4

High speed machines

The speed of a.c. machines increases with increase in the input frequency.
High frequency of the armature current reduces the dimensions of electrical
machines, as the electromagnetic torque is proportional to the electromagnetic
power and number of pole pairs and inveresely proportioal to the frequency.
High speed gearless electrical machines find many applications as spindle
motors, pump motors, large chiller motors, gas compressor motors, microtur-
bine generators and aircraft generators. Elimination of gear trains improves
the efficiency of the system, reduces the dimensions and noise, and simplifies
the construction and maintenance. Cage induction, wound synchronous and
surface type PM synchronous machines with retaining sleeve are the most
economical candidates for high speed applications.
At present, the maximum power of high speed synchronous generators
does not exceed 500 kW. Several airborne power missions are now evolving
that will require lightweight multi megawatt electrical power systems, e.g.,
directed energy weapon (DEW) and airborne radar [197]. New high power
airborne and mobile military systems will require 1 to 6 MW of electrical power
generated at speeds 15 krpm. As potential candidates HTS rotor synchronous
generators or all cryogenic generators (synchronous or homopolar) have been
considered.

4.1 Requirements
Fig. 4.1 shows the construction of a high speed electric machine with magnetic
bearings. There are two radial magnetic bearings and one axial magnetic
bearing. Basic design requirements for high speed machines include, but are
not limited to:
• compact design and high power density;
• minimum number of components;
• ability of the PM rotor to withstand high temperature;
• minimum cost–to–output power ratio and cost–to–efficiency ratio;
82 4 High speed machines

5 3 1 2 3 4

Fig. 4.1. Longitudinal section of a high speed electric machine with magnetic bear-
ings: 1 — stator, 2 — rotor, 3 — radial magnetic bearing, 4 — axial magnetic
bearing, 5 — turbine rotor or impeller.

• high reliability (the failure rate < 5% within 80 000 h);

• high efficiency over the whole range of variable speed;
• low total harmonics distortion (THD).

4.2 Microturbines
A microturbine (Figs 4.2 and 4.3) is a small, single-shaft gas turbine the rotor
of which is integrated with high speed electric generator (up to 120 000 rpm),
typically rated from 30 to 200 kW of the output power. In large electric power
plants, the turbines and generators are on separate shafts, and are connected
by step down gears that slow down the high-speed rotation and increase the
torque to turn much larger electric generators.
The stator laminations are about 0.2-mm thick for frequencies below 400
Hz and about 0.1-mm thick for frequencies above 700 Hz. Thin silicon steel
laminations (Section 2.1) or sometimes iron-cobalt laminations (Section 2.2)
are used for stator and rotor stacks.
The rotor PMs are protected against centrifugal forces with the aid of
retaining sleeves (cans). The non-magnetic retaining sleeve can be made of
non-magnetic metals, e.g., titanium alloys, stainless steels, Inconel 718 (NiC-
oCr based alloy) or carbon-graphite composites. For metal retaining sleeves
the maximum operating temperature is 2900 C and maximum linear surface
speed is 250 m/s. For carbon-graphite fiber wound sleeves the maximum oper-
ating temperature is 1800 C and maximum linear surface speed is 320 m/s. A
 4.2 Microturbines 83

Fig. 4.2. Microturbine set. Photo courtesy of Capstone, Chatsworth, CA, U.S.A.

good materials for retaining sleeves have high permissible stresses, low specific
density and good thermal conductivity.
Modern generators for distributed generation technologies should meet the
following requirements:
• brushless design;
• minimum number of components;
• small volume;
• high power density (output power-to-mass or output power-to-volume ra-
tio);
• high efficiency;
• low cost.
It is also desired that modern brushless generators have more or less fault tol-
erance capability. However, generating mode with one damaged phase winding
and then normal operation after the fault clears is normally impossible.
The first two requirements increase the reliability. Reliability data of older
high speed generators are very scattered with mean time between failure
(MTBF) values up to approximately 47 000 h as calculated from short-term
maintenance record [169].
The higher the speed (frequency) and more efficient the cooling system,
the smaller the volume and mass. Increase in speed and application of direct
84 4 High speed machines

Fig. 4.3. Microturbine with PM brushless generator and air bearings. 1 — gener-
ator, 2 — compressor, 3 — air bearings, 4 — turbine, 5 — combustion chamber,
6 — fuel injector, 7 — recuperator, 8 — exhaust outlet, 9 — generator cooling fins,
10 — air intake. Photo courtesy of Capstone, Chatsworth, CA, U.S.A.

liquid cooling result in higher power density (output power to mass or output
power to volume).
High efficiency means the reduction of the input mechanical power through
the reduction of power losses. The lower the losses, the lower the temperature
rise of a generator.
Microturbine generators are cooled by the following media:
• air;
• refrigerant;
• oil;
• water.
The air enters through the end bell and passes through the windings and
sometimes through rotor channels. The air is exhausted through a perforated
screen around the periphery of the casing. Refrigerant is directed to cool the
stator core outer surface and/or stator core inner surface (air gap).
The liquid coolant, i.e., oil or water is pumped through the stator jacket
or through the stator hollow conductors (direct cooling system) and cooled
 4.2 Microturbines 85

by means of a heat exchanger system. However, hollow conductors and direct

liquid cooling seem to be too expensive for generators rated below 200 kW.

heat to
user recuperator
(most units)

a.c.
exhaust natural gas electricity
low
temperature fuel
water/air compressor
combustor solid state
(if necessary) converter

compressor turbine generator

air

Fig. 4.4. Components of a gas microturbine.

(a) (b)
heat exchanger 6 5
temperature, T

3' = ideal conditions at which exhaust

gases leave the recuperator
QL
3 6' = ideal conditions at which turbine
recuperator gases leave the recuperator4
QH
combustion P = constant
1 chamber mecha-
2 4 3'
nical
ouput 3 5
2
6
compressor turbine 6'
1 P = constant

entropy, s

Fig. 4.5. Ideal Brayton cycle modified with recuperation: (a) schematic, (b) tem-
perature – entropy (T – s) diagram. QH is the high temperature heat transfer rate
and QL is the low temperature heat transfer rate.

Basic components of microturbines are: turbine compressor, combustor,

recuperator, generator and output solid state converter to provide 50 or 60
Hz electrical power (Fig. 4.4).
86 4 High speed machines

(a) (b)
3 P = constant 3

temperature T
EVAPORA
TOR TURBINE

CONDENSER 4 2 P = constant
2 PUMP
1
4
1
entropy s

Fig. 4.6. Ideal Rankine cycle: (a) basic components, (b) T –s process.

The most popular microturbines burn natural gas (Fig. 4.4). Outside air
is fed into a compressor, which increases the air density and pressure. The
compressed air and fuel move into the combustion chamber, where they burn
and give off a large amount of heat and high-pressure exhaust gases. The
exhaust pushes through a series of turbine rotor blades attached to a long
shaft, which drives the shaft at very high speeds. That shaft, in turn, spins
the electric generator.
Many of the smaller microturbines are fed by diesel fuel, gasoline or fossil
fuels rather than natural gas. In these microturbines there is no need for a
compressor, as fuel is injected into the compression chamber.
Some microturbines even include the ability to generate electricity from
the heat of the exhaust gases. The heat boils water, and the resulting steam
escapes through a second set of turbine blades, spinning a second electric
generator. Those systems are much larger and more expensive, but operate
more efficiently. Instead of water, an organic substance can also be used, that
enters the turbine, where it expands and produces work by rotating the rotor
blades.
Despite lower operational temperatures than those of combustion turbines,
microturbines produce energy with efficiencies in the 25 to 30% range.
Bryton cycle is a constant–pressure cycle and is generally associated with
the gas turbine (Fig. 4.5). The gas turbine cycle consists of four internally
reversible processes:
(a isentropic compression process;
(b) constant-pressure combustion process;
(c) isentropic-expansion process;
(d) constant-pressure cooling process.
The efficiency of Brayton cycle can be increased with the aid of the so
called recuperation or regeneration (Fig. 4.5a). Recuperation uses the high-
temperature exhaust gases from the turbine to heat the gas as it leaves the
 4.2 Microturbines 87

compressor. The T – s diagram, where T is the temperature and s is the

specific entropy 1 , modified with recuperation is shown in Fig. 4.5b. The recu-
peration process improves the thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle because
some of the energy that is normally rejected to the surroundings by the turbine
exhaust gases is used to preheat the air entering the combustion chamber.
Brayton engine also forms half of the combined cycle system, which com-
bines with a Rankine engine to further increase overall efficiency. The ideal
Rankine cycle is the model for the steam power plant (Fig. 4.6). It consists of
four basic components (Fig. 4.6a):

• pump,
• evaporator (boiler)
• turbine
• condenser
Water is the most common working fluid in the Rankine cycle. A disadvan-
tage of using the water-steam mixture is that superheated vapor has to be
used, otherwise the moisture content after expansion might be too high, which
would erode the turbine blades. Organic substances, that can be used below
a temperature of 400o C do not need to be overheated. For many organic com-
pounds superheating is not necessary, resulting in a higher efficiency of the
cycle. This is called an organic Rankine cycle (ORC).
ORC can make use of low temperature waste heat to generate electricity.
At these low temperatures a vapor cycle would be inefficient, due to enormous
volumes of low pressure steam, causing very voluminous and costly plants.
ORCs can be applied for low temperature waste heat recovery (industry), ef-
ficiency improvement in power stations [196], and recovery of geothermal and
solar heat. Small scale ORCs have been used commercially or as pilot plant
in the last two decades.

Several organic compounds have been used in ORCs, e.g., chloroflourocar-

bon (CFC), freon, iso-pentane or ammonia to match the temperature of the
available waste heat. For example, the R245fa refrigerant is a nonflammable
and provides excellent temperature to pressure match.

Combined heat and power (CHP) or cogeneration is an energy conversion

process, where electricity and useful heat are produced simultaneously in one
process. Cogeneration systems make use of the waste heat from Brayton en-
gines, typically for hot water production or space heating. The CHP process
may be based on the use of steam or gas turbines or combustion engines.

1
Entropy in a closed thermodynamic system is a quantitative measure of the
amount of thermal energy not available to do work. Second law of thermody-
namics is also called the entropy law.
88 4 High speed machines

Fig. 4.7. High speed compressor with PM brushless motor: 1 — magnetic bearing,
2 — PM motor, 3 — touchdown bearing (when the compressor is not energized),
4 — shaft and impellers, 5 — compressor cooling, 6 — inlet guide vane assembly.
Photo courtesy of Danfoss Turbocor Compressors, Dorval, Quebec, Canada.

4.3 Compressors
A high speed compressor with PM brushless motor is shown in Fig. 4.7. The
main features are:
• two-stage centrifugal compression;
• high speed PM brushless motor (18 000 to 48 000 rpm);
• impeller integrated with the PM rotor;
• oil-free frictionless PM-assisted magnetic bearings;
• PWM inverter-fed motor;
• power electronics integrated with the onboard intelligent digital electron-
ics;
• sound level less than 70 dBA.
CompAir , Redditch, U.K. manufactures screw-type and reciprocating air com-
pressors in the 1 – 300 kW power range. Its variable speed L45SR, L75SR and
L132SR screw air compressors apply SRM drives (produced under license to
SRD, Harrogate, U.K.). The numbers 45, 75 and 132 indicate the SRM power
in kW. The variable speed of a SRM is in the range from 1200 to 5000 rpm.
 4.4 Aircraft generators 89

Fig. 4.8. SRM for a variable speed air compressor. Stator core is not shown. Photo
courtesy CompAir , Redditch, U.K.

A SRM is shown in Fig. 4.8. These VSD compressors offer the ability to pre-
cisely match power consumption with air demand. Field trials show average
energy efficiency gain and operational cost savings of over 25% compared to
conventional air compressors of the same rating using an a.c. IM and inverter.

4.4 Aircraft generators

The function of the aircraft electrical system is to generate, regulate and dis-
tribute electrical power throughout the aircraft. Aircraft electrical components
operate on many different voltages both a.c. and d.c.. Most systems use 115 V
a.c. (400 Hz) and 28 V d.c.. There are several different electric generators on
large aircraft (Fig. 4.9) to be able to handle excessive loads, for redundancy,
and for emergency situations, which include:
• engine driven a.c. generators;
• auxiliary power units (APU);
• ram air turbines (RAT);
• external power, i.e., ground power unit (GPU).
Each of the engines on an aircraft drives one or more a.c. generators (Fig.
4.10). The power produced by these generators is used in normal flight to
90 4 High speed machines

2
3

4
Fig. 4.9. Passenger aircraft generators: 1 — main engine starter/generator, 2 —
auxiliary power unit (APU), 3 — emergency ram air turbine (RAT), 4 — ground
power unit (GPU).

(a) (b)

1 2

Fig. 4.10. Turbofan engine and engine driven generators (circled): (a) gear trains
(generators have been removed); (b) generators (1 and 2). Photo courtesy of United
Technologies Corporation, East Hartford, CT, U.S.A.

supply the entire aircraft with power. The power generated by APUs is used
while the aircraft is on the ground during maintenance and for engine starting
(Figs 4.11 and 4.12). Most aircrafts can use the APU while in flight as a backup
power source. RATs are used in the case of a generator or APU failure, as an
emergency power source (Fig. 4.13). External power may only be used with
the aircraft on the ground. A GPU (portable or stationary unit) provides a.c.
power through an external plug on the nose of the aircraft.
 4.4 Aircraft generators 91

Fig. 4.11. APS 2000 APU of Boeing 737. 1 — light switch, 2 — APU fuel line,
3 — generator, 4 — oil filter, 6 — fuel nozzles, 7 — upper shroud, 8 — bleed
air valve, 9 — start motor, 10 — oil tank, 11 — bleed air manifold, 12 — exhaust
muffler. Photo courtesy of C. Brady, The 737 information site [32].

(a) (b)

Fig. 4.12. Location of APU on Boeing 737: (a) APU cowling; (b) cooling air inlet
above the exhaust. Photo courtesy of C. Brady, The 737 information site [32].

Aircraft generators are usually wound rotor synchronous machines with

synchronous brushless exciter and PM brushless exciter. The power circuit
is shown in Fig. 4.14. PM brushless generators are rather avoided due to
difficulties with shutting down the power in failure modes. There are also
92 4 High speed machines

Fig. 4.13. Ram air turbine of Airbus A320 located under left wing. Photo courtesy
of B. Clayton, www.airlines.net .

attempts of using switched reluctance (SR) generators with no windings or

PMs on the rotor. A generator control unit (GCU), or voltage regulator, is
used to control generator output. The generator shaft is driven by an aircraft
engine with the aid of gears (Fig. 4.10) or directly by low spool engine shaft.
Aircraft generators are typically three-phase synchronous generators with
outer stator with distributed-parameter winding and inner rotor with concen-
trated coil winding (Fig. 4.15). These rules do not apply to special voltage
regulated synchronous generators and SR generators. The field excitation cur-
rent is provided to the rotor with the aid of a brushless exciter.
The stator of synchronous generators has slotted winding located in semi-
closed trapezoidal or oval slots. The number of stator slots is typically from
24 to 108, while the number of stator slots per pole per phase is from 4 to
10. Large number of stator slots per pole per phase and double layer chorded
windings allow for reducing the contents of higher space harmonics in the air
gap magnetic flux density waveforms. At high speeds (high frequency) coils
have low number of turns and large number of parallel wires. Very often single
turn coils must be designed. The outer surface of the stator core is sometimes
serrated to improve the heat transfer from the stator core surface to the stator
enclosure or liquid jacket.
 4.4 Aircraft generators 93

AIRCRAFT GENERATOR

Rectifier
Armature of
Excitation winding
PM exciter
of exciter

Armature of main
generator
Rotor of main generator
Rotor of
Rotating
PM
Prime rectifier
exciter
move Armature
r N of exciter

Excitation winding
of main generator

POWER
AIRCRAFT
ELECTRONICS LOADS
GENERATOR
CONVERTER

PRIME MOVER
(AIRCRAFT ENGINE)

Fig. 4.14. Power circuit of wound rotor synchronous generator for aircrafts.

The number of salient rotor poles is typically from 2 to 12. Pole faces have
round semi-closed slots to accommodate the damper. The rotor core is made
of the same material as the stator core, i.e., iron-cobalt thin laminations. Ro-
tor coils are protected against centrifugal forces with the aid of metal wedges
between poles which also participate in the cooling system of the rotor. Some-
times, in addition to wedges, rotor retaining non-magnetic sleeves are used.
With increase of the output power, the rotor cooling problems become very
difficult. One of methods is to use aluminum cold plates between the rotor
coils and rotor pole core. The rotor inner diameter (shaft diameter) depends
amongst other factors on the rotor critical speed. Problems of rotor dynamics
are much more serious than in low speed synchronous machines.
The rotor field excitation winding is connected via rotating diode rectifier
to a three-phase armature winding of a brushless exciter. The exciter arma-
ture system (winding and laminated stack), rectifier and excitation winding
of the generator are located on the same shaft. The excitation system of the
brushless exciter is stationary, i.e., PMs or d.c. electromagnets are fixed to the
stator facing the exciter armature winding. In the case of d.c. electromagnets,
the d.c. current can be supplied from an external d.c. source, main armature
94 4 High speed machines

1 3

2
Fig. 4.15. Aircraft synchronous generator rated at 90 kW. 1 — stator of main gen-
erator with three phase armature winding, 2 — rotor, 3 — stationary field excitation
system of exciter, 4 — stator with three phase winding of PM brushless sub-exciter.
Photo courtesy of Hamilton Sundstrand , Rockford, IL, U.S.A.

(a) A1 (b) A1

N
N

A2’
A2 A2’ A2
S S S N

N S

A1’ A1’
Fig. 4.16. Dual channel high speed SR machine: (a) consequent winding (900 mag-
netic flux path); (b) non-consequent winding (1800 magnetic flux path) [154].
 4.4 Aircraft generators 95

winding via rectifier, or from a small PM generator (sub-exciter) with sta-

tionary armature winding and rotating PMs. Rotating PMs are located on
the shaft of main generator.
The frequency of the rotor magnetic flux of a synchronous generator with
brushless exciter is speed dependent, i.e., the frequency of the excitation flux
decreases as the speed decreases.
Aircraft generators can be driven by the aircraft turbine engine as a prime
mover in one of the following way [24, 94, 114, 140, 151, 196],
• engine shaft and generator shaft connected via gear trains;
• engine shaft directly integrated with the generator rotor.
The speed of contemporary aircraft generators is typically from 7200 to 27 000
rpm and output power from 30 to 250 kW.
Both the shaft speed and output frequency of a generator can be constant
or variable. Consequently, generators can be divided into the three following
groups [24, 94, 153, 196]:
• constant speed constant frequency (CSCF) generators;
• variable speed constant frequency (VSCF) generators;
• variable frequency (VF) generators 2 .
A constant output frequency without an a.c. to a.c. utility converter can only
be obtained if the generator is driven at a constant speed.
VSCF systems employ an a.c. three-phase generator and solid state con-
verter. The solid state converter consists of (a) a rectifier which converts
a variable frequency current into d.c. current, (b) intermediate circuit and
(c)inverter which then converts the d.c. current into constant frequency a.c.
three-phase current.
In VF systems the output frequency of an a.c. generator is permitted to
vary with the rotational speed of the shaft. The variable frequency (VF) is not
suitable for all types of a.c. loads. It can be applied directly only to resistive
loads, e.g., electric heaters (deicing systems).
Also, generators are turned by a differential assembly and hydraulic pumps
to obtain constant speed. The purpose of the constant speed drive (CSD) is to
take rotational power from the engine and, no matter the engine speed, turn
the generator at a constant speed3 . This is necessary because the generator
output must be constant frequency (400Hz).
An integrated drive generator (IDG) is simply a CSD and generator com-
bined into one unit mounted co-axially or side-by-side.

2
sometimes called ‘wild frequency’ (WF) generators.
3
In 1946, adapting technologies developed for machine tools and oil pumps, Sund-
strand Corporation, Rockford, IL, U.S.A. designed a hydraulically regulated
transmission for the Boeing B–36 bomber. This CSD converts variable engine
speed into constant speed to run an a.c. generator.
96 4 High speed machines

A dual channel SR generator is a single SR machine that generates the

power for the two independent power channels. Each channel has its own power
electronics, power EMI filter, and controller, which operate independently and
drive separate and independent loads. Fig. 4.16 shows a 12-pole stator and
8-pole rotor SR machine, in which both channels feed two independent solid
state converters and receive rotor position information from a single rotor
position sensor [154].
Aircraft generators use forced air or oil cooling systems. The most effective
is the so called spray oil cooling where end connections of stator windings are
oil-sprayed. The current density of spray-oil cooled windings can exceed 28
A/mm2 . Pressurized oil can also be pumped though the channels between
round conductors in slots.

4.5 High speed multimegawatt generators

4.5.1 Directed energy weapons

Directed energy weapons (DEW) take the form of lasers, high-powered mi-
crowaves, and particle beams. They can be adopted for ground, air, sea, and
space warfare.

prime mover directed

electric power
turbine energy
generator conditioning
engine source

heat heat heat heat beam

control
thermal management system

Fig. 4.17. System block diagram for a generic electrically powered airborne DEW
system.

Lasers produce either continuous beams or short, intense pulses of light

in every spectrum from infrared to ultraviolet. The power output necessary
for a weapons-grade high energy laser (HEL) ranges from 10 kW to 1 MW.
When a laser beam strikes a target, the energy from the photons in the beam
heats the target to the point of combustion or melting. Since the laser beam
travels at the speed of light, HELs can particularly be used against moving
targets such as rockets, missiles, and artillery projectiles. X-ray lasers may be
possible in the not too distant future.
High-power microwave (HPM) weapons produce either beams or short
bursts of high-frequency radio energy in the megawatt range. For compari-
son, a typical microwave oven generates less than 1.5 kW of power. When the
 4.5 High speed multimegawatt generators 97

microwave energy encounters unshielded current conducting bodies, semicon-

ductors or electronic components, it induces a.c. current in them. The high fre-
quency electric current causes the equipment to malfunction without injuring
the personnel. If the energy is high enough, the microwaves can permanently
‘burn out’ the equipment. The depth of penetration of millimeter-length elec-
tromagnetic wave into human skin is very small and does not damage the
tissue. Only a burning pain is produced which forces the affected person to
escape. Current HPM research focuses on pulsed power devices, which create
intense, ultrashort bursts of electrical energy.
A particle beam (PB) weapon is a type of DEW which directs an ultra
high energy beam of atoms or electrons in a particular direction by a means
of particle projectiles with mass. The target is damaged by hitting it, and
thus disrupting its atomic and molecular structure. If the target is electric
current conductive, a resistive heating occurs and an electron beam weapon
can damage or melt its target. Electric circuits and electronic devices tar-
geted by electron PB weapon are disrupted, while human beings and animals
caught by the electric discharge of an electron beam weapon are likely to be
electrocuted.
There are two technically difficult challenges:
• the high voltage continuous electric power required for DEW systems must
be in the range of megawatts;
• a large amount of heat rejected from DEW system during operation must
be managed.
The thermal management challenge becomes difficult when the large heat
flux is coupled with a small airframe. The electrical power and thermal man-
agement subsystem of a conceptual generic airborne electrical DEW system
is shown in Fig. 4.17. So far, the electrical power and thermal management
systems for airborne DEWs are in early development.
Classical synchronous generators in the range of megawatts would be too
heavy for airborne applications. Synchronous generators with HTS rotor ex-
citation windings are investigated as a possible solution. Large power, high
speed HTS generators , if available, would be significantly lighter and more
compact than conventional copper wire-wound or PM rotor generators.

4.5.2 Airborne radar

Airborne radar systems can be carried by both military and commercial air-
crafts and are used for:
• targeting of hostile aircraft for air-to-air combat;
• detection and tracking of moving ground targets;
• targeting of ground targets for bombing missions;
• accurate terrain measurements for assisting in low-altitude flights;
• assisting in weather assessment and navigation;
98 4 High speed machines

• mapping and monitoring the Earth’s surface for environmental and topo-
logical study.

1.00E+07
klystron
1.00E+06
gyrotron
1.00E+05
average power, W

gridded tube
1.00E+04

1.00E+03

1.00E+02
crossed-field
amplifier (CFA)
1.00E+01

1.00E+00
0.1 1 10 100 1000
frequency, GHz

Fig. 4.18. Average output power versus frequency of state-of-the art travelling wave
tubes (TWTs).

Radars generally operate in the C or X bands, i.e., around 6 GHz or around

10 GHz, respectively. Airborne radar includes three major categories:

• air-target surveillance and cueing radars mounted in rotodomes;

• nose-mounted fighter radars;
• side-looking radars for ground reconnaissance and surveillance.
The latter is the smallest sector of the airborne radar market and is domi-
nated by synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and ground moving target indicator
(GMTI) sensors. SAR, an active all-weather sensor, primarily is used for two-
dimensional ground mapping. Radar images of an area help detect fixed tar-
gets. GMTI radar picks up moving targets or vehicles. A commercial version
of SAR-GMTI, called HiSAR, is an X-band radar that can see from about
100 km away.
The power generation capabilities of traveling wave tubes (TWT), i.e.,
electron tubes used for amplification at microwave frequencies (500 MHz to
300 GHz) range from Ws to MWs (Fig. 4.18). Klystrons are the most efficient
microwave tubes and are capable of the highest peak and average powers. A
klystron is a specialized vacuum tube called a linear-beam tube. The pseudo-
Greek word klystron comes from the stem form klys of a Greek verb referring to
the action of waves breaking against a shore, and the end of the word electron.
Airborne early warning (AEW) systems and weather radars use megawatt
klystrons, so that electric generators feeding airborne radars must be rated in
MWs range.
 4.5 High speed multimegawatt generators 99

4.5.3 Megawatt airborne generator cooling system

Innovative Power Solutions (IPS) has recently announced a new lightweight

megawatt-class airborne generator [58, 63]. The size of the generator has been
reduced by effective rotor cooling system.
IPS megawatt airborne generator is a synchronous generator with salient-
pole wound rotor (electromagnetic excitation) and conventional stator with
laminated core and winding distributed in slots. A new patented method
of cooling the rotor poles and conductors has been implemented [113]. This
method uses cold plates disposed between each rotor pole and field coils. A
cooling medium (liquid or gas) circulates in the rotor. Each cold plate serves
to conduct heat from both the pole core and winding. The cooling medium
enters the rotor through the shaft and is distributed between cold plates via
manifolds, transfer tubes and plugs. The cooling medium after exiting the
rotor (through the shaft) is then conducted to a heat sink or heat exchanger
where its temperature is reduced.

(a) (b)
pole face

pole core

Fig. 4.19. Rotor coil of IPS airborne generator: (a) slinky toy; (b) IPS rotor field
excitation coil wound with a flat rectangular conductor.

According to IPS, the lightweight airborne 1 MW generator is 406 mm in

diameter, 559 mm long and weighs 210 kg.
To design the rotor field winding, IPS has used flat wires with rectangular
cross section in an edge-winding fashion similar to how a slinky toy looks (Fig.
4.19a). The wire is in contact with cooling media along the entire perimeter
of the coil. The smaller dimension of the wire is disposed toward the pole
core lateral surface and the larger dimension is parallel to the pole face, as
shown in Fig. 4.19b. Since a rectangular cross section wire has bigger area
of contact between adjacent wires than an equivalent round wire, the heat
transfer characteristics for rectangular wires are better.
100 4 High speed machines

cold plate pole shoe pole core

passageways
top
winding
wedge
V-shaped wedge

cold plate identical

elements

Fig. 4.20. Construction of rotor poles and winding [113].

The rotor may have one or more cold plates surrounding each pole core.
Fig. 4.20 shows a rotor with a pair of identical cold plates per pole. Each
cold plate has passageways for conduction of a cooling medium (Fig. 4.21).
Either liquid (oil) or gas cooling medium can be used. The end region of each

Fig. 4.21. Rotor of 1 MW IPS generator with cooling system [113].

 4.5 High speed multimegawatt generators 101

Fig. 4.22. Longitudinal section of IPS’ lightweight megawatt generator. Arrows

shows cooling locations. Courtesy of IPS, Eatontown, NJ, U.S.A.

cold plate matches the bend radius of the field excitation coils. The proposed
shape of cold plates does not increase the length and diameter of the rotor.
For fabrication of cold plates high thermal conductivity materials are used,
i.e., aluminum, copper or brass. The cold plate preferably includes its own
insulating layer, e.g., in the case of aluminum, the insulating material is alu-
minum oxide with its thickness of 0.125 to 0.25 mm.
To provide the mechanical integrity of the rotor at high speeds and main-
tain good contact between the winding and cold plates, V-shaped wedges press
the winding against cold plate surfaces (Fig. 4.20). Top wedges are used to
secure V-shaped wedges in their positions (Fig. 4.20). Cooling locations are
shown in Fig. 4.22.
Cold plates can be designed as two-part or single-part cold plates. In the
first case both parts are identical. A pair of transfer tubes with plugs at each
end of a cold plate provides hydraulic connection with manifolds located at
opposite ends of the rotor. This forms a closed system for circulation of cooling
medium.
The overall cooling system has been improved by adding radial fans to
the rotor and fins to the internal housing. Such a design, although increases
windage and ventilation losses, can help to remove heat from the air within
the generator and transfer heat to the aluminum housing. Fig. 4.22 shows all
102 4 High speed machines

cooling locations in IPS megawatt generator. The rotor and stator cooling
technique implemented by IPS leads itself to compact generator design; how-
ever, the cold plate cooling system is less efficient than spray oil-cooled end
windings.

Table 4.1. Selected techniques for enhancing heat dissipation in high speed electric
machines.

Cooling system Current density Advantages Disadvantages

A/mm2
Fins Simple Increase
and heat sinks 5 to 8 method in weight and size
Water or oil Effective Increase in diameter
jacket 10 to 15 stator cooling and weight
Direct liquid Very intensive Increase
cooling cooling in weight and size
and hollow up to 30 of the Too expensive for machines
conductors stator winding rated below 200 kW
Spray oil-cooled Very intensive Wet rotor;
end turns over 28 cooling of the contamination of cooling
of rotor winding rotor winding medium (oil) with time
Liquid cooled 8 to 15 Intensive cooling Does not effectively
wedges [166] (estimated) of rotor winding cool the rotor poles
Cold plates Intensive Requires
between poles about 22 cooling of installation of cold
and rectangular wire (estimated) rotor winding plates in rotor and
rotor winding (IPS) cooling medium circulation

4.6 Comparison of cooling techniques for high speed

electric machines

Table 4.1 shows a comparison of selected cooling techniques for high speed
electric machines. The current density in the windings depends on the class of
insulation, cooling system and duty cycle (continuous, short time or intermit-
tent). The current density values given in Table 4.1 are for 250o C maximum
operating temperature of windings. The direct cooling system with hollow
conductors is the most intensive cooling system (up to 30 A/mm2 ). Spray-oil
cooling (28 A/mm2 ) is almost as intensive as direct cooling. Using cold plates
between pole cores and coils the estimated maximum current density should
not exceed 22 A/mm2 .
The spray oil-cooled rotor windings allows for maintaining higher current
density than cold plates. Spray cooling of the rotor wire together with intensive
 4.7 Induction machines with cage rotors 103

cooling of the stator winding will theoretically lead to smaller size and weight
than application of cold plates.

4.7 Induction machines with cage rotors

It is recommended at high speed to insert cage bars into totally closed rotor
slots. Since closed slots tremendously increase the leakage inductance of the
rotor winding, the slot closing bridge should be very narrow and saturate when
the motor is partially loaded. Instead of closed slots, a narrow slot opening
about 0.6 mm can provide a similar effect with moderate rotor winding leakage
inductance.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 4.23. Cage rotor of high speed induction machines: (a) 45 kW, 92 krpm,
induction generator; (b) rotor parts for 83.5 kW, 100 krpm induction motor. Photo
courtesy of SatCon, MA, U.S.A.
104 4 High speed machines

3
3

Fig. 4.24. High speed rotor with copper bars, double end rings and laminated
stack: 1 — copper or brass end ring, 2 — steel end ring, 3 — copper or brass bar,
4 — laminated rotor stack [56].

It is more difficult to design the rotor end rings than rotor bars. Below are
examples of construction of end rings proposed by some manufacturers and
researchers.
SatCon, a Massachusetts based company, U.S.A. has extensive experience
in the development of high-speed motor and generator systems for a variety
of applications [165].
Fig. 4.23a shows a 45kW, 92 krpm, high-speed induction machine devel-
oped for the U.S. Army’s Combat Hybrid Power Systems (CHPS) program
[165]. This machine has been designed for a direct drive generator of a diesel
turbocharger for a military ground power application. The linear surface speed
of the rotor is 240 m/s. The motor environment was 200o C with 50o C cooling
air available to the rotor. A helical stator jacket provides liquid cooling to
the stator. High temperature materials have ben required to meet the envi-
ronmental conditions. The prototype has demonstrated a 97% efficiency. This
generator has been equipped with a controlled rectifier to interface with a
high voltage bus as part of a highly integrated electrical distribution system
for the military vehicle.
Fig. 4.23b shows the components for an 83.5 kW, 100-krpm induction ma-
chine for an industrial air compressor [165]. The rotor has closed slots, copper
bars and end rings and is integral to the two-stage centrifugal compressor
shaft. It is supported on air and magnetic bearings. Similar integrated starter
generator (ISG) induction machines have been developed for gas turbine en-
gine applications from 50 000 to 110 000 rpm.
 4.7 Induction machines with cage rotors 105

Swiss company Elektrischemachinen und Antrieb called shortly EundA or

E+A, Wintertur, Switzerland [56] manufactures laminated rotors with cage
windings and composite rotor end rings for high speed induction motors (Fig.
4.24). The outer ring is made of steel, i.e., a material with high radial stress,
while the inner ring is made of a high conductivity material, usually copper.
The maximum rotor diameter at 60 000 rpm is 65 mm. The maximum linear
surface speed is 200 m/s.

Fig. 4.25. Construction of cage winding of a high speed motor according to US

Patent Publication No 2006/0273683A1. 1 — rotor bar, 2 — non-uniform end ring
thickness, 3 — clamping nuts, 4 — spacer plate, 5 — balance weight hole, 6 — end
laminations, 7 — end ring boss, 8 — keyhole stress relief cut. Courtesy of University
of Texas at Austin [36, 37].

Center for Electromechanics at the University of Texas at Austin, TX,

U.S.A. has proposed a novel end ring design, which meets all mechanical
requirements of high speed, high temperature, and power density without
compromising electrical performance [36].
106 4 High speed machines

Fig. 4.26. Completed BeCu end ring with integrated joint boss. Courtesy of Uni-
versity of Texas at Austin [36].

Fig. 4.27. Completed end ring to bar solder joints (before trimming extensions).
Courtesy of University of Texas at Austin [36].

In a conventional IM rotor design, the end ring is an annular ring supported

by the rotor bars. At high operating speeds and temperatures, the centrifugal
and thermal growth of the non-self supported end ring would result in high
stresses at the bars, laminations, and bar–end ring joints. This configuration
also poses a risk of significant mass imbalance due to radial displacement of
the unsupported end ring. The 290 m/s linear surface speed of this specific
application precludes the use of the low-speed conventional fabricated end
ring design [36].
 4.7 Induction machines with cage rotors 107

Fig. 4.28. Completed 2 MW, 15,000 rpm induction motor rotor. Courtesy of Uni-
versity of Texas at Austin [36].

Table 4.2. End ring interference and stress for candidate materials [36]
Quantity Al Cu BeCu
Required radial interference, Pa 58.6 86.2 74.6
Contact pressure at rest, Pa −144 × 106 −308 × 106 −294 × 106
Contact pressure at operation, Pa 3.65 × 106 1.42 × 106 1.08 × 106
Ring ID hoop stress at rest, Pa 172 × 106 363 × 106 348 × 106
Ring ID hoops stress at operation, Pa 210 × 106 653 × 106 656 × 106
Ring OD radial growth at operation, Pa 157.9 166.9 155.1
Typical yield strength at temperature, Pa 138 × 106 276 × 106 827 × 106

A combination of advanced end ring design features have been developed

to alleviate the strength limitations of the end ring–to–bar joint area in the
cage rotor assembly for high-speed application, as shown in Fig. 4.25 [37].

Table 4.3. Physical properties of beryllium copper from NGK Berylco [139]
Thermal Coefficient
Berylco R condu- of linear thermal Modulus Hardness Tensile Elong
product ctivity expansion of Rockwell strength ation
W/(m K) at 20 to 200o C elasticity (B or C Pa %
at 20o C (length/length)/o C Pa scale)
Plus 145 18.0 × 10−6 1.324 × 106 B95 – 102 792.9 × 106 3
Supra 75 17.5 × 10−6 0.127 × 106 C25 – 32 1172.1 × 106 15
−6
Ultra 60 17.5 × 10 0.127 × 106 C36 – 42 1254.8 × 106 7
108 4 High speed machines

In the new design, the end ring is piloted directly to the shaft through an
interference fit for rigid support of the end ring to ensure that forces associated
with imbalance are not transmitted to the rotor bars (Figs 4.26, 4.27, 4.28).
However, at these surface speeds, a uniform cross section end ring is not
feasible due to separation of the ring from the shaft resulting from the high
centrifugal loads. The end ring was therefore designed with a heavier inner
diameter section and a thin web extending to the bar radius. This design
maintains compressive interface pressure between the shaft and the end ring
throughout the speed and temperature ranges of the machine (0 to 15 000
rpm, −18 to 180o C), with a minimal interference fit that results in manageable
stresses. The thick section end ring with direct connection to the shaft serves
a secondary purpose of providing bolster support to the laminated stack to
prevent conical buckling of the highly interference fitted core necessary for
high speed use [36, 37].
Selecting a material for the end ring that balances the electrical and me-
chanical material requirements was a challenge in this application. Conven-
tional end ring construction (die-cast aluminum and fabricated ETP copper
materials) were considered (Table 4.2), but found to be insufficient in strength
for this application. Promising recent developments in the use of die-cast cop-
per alloy rotors for high efficiency were reviewed, but still lack the mechanical
strength afforded by fabrication with heat treated materials [36].
Beryllium copper (Table 4.3) was selected for adequate strength to with-
stand the heavy interference fit required to maintain radial contact at the
shaft interface during operation at the design speed. Specifically, the selected
BeCu C17510 TH04 material provided the best balance between electrical
and mechanical requirements. At this heat treat condition, the material has
electric conductivity up to 36 × 106 S/m with 668.8 MPa yield and 703.3 MPa
ultimate strength [36].

Curtiss–Wright Electromechanical Corporation, PA, U.S.A can manufac-

ture variable speed IMs up to 10 MW and 12 000 rpm [23]. The cage winding
surrounds the rotor core. All of the rotor bars are shorted together at each
end of the rotor core by full circular conducting end ring. The material of end
ring depends on the operation speed. Typically, higher strength copper al-
loys are used, provided the strength capability can be maintained through the
metal joining process. The bar–to–end ring joints are normally accomplished
by brazing. In applications where the relatively low-strength copper of the end
ring cannot sustain the hoop stress imposed at speed, or the joints cannot ac-
commodate the resulting radial displacements, a high-strength retaining ring
is added to provide the necessary support and rigidity. The retaining ring is
typically required only in higher speed applications. The retaining ring com-
prises high-strength alloy steel with good fatigue characteristics. To reduce
eddy current losses, the retaining ring should be made of nonmagnetic mate-
rial. The design of end rings is shown in Fig. 4.29 [23].
 4.8 Induction machines with solid rotors 109

4
1

Fig. 4.29. High speed cage rotor winding proposed by Curtiss–Wright Electrome-
chanical Corporation , Mount Pleasant, PA , U.S.A. 1 — rotor bar, 2 — end ring,
3 — retaining ring, 4 — laminated or solid steel rotor core [23].

4.8 Induction machines with solid rotors

Research in the area of IMs with solid ferromagnetic rotor were probably ini-
tiated in the 1920s by Russian scientists Shenfier [174] and Bruk [34]. In the
further years of the 20th Century many researchers and engineers worldwide
contributed to the theory and technology of these machines. Major contribu-
tions are listed in [50] where detailed analysis of electromagnetic field in these
type of IMs has also been presented.
Concepts of solid rotor IMs have been developed in connection with a
search for removing drawbacks of cage IMs in order to achieve:
• simplification and reduction of costs of manufacture of the rotor;
• improvement of rotor mechanical integrity at high speed;
• improvement of reliability;
• longer lifetime than wound or cage laminated rotors;
• low vibration and acoustic noise level (in the case of slotless rotor)
• reduction of the inrush starting current of IMs;
• possibility to obtain linear torque-speed characteristic of motors from no
load to unity slip due to high solid rotor impedance.
In comparison with cage rotor IMs of the same dimensions, solid rotor IMs
have lower output power, lower power factor, lower efficiency, higher no-load
slip and higher mechanical time constant. Worse performance characteristics
are due to high rotor impedance, higher harmonic eddy currents in solid fer-
romagnetic rotor body, higher reluctance of solid steel than laminated steel
and greater rotor losses due to higher harmonics of the magnetic field than
in other types of IMs. There are wide possibilities of reduction of the rotor
impedance that improves the performance characteristics through:
110 4 High speed machines

• selecting the rotor solid material with small relative magnetic permeability
–to–electric conductivity ratio and adequate mechanical integrity;
• using a layered (sandwiched) rotor with both high magnetic permeability
and high conductivity materials;
• using a solid rotor with additional cage winding.
Sensible application of the above recommendations that leads to optimization
of the design is only possible on the basis of the detailed analysis of the elec-
tromagnetic field distribution in the machine. This is why the development of
solid rotor machines depends on the advancements in the theory of electro-
magnetic field in ferromagnetic and non-homogenous structures consisting of
materials with different parameters.
Magnetization curves B–H for selected solid steels are plotted in Fig. 4.30.
The electric conductivity of solid mild (low carbon) steels is usually from
4 × 106 to 6 × 106 S/m at 200 C, i.e., 10 to 14 times less than that of copper.

1.8

1.6

1.4
magnetic flux density, T

Steel 35 (Poland)
Steel 4340
1.2
Alloy FeNiCoMoTiAl

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000 18000 20000
magnetic field intensity H, A/m

Fig. 4.30. Magnetization curves of various solid steels.

Although the principle of operation of solid rotor IMs is similar to that of

other IMs, the analysis of physical effects in solid rotors on the basis of classical
electrodynamics of nonlinear bodies is difficult. Problems arise both due to
nonlinearity of solid ferromagnetic bodies and complex structures of certain
types of these machines. The electromagnetic field in the rotor is strictly three-
dimensional (3D) even if the rotating magnetic field excited by the stator
system can be assumed as two dimensional (2D). The performance of the
machine depends on the intensity and distribution of vectors of this field, in
 4.8 Induction machines with solid rotors 111

particular, of the vector of current density and the vector of magnetic flux
density.
The objective of numerous publications on solid rotor IMs is mostly a
formulation of relationships between material parameters, i.e., electric con-
ductivities and magnetic permeabilities, and parameters of the structure, i.e.,
geometric dimensions and operating performance of a machine under given
external conditions on the basis of the electromagnetic field theory.
Recent interest in electric machines with alternating electromagnetic field
in solid ferromagnetic rotor parts is motivated by new applications of electri-
cal machines as, for example, motors for high speed direct drive compressors,
motors for pumps , motors for drills, high speed generators, electric starters
for large turbogenerators, eddy current couplings and brakes, etc. Before the
vector control era, there were attempts to use solid rotors covered with thin
copper layer for very small diameter rotors of two-phase servo motors, in
which it was very difficult to accommodate the cage winding and back iron
(yoke). Research is also stimulated by trends in improvements of other type of
electrical machines, e.g., machines with rotors made of soft magnetic powder
composites (magnetodielectrics and dielectromagnetics), shields of end con-
nections of large turbogenerators, shields for SC machines, retaining sleeve for
high speed PM machines and losses in PMs.

Fig. 4.31. Radial turbine, solid rotor coated with copper layer, cooling fan and feed
pump [208]. Photo courtsy of the University of Lappeenranta, Finland.

Fig. 4.31 shows a solid rotor of a microturbine developed at the University

of Lappeenranta, Finland, for a commercial ORC power plant utilizing the
temperature of waste heat [208]. As the relative latent heat of organic fluids
is much lower than that of the water, the same or better efficiency as with
112 4 High speed machines

(a)

(b)

Fig. 4.32. Solid rotors with explosive welded copper sleeves for: (a) 300 kW, 63
krpm IM; (b) 3.5 kW, 120 krpm IM. Photo courtesy of Sundyne Corporation, Espoo,
Finland.

g
d'

Din
d Fe

Fe
Cu

d Fe + 2d' < Din

Fig. 4.33. Solid rotor coated with copper layer for high speed induction machines
according to U.S. Patent 5473211 [14].

a two-stage steam process can be achieved with a single-stage ORC process,

e.g., by using the flue gas heat of a diesel engine. Also, the drop of the specific
enthalpy of organic fluids in the turbine is much smaller than that of steam,
which makes it possible to make the ORC process efficient at low power.
 4.8 Induction machines with solid rotors 113

Solid rotors for high speed induction motors are shown in Fig. 4.32. The
rotor construction according to U.S. Patent 5473211 is shown in Fig. 4.33 [14].
The copper layer is thicker behind the stator core than below the stator core,
so that the air gap (mechanical clearance) can be minimized.