FSM Vol. 3 Fire Protection of Buildings

Fire Service Manual
Volume 3
Fire Safety
Fire Protection of Buildings
HM Fire Service Inspectorate Publications Section

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N151713 9/03 C40
Preface
This Volume of the Fire Service Manual, Fire
Protection of Buildings, replaces the previous
Manual of Firemanship Book 9. It also contains
new sections dealing with developments in
technology over the period since the last
publication (1990).
The revision recognises the significant impact of

European directives (The Construction Products
Directive 89/106/EEC) in that the European
technical standards being introduced to support
the Essential Requirements in the directive are
included.
The objective of harmonisation of building control

throughout the Member States, means that fire
officers will increasingly be confronted with
European Standards (Euro Norms (ENs)) rather
than British Standards, and products that have
been accorded the CE approval mark in their
dealings with building proposals.
Fire Protection of Buildings iii

Contents
Section 1 - Fire extinguishing systems 1

Introduction 3
Chapter 1 - Automatic sprinklers - principles of design 5
1.1 General 5
1.2 Historical 5
1.3 Installation and design requirements 6
1.4 Risk categories 6
1.4.1 Light hazard 7
1.4.2 Ordinary hazards 7
1.4.3 High hazard 7
1.5 Classes of system 7
1.6 Design density and assumed area of maximum operation 7
1.7 Life safety systems 7
1.7.1 General 8
1.7.2 Requirements 8
Chapter 2 - Automatic sprinklers - water supplies 11

2.1 General 11
2.2 Types of water supply 11
2.2.1 Single supply 11
2.2.2 Superior supply 11
2.2.3 Duplicate supply 11
2.3 Details of particular supplies 12
2.3.1 Town mains 12
2.3.2 Suction and booster pumps 12
2.3.3 Elevated private reservoir - minimum supply capacity 13
2.3.4 Gravity tank 14
2.3.5 Pressure tanks 14
(i) Sole supply 14
(ii) Duplicate supply 14
2.4 Pressure and flow requirements 15
2.4.1 Low hazard and ordinary hazard classes 15
2.4.2 High hazard category 15
2.5 Proving of water supplies 15
2.6 Fire brigade inlets 16
Chapter 3 - Automatic sprinklers - protection systems 17

3.1 General 17
3.2 Wet pipe system 17
3.2.1 Types of wet pipe installations 17
Previous page
Fire Protection of Buildings v
is blank
3.3 Dry pipe system 19
3.3.1 Operation of the differential air valve system 20
3.3.2 Action of the accelerator 20
3.3.3 Maximum number of sprinklers 21
3.4 Alternate wet and dry system 21
3.4.1 Sprinkler heads 22
3.4.2 Valve assembly 22
3.4.3 Three-way cock 22
3.4.4 Other types of alternate systems 22
3.5 Tail-end systems (dry pipe or alternate) 23
3.6 Pre-action systems 24
3.7 Recycling systems 24
3.8 Deluge systems 24
Chapter 4 - Automatic sprinklers - controls, gauges and alarms 27

4.1 Stop valves 27
4.2 Non-return valves 27
4.3 Drain valves and test valves 28
4.4 Pipe drains 28
4.5 Pressure gauges 28
4.6 Alarm devices 29
4.6.1 Electrically-operated alarms 30
4.6.2 Transmission of alarm signals to the fire brigade 31
Chapter 5 - Automatic sprinklers - sprinkler heads 33

5.1 Fusible solder type 33
5.2 Bulb type 35
5.3 Sprinkler orifice sizes 35
5.4 Types of sprinkler head 35
5.4.1 General 35
5.4.2 Approved types 36
5.4.3 Conventional pattern 37
5.4.4 Spray pattern 37
5.4.5 Ceiling or flush pattern 38
5.4.6 Recessed and concealed pattern 38
5.4.7 Sidewall pattern 38
5.4.8 Fast-response sprinkler heads (FRS) 38
5.4.9 Design 38
(a) Fusible strut type 38
(b) Bulb type 39
5.4.10 Discharge patterns 39
5.4.11 Water droplet size 39
5.4.12 Further information 39
5.5 Life of sprinkler heads 40
5.6 Protection of sprinklers in certain risks 40
vi Fire Service Manual

Chapter 6 - Automatic sprinklers - general 41
6.1 Siting of sprinkler heads 41
6.2 Area covered by sprinklers 41
6.3 Multiple controls 42
6.4 Extent of sprinkler system 42
6.5 Firefighting in a sprinklered building 43
6.6 Re-setting of sprinkler systems 44
Chapter 7 - Protection of special risks 45

7.1 High-bay warehouse storage 45
7.1.1 General 45
7.1.2 Design recommendations 45
7.1.3 Categorisation of risks 45
7.2 Aircraft maintenance and assembly areas 47
7.2.1 Ground level sprinklers 47
7.2.2 Portable units 47
Chapter 8 - Domestic sprinkler installations 49

8.1 The system 49
8.2 Water supplies 49
8.3 Sprinkler heads 50
8.4 Sprinkler spacing and coverage 50
8.5 Alarms 50
Chapter 9 - Other installations using water 51

9.1 Drenchers 51
9.1.1 Roof drenchers 52
9.1.2 Wall or curtain drenchers 52
9.1.3 Window drenchers 52
9.1.4 Water supplies 52
9.1.5 Valves 52
9.1.6 Spacing of drencher heads 53
9.1.7 Discharge 53
9.1.8 Drainage 53
9.2 Water-spray projector systems 53
9.2.1 Extinction of oil fires by water 53
9.2.2 Cooling 53
9.2.3 Dilution of oxygen supplies 53
9.2.4 Dilution of the li quid 54
9.2.5 Types of system 54
(a) High velocity system 54
(i) Projectors 54
(ii) Methods of operation 54
(iii) Alarms 56
(iv) General 56
(b) Medium velocity systems 57
9.2.6 Water mist systems 57
Fire Protection of Buildings vii

9.3 Foam installations (Low expansion) 58
9.3.1 Foam and foam-making equipment 58
(a) Proportional-tank mechanical foam installation 58
(b) Pump-operated foam installation 59
(c) Pre-mixed foam installations 59
9.4 Foam installations (High Expansion - HX) 59
9.5 Foam inlets 60
9.6 Rising mains 61
9.6.1 Wet risers 61
9.6.2 Dry risers 62
9.6.3 Types to be used 63
9.7 Hose reels 64
9.7.1 Connections 64
9.7.2 Operation 64
9.8 Private hydrants 64
9.8.1 Connections 65
9.8.2 Hydrant markings 65
9.8.3 Outlets 65
9.8.4 By-pass valves 65
Chapter 10 - Extinguishing systems not using water 67

10.1 Carbon dioxide installations 67
10.1.1 Applications and limitations of carbon dioxide 67
10.1.2 Gas stored in cylinders 68
10.1.3 Gas stored in refrigerated tanks 69
10.1.4 General considerations 69
10.1.5 Methods of operation 70
(i) Total flooding systems 70
(ii) Local application systems 70
10.1.6 Lock-off devices 70
10.1.7 Indicating and alarm devices 70
10.1.8 Other automatic devices 70
10.1.9 General safety precautions 70
10.1.10 Action by the fire service 71
10.2 Halon installations 71
10.3 Powder installations 71
10.4 Inert gas installations 72
Section 2 - Fire warning and Detection systems 73

Introduction 75
Chapter 11 - Automatic fire detection 77
11.1 Principles of automatic fire detection 77
11.2 Types of fire alarm and detection systems 77
11.2.1 Category M systems 78
viii Fire Service Manual

11.2.2 Category L systems 78
(i) L1 systems 78
(ii) L2 systems 78
(iii) L3 systems 78
(iv) L4 systems 78
(v) L5 systems 78
11.2.3 Category P systems 78
(i) P1 systems 78
(ii) P2 systems 78
11.3 Definition of a detector 78

11.4 Classification of detectors 79
11.4.1 Analogue detector 79
11.4.2 Two state detector 79
11.4.3 Multi state detector 79
11.5 Success or failure of operation 79
11.6 Fire products 80
11.6.1 Types of products 80
11.6.2 Mass transport 80
11.6.3 Smoke 80
11.6.4 Radiation 81
11.6.5 Heat 81
11.7 Conclusion 81
Chapter 12 - Detectors which respond to smoke 83

12.1 Smoke detectors 83
12.2 Ionisation detectors 83
12.3 Optical detectors 85
12.3.1 Light-scatter type 85
12.3.2 Obscuration type 86
12.4 Combustion gas detectors 86
12.5 Multi-sensor detectors 87
12.6 Aspirating detection system 87
12.7 Linear beam detector 87
12.8 Video detector 88
12.9 Conclusion 88
Chapter 13 - Flame detectors 91

13.1 General 91
13.2 Infra-red detector 91
13.2.1 Fixed types 91
13.2.2 Scanning type 92
13.3 Ultra-violet detector 93
13.4 Conclusion 94
Chapter 14 - Heat detectors 95

14.1 General 95
14.2 Heat detectors using fusible alloys 95
14.3 Heat detectors using the principle of expansion 95
14.3.1 Expansion of a single metal strip 95
14.3.2 Expansion of a bi-metallic strip 95
Fire Protection of Buildings ix

14.3.3 Expansion of bi-metallic strip in a 'rate-of-rise' detector 96
14.3.4 Advantages and disadvantages 97
14.3.5 Typical rate-of-rise detector 97
14.3.6 Expansion of liquids 99
14.4 Linear heat detectors 99
14.4.1 General 99
14.4.2 Operating methods 100
(i) Resistivity type 100
(ii) Insulation type 100
(iii) Compressed gas type 100
14.4.3 General comment on heat detectors 100
Chapter 15 - Automatic fire detectors - radio-based systems 101

15.1 General 101
15.2 Safeguards 101
15.3 Advantages and disadvantages 101
15.4 Power supplies 102
Chapter 16 - Automatic fire detection - detector circuits 103

16.1 General 103
16.2 'Open' circuit systems 103
16.3 'Closed' circuit systems 103
16.4 Detector and alarm circuits 104
16.5 Wiring and power supplies 104
16.5.1 Wiring 104
16.5.2 Power supplies 105
Chapter 17 - Fire alarm operation and control 107

17.1 General 107
17.2 Zones 107
17.2.1 Detection zones 107
17.2.2 Alarm zones 108
17.3 Alarm signals 108
(a) Audible 108
(b) Visual 109
(c) Sensual 109
17.4 Power supplies 109
17.5 Control and indicating equipment 109
17.6 Faults 110
(a) Normal condition 111
(b) Pre-alarm level 111
17.7 Fire level 112
17.8 Silence alarms and reset 112
17.9 Fault level 112
17.10 Monitoring the system 112
17.11 Maintenance 112
17.12 Visual displays 112
x Fire Service Manual

17.13 Examples of control and indicating equipment 113
17.13.1 3-zone type detection system 113
(i) Fire condition 113
(ii) Reset 113
(iii) Fault 113
(iv) Other interfaces 114
17.13.2 Multi zone type with microprocessor 114
(i) Normal level 114
(ii) Pre-alarm level 114
(iii) Fire level 115
(iv) Fault condition 115
(v) Maintenance 115
(vi) Additional facilities 116
(vii) False alarms 116
17.14 Alarm receiving centres 116
17.14.1 General 116
17.14.2 Connections from premises (FAS) to ARCs 117
17.14.3 Connections from ARC to fire brigade controls 117
17.14.4 Methods of transmission - protected premises to ARC 117
(i) Private wire 117
(ii) Omnibus circuits 117
(iii) ARC satellites 117
(iv) Digital communications 117
17.14.5 Methods of transmission 118
(i) Private wire 118
(ii) 999 facilities 118
(iii) Ex-directory number 118
(iv) Administrative telephone number 118
Chapter 18 - Choice of detector and detector positioning 119

18.1 General 119
18.2 Smoke detectors 121
18.2.1 General 121
18.2.2 Area 121
18.2.3 Heat inversion 121
18.2.4 Air movement 121
18.2.5 Voids 121
18.2.6 Walls, beams and galleries 123
18.2.7 Corridors 123
18.2.8 Staircases, shafts, etc. 123
18.2.9 Ducts 123
18.2.10 Electronic equipment installations 123
18.3 Heat detectors 124
18.3.1 General 124
18.3.2 Positioning 124
(i) Height 124
(ii) Area 124
(iii) Sloping ceilings 124
(iv) Beams and similar construction 124
Fire Protection of Buildings xi

Chapter 19 - Manually-operated fire alarms 125
19.1 Manual systems 125
19.2 Manual/electric systems 125
19.3 Miscellaneous 126
19.4 Restricted alarms 127
19.5 Smoke alarms 127
Section 3 - Smoke control and fire venting systems 129

Introduction 131
Chapter 20 - Smoke ventilation 133
20.1 Purposes of ventilation in single storey buildings 133
20.1.1 Prevention of smoke logging 133
20.1.2 Prevention of spread of fire 133
20.1.3 Vent construction 134
20.1.4 Vent operation 134
(a) Heat detectors 134
(b) Smoke detectors 134
20.1.5 Vent position 134
20.1.6 Area of venting 135
20.1.7 Air inlets 135
20.2 Other factors 135
20.2.1 Screens 135
(a) Screen construction 137
(b) Screen effect 137
20.2.2 Smoke and fire curtains 137
(a) Smoke curtains 137
(b) Fire curtains 137
20.2.3 Sprinklers 137
20.2.4 Additional controls 138
Chapter 21 - Smoke and heat exhaust ventilation systems (SHEVS) 139

21.1 Purposes of venting in complex buildings 139
21.2 Types of smoke and heat exhaust ventilation systems 139
21.2.1 Replacement air inlets 139
21.2.2 Performance of system 139
21.2.3 Use of smoke and heat exhaust ventilation systems 139
21.2.4 Design of the system 140
21.2.5 System capacity 140
21.2.6 Operation of smoke and heat exhaust ventilation systems 140
21.2.7 Conclusion 140
Chapter 22 - Application of smoke and heat control systems 141

22.1 Smoke control in Shopping Complexes 141
22.1.1 General 141
22.1.2 Basic principles of control 141
22.1.3 Control of smoke 141
22.1.4 Function and design of the reservoir 142
xii Fire Service Manual

22.1.5 Effects on people 143
22.1.6 Removal of hot smoke and gases 143
(a) Rate of exhaust 143
(b) Wind effects 144
22.1.7 Sprinklers 144
22.1.8 Automatic fire detectors 144
22.2 Atria 145
22.2.1 Smoke control systems 145
22.2.2 Design of systems 145
(i) Smoke systems 145
(ii) Pressure differential systems 145
(iii) Choice of system 145
Chapter 23 - Ventilation in multi-storey buildings 147

23.1 General 147
23.1.1 Ductwork in buildings 147
23.1.2 Systems used 147
23.1.3 Air conditioning systems 147
23.1.4 Plant rooms 147
23.1.5 Components of systems 148
(a) Dry filters 148
(b) Viscous filters 148
(c) Electrostatic filters 148
23.1.6 The ducting 148
(a) Ducting design 148
(b) Shunt ducts 148
(c) Duct construction 148
23.1.7 Fire spread in ducting 149
(a) Insulating material 149
(b) Flexible joints and connections 151
(i) Flexible joints 151
(ii) Flexible connections 151
23.1.8 Exterior risks 151
23.1.9 Air intakes 152
23.1.10 Fire dampers 153
(a) Mechanical 153
(b) Intumescent 155
(c) Inspection and maintenance 156
(d) Multiple controls 157
23.1.11 Fire stopping of shafts (encased ducting) 157
23.1.12 Re-circulation systems 158
23.1.13 Firefighting control 158
Fire Protection of Buildings xiii

Chapter 24 - Pressuration 15 9
24.1 General 159
24.1.1 Smoke movement 159
24.1.2 Air movement 159
24.1.3 Pressurisation 159
24.1.4 Requirements of a pressurisation system 160
(a) Pressure required 160
(b) Leakage paths 160
(i) Initial leakage path 160
(ii) Final leakage path 160
24.1.5 Firefighting 160
24.1.6 Advice and further information 161
Acknowledgements 163
xiv Fire Service Manual

Section 1 - Fire extinguishing systems
Fire Protection of Buildings 1

Introduction
Fixed systems of pipework using only water as the Drenchers, which can be automatically or manual-
extinguishing medium have proved efficient in the ly operated, are normally fitted outside a building
protection of buildings, and many other classes of in order to protect it from a fire in nearby proper-
risk, against extensive damage resulting from out- ty. The use of a drencher on the fire curtain in the-
breaks of fire. Such systems can be divided into atres is an example where the fire resistance of a
three main classes - automatic sprinklers, relatively flimsy material can be enhanced to good
drenchers and water spray projector systems. effect.
Automatic sprinklers were originally used only to Water spray projector systems are automatic and
protect property and many such installations can specially designed for extinguishing fires involv-
be found today. However, increasingly the value of ing oils, flammable liquids or other special risks.
sprinklers as a means of life protection has been
recognised. The installation of suitably designed Automatic sprinklers are dealt with in Chapters
sprinkler systems have allowed designers and 1-6, other installations using water in Chapter 8.
architects greater scope in creating buildings that Chapter 10 describes installations not using water
would otherwise not meet basic life safety fire e.g. CO2 and powder. These are designed for the
standards. protection of risks for which water is unsuitable as
an extinguishing medium. New systems using
Sprinklers are generally installed within a building halon or other ozone depleting vaporising liquids
structure and are usually operated by heat when a have been banned by virtue of the Montreal
fire occurs. However, in some circumstances Agreement signed up to by the United Kingdom.
sprinklers can be found outside of buildings where Except in very special circumstances, existing sys-
it is considered that a fire in certain parts, such as tems using halon are being replaced with more
water disposal units, may put the building at risk. environmentally friendly systems.
A simple form of sprinkler technology has been Special systems are sometimes designed for a spe-
developed for use in domestic premises. Whilst the cific risk and are, usually, highly sophisticated and
take up of sprinkler protection in housing is slow, two examples are described in Chapter 7.
a sprinkler system can substantially improve the
chances of occupants surviving a fire in their home It is important to ensure that effective consultation
whilst drastically reducing fire loss. takes place with the Local Authority, Water
Authorities, Insurance bodies etc. (see BS 5306
Part 2 Clause 3.1)
Previous page
is blank
Fire Protection of Buildings Chapter
1
Chapter 1 - Automatic sprinklers -
principles of design
1.1 General mined limit causes the sprinkler to open and water
to be discharged in the form of a spray over an area
Since a most important principle of successful fire of the floor below. The sprinklers are so spaced
extinction is to attack an outbreak immediately, it that the extremities of the discharge pattern from
follows that any device which can detect a fire any two sprinklers overlap, leaving no part of the
automatically and then control or extinguish it floor unprotected.
with the minimum loss, must be of great value.
Automatic sprinkler systems using water as the The operation of the sprinkler leads to the opening
extinguishing medium have been universally of a valve, which causes an alarm bell to ring. The
adopted as one means of achieving this purpose. layout of a typical sprinkler system is shown in
Figure 1.1.
Basically an automatic sprinkler installation com-
prises of a system of pipes erected at, or near, the 1.2 Historical
ceiling on each floor of a building and connected,
through controlling valves, to one or more water The first automatic sprinklers were invented in the
supplies. At intervals on the pipework are sealed mid-19th century. Various types were produced,
outlets called sprinkler heads. These incorporate a one of the most successful by Grinnell in 1882.
device whereby a rise in temperature to a predeter- This incorporated a fusible soldered link, which
Figure 1.1 Layout of a

typical sprinkler system. 1 Sprinkler heads
2 Hydraulic gong
3 Alarm gong drain
4 Waste and test valve
5 Pressure switch
6 Alarm valve
7 Main installation stop valve
8 Towns main stop valve
9 Towns main
10 Pressure tank
Previous page Fire Protection of Buildings 5

is blank
melted when heated and released water through (ii) LPC rules for Automatic Sprinkler
the sprinkler head. From this design many modern Installations.
solder-type heads have been developed.
These two documents are now synonymous and
Shortly after the First World War, two major devel- any amendment to one is reflected in the other.
opments took place: the introduction of the glass Further reference in this Manual will be to 'the
bulb sprinkler head and the multiple control sys- BS/LPC Rules'.
tem. These are described in Chapters 5 and 6
respectively. The BS/LCP Rules detail standards for sprinkler
systems designed for life safety. Sprinkler systems
A more recent innovation is the fast response fall into various hazard groups according to the use
sprinkler head. Here, the heat sensitive device is of the building. Each class of system is designed to
much more responsive to heat and will cause the produce a certain density of water discharge over a
sprinkler to operate much earlier than with the predetermined area for a given period of time
standard sprinkler head. Such systems can fulfil depending on the expected area of fire develop-
the function of both automatic fire detection and ment in that particular occupancy (see Section 6).
alarm and fire suppression.
Sprinkler installations are used to protect a very
1.3 Installation and design wide range of premises and there are very few
requirements buildings which are totally unsuitable for sprin-
klers. Where parts of a building contain materials
In England and Wales the Approved Document B or processes for which water would be unsuitable
states that retail buildings over 2000m2 should be as an extinguishing medium, these areas can be
sprinklered, compartmented or designed using isolated by fire resisting construction and the
another acceptable method. Technical Standards in remainder protected by sprinklers.
Scotland differ from those in England and Wales.
Fire authorities can require maintenance and test- The terms (a) 'high rise' and (b) 'low rise' systems
ing of sprinkler installations where the system is are used to describe systems where:
taken into account when granting a fire certificate
under the Fire Precautions Act, 1971. (a) The highest sprinkler is more than 45m
above the lowest sprinkler or the sprinkler
Where sprinkler systems are installed as a require- pumps, whichever is the lowest and;
ment/recommendation by the fire service, then the (b) The highest sprinkler is not more than 45m
requirement/recommendation must satisfy that the above ground level or the sprinkler pump.
system to be installed is fit for purpose, that is, that
a correctly designed system is installed taking 1.4 Risk categories
account of the hazard.
The BS/LPC Rules arranges occupancies into risk
Insurance companies encourage the installation of categories each having an accepted abbreviation.
sprinkler systems, specifically where arson is con- These are shown in Table 1.1.
sidered within a fire risk analysis. Buildings fitted Table 1.1 BS/LPC risk categories
with sprinkler systems to an approved standard
sometimes qualify for substantial reductions in Category Abbreviations
premiums for property so protected. They, through Light Hazard LH
the Loss Prevention Council (LPC), lay down the
Ordinary Hazard: Group I OH1
minimum standards necessary.
Ordinary Hazard: Group II OH2
Sprinkler systems are designed in accordance Ordinary Hazard: Group III OH3
with:
Ordinary Hazard: Group IIIS (Special) OH3(S)
(i) British Standard 5306: Part 2 (1990). High Hazard HH
6 Fire Service Manual

1.4.1 Light hazard 1.5 Classes of system
These are non-industrial type premises of not more Three classes of sprinkler system have been devel-
than 126m2 between construction of not less than oped to suit the above risk categories:
half-hour fire-resistance, e.g. offices, libraries,
hospitals where the amount and combustibility of (i) Light Hazard system
the contents is low. (ii) Ordinary Hazard system
(iii) High Hazard system.
1.4.2 Ordinary hazards: Group I, II, III
and IIIS Pipework for two or more different types of hazard
system may be connected to a common set of con-
Ordinary hazards are commercial and industrial trol valves, provided the total number of sprinklers
premises involving the handling, processing and does not exceed the permitted maximum. Each of
storage of a very wide range of mainly combustible these systems is designed to give the appropriate
materials, which are unlikely to burn intensely in density of discharge over an assumed area of max-
the early stages of a fire. It has been found necessary imum operation (AMAO) in the highest and most
to sub-divide them into four groups as below: hydraulically remote parts of a protected building.
Group Examples 1.6 Design density and assumed

area of maximum operation
Group I Breweries, dairies and restaurants
Group II Engineering works, garages, medium The amount of water required to control or extin-
size retail shops guish a fire is called the minimum design density
and will depend, among other criteria, on the type
Group III Soap factories, sugar refineries, air- of hazard involved. Minimum design density is
craft factories pre-set according to the recommendations of the
BS/LPC Rules and is specified for each hazard
Group IIIS Film and television studios, cotton class.
mills, match factories.
The standard requires that the minimum design
1.4.3 High Hazard density of discharge of water in mm/min from a
particular group of sprinklers be not less than a
This category covers commercial and industrial given value (see Table 1.2). This group of sprink-
occupancies having abnormal fire loads: lers - usually numbering four or more - is that
which is most hydraulically remote from the water
(i) Where materials handled or processed are supply and constitutes part of a 'larger group' of
mainly of an extra hazardous nature likely to sprinklers discharging simultaneously.
develop rapid and intensely-burning fires.
(ii) Those involving high-piled storage. The 'larger group' forms the 'area of assumed
maximum operation' (AMAO). This is the maxi-
According to the hazardous nature of the stock and mum area over which it is assumed, for design pur-
the height of the storage, those included in (ii) poses, sprinklers will operate in a fire. The
above are sub-divided into four categories: hydraulically most removed AMAO is used to cal-
culate design density.
Category I Process high hazards
Category II High-piled storage hazards 1.7 Life safety systems
Category III Potable spirit storage hazards
Category IV Oil and flammable liquids hazards The use of sprinkler installations in the saving of
lives by preventing the development of fire is well
The term 'storage' includes the warehousing or understood. Today, sprinkler systems have played
temporary depositing of goods or materials. an increasing role in life safety fire precautions.

Table 1.2 Minimum design density and AMAO for light, ordinary and High Hazard (process) roof or
ceiling sprinklers