the beginning of a bit period
 Has the added advantage of employing differential encoding

204
 Biphase Pros and Cons

Pros Cons
• Synchronization • At least one transition per
• No dc component bit time and may have two
• Has error detection • Maximum modulation
rate is twice NRZ
• Requires more bandwidth

205
 5 bits = 5 µsec

1 1 1 1 1

NRZI

1 bit =
1 signal element =
1 µsec

Manchester

1 bit = 1 signal element =

1 µsec 0.5 µsec

206
Figure 5.5 A Stream of Binary Ones at 1 Mbps
Normalized Signal Transition Rate of Various
Digital Signal Encoding Schemes

207
 Design Goals
Scrambling
 Use scrambling to replace sequences that Have no dc
would produce constant voltage component

 These filling sequences must: Have no

long
 Provide sufficient transitions for the sequences
of zero
level line
receiver’s clock to maintain signals

synchronization Have no
reduction
 Be recognized by the receiver and in data
rate
replaced with the original data sequence
 Be the same length as the original Error
detection
capability
sequence so there is no data rate penalty
208
 B8ZS
• Bipolar with 8-zeros substitution
• Coding scheme commonly used in North America
• Based on a bipolar-AMI
• Amended with the following rules:
• If an octet of all zeros occurs and the last voltage pulse preceding
this octet was positive, then the eight zeros of the octet are encoded
as 000+-0-+
• If an octet of all zeros occurs and the last voltage pulse preceding
this octet was negative, then the eight zeros of the octet are encoded
as 000-+0+-

209
High Density Bipolar Order 3 (HDB3) Encoding
Substitution Rules
Number of Bipolar Pulses (ones) since Last Substitution
Polarity of Preceding Pulse Odd Even
- 000- +00+
+ 000+ -00-

210
 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

Bipolar-AMI

0 0 0 V B 0 V B

B8ZS

if odd if even
0 0 0 V B 0 0 V B 0 0 V

HDB3
(odd number of 1s
since last substitution)

B = Valid bipolar signal

Violation within the substituted code
V = Bipolar violation

Figure 5.6 Encoding Rules for B8ZS and HDB3

211
 Digital Data, Analog Signal

 Main use is public telephone system

 Was designed to receive, switch, and transmit analog signals
 Has a frequency range of 300Hz to 3400Hz
 At present not suitable for handling digital signals from the subscriber
locations
 Uses modem (modulator-demodulator) to convert digital data to
analog signals and vice versa

212
 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0

(a) ASK

(b) BFSK

(c) BPSK

213
Figure 5.7 Modulation of Analog Signals for Digital Data
 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

 Encode 0/1 by different carrier amplitudes

 Usually have one amplitude zero
 One is represented by presence at constant amplitude
 Susceptible to sudden gain changes
 Inefficient
 Used for:
 Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
 Very high speeds over optical fiber

214
 Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK)

 Most common form of FSK

 Two binary values are represented by two different frequencies (near carrier)
 Less susceptible to error than ASK
 Used for:
 High frequency radio
 Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
 Even higher frequency on LANs using coaxial cable

215
signal strength
spectrum of signal spectrum of signal
transmitted in one transmitted in
direction opposite direction

1070 1270 2025 2225

frequency (Hz)

Figure 5.8 Full-Duplex FSK Transmission on a Voice-Grade Line

216
 Multiple FSK (MFSK)
 Each signaling element represents more than one bit
 More than two frequencies are used
 More bandwidth efficient
 More susceptible to error

217
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 The phase of the carrier signal is shifted to represent data
 Binary PSK
 Two phases represent the two binary digits

 Differential PSK
 Phase shifted relative to previous transmission rather than some reference
signal

218
 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0

Figure 5.10 Differential Phase-Shift Keying (DPSK) 219

Quadrature PSK

220
221
222
Bandwidth Efficiency (R/BT) for Various
Digital-to-Analog Encoding Schemes
r=0 r = 0.5 r=1
ASK 1.0 0.67 0.5
Multilevel FSK
M = 4, L = 2 0.5 0.33 0.25
M = 8, L = 3 0.375 0.25 0.1875
M = 16, L = 4 0.25 0.167 0.125
M = 32, L = 5 0.156 0.104 0.078
PSK 1.0 0.67 0.5
Multilevel PSK
M = 4, L = 2 2.00 1.33 1.00
M = 8, L = 3 3.00 2.00 1.50
M = 16, L = 4 4.00 2.67 2.00
M = 32, L = 5 5.00 3.33 2.50
223
Performance of Digital to Analog Modulation Schemes

In presence
Bandwidth
of noise
Bit error rate of PSK
ASK/PSK bandwidth
and QPSK are about
directly relates to bit
3dB superior to ASK
rate
and FSK

MFSK and MPSK

Multilevel PSK gives have tradeoff
significant between bandwidth
improvements efficiency and error
performance
224
 1.0 1.0

10–1 10–1

10–2 10–2

Probability of bit error (BER)

Probability of bit error (BER)

10–3 10–3
M=8
10–4 M=2 10–4

10–5 10–5

10–6 10–6
M=8 M=4 M=2 M =4
10–7 10–7
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
(Eb/N0) (dB) (Eb/N0) (dB)

(a) Multilevel FSK (MFSK) (b) Multilevel PSK (MPSK)

Figure 5.13 Theoretical Bit Error Rate for Multilevel FSK and PSK 225
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
 QAM is used in the Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL), in cable
modems, and in some wireless standards
 Is a combination of ASK and PSK
 Logical extension of QPSK
 Send two different signals simultaneously on the same carrier frequency
 Use two copies of carrier, one shifted 90°
 Each carrier is ASK modulated
 Two independent signals simultaneously transmitted over the same medium
 At the receiver, the two signals are demodulated and the results are combined
to produce the original binary input
226
227
228
229
 Analog Data, Digital Signal

Digitization is the conversion of  Analog to digital conversion is

analog into digital data which can done using a codec
then:  Pulse code modulation
 Be transmitted using NRZ-L  Delta modulation
 Be transmitted using code
other than NRZ-L
 Be converted to analog signal

230
 Digitizer Modulator

Analog data Digital data Analog signal

(voice) (ASK)

Figure 5.16 Digitizing Analog Data

231
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Based on the sampling theorem:
• “If a signal f(t) is sampled at regular intervals of time and at a rate
higher than twice the highest signal frequency, then the samples
contain all the information of the original signal. The function f(t) may
be reconstructed from these samples by the use of a lowpass filter.”
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
 Analog samples
 To convert to digital, each of these analog samples must be assigned a
binary code

232
 Code
number
16
15
15
14
14
13
13
12

Normalized magnitude
12
11
11
10
10
9
9
8
8
7
7
6
6
5
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
0
0

Ts = time
1/(2B)
PAM value 1.1 9.2 15.2 10.8 5.6 2.8 2.7
quantized code number 1 9 15 10 5 2 2
PCM code 0001 1001 1111 1010 0101 0010 0010

233
Figure 5.17 Pulse-Code Modulation Example
 PAM
Quantizer Encoder
Continuous-time, sampler Discrete-time Discrete-time Digital bit
continuous amplitude continuous- discrete- stream output
(analog) input signal amplitude signal amplitude signal signal
(PAM pulses) (PCM pulses)

Figure 5.18 PCM Block Diagram

234
Quantizing
levels Strong signal Weak signal

15 15
14
14
13
12 13
11 12
10 11
9 10
8 9
8
7 7
6
6 5
5 4
4 3
3 2
2 1
1
0 0

(a) Without nonlinear encoding (b) With nonlinear encoding

Figure 5.19 Effect of Nonlinear Coding 235

 Delta Modulation (DM)
 Analog input is approximated by a staircase function
 Can move up or down one quantization level () at each sampling interval
 Has binary behavior
 Function only moves up or down at each sampling interval
 Output of the delta modulation process can be represented as a single
binary digit for each sample
 1 is generated if the staircase function is to go up during the next interval,
otherwise a 0 is generated

236
237
238
 Analog data to analog signal

• Amplitude modulation (AM)

• Angle Modulation
• Frequency modulation (FM)
• Phase modulation (PM)

239
240
 Summary
• Digital data, digital signals • Digital data, analog signals
• Nonreturn to zero (NRZ) • Amplitude shift keying
• Frequency shift keying
• Multilevel binary
• Phase shift keying
• Biphase • Performance
• Modulation rate • Quadrature amplitude modulation
• Scrambling techniques • Analog data to analog signal
• Analog data, digital signals • Amplitude modulation (AM)
• Pulse code modulation • Angle Modulation
• Delta modulation (DM) • Frequency modulation (FM)
• Performance • Phase modulation (PM)
241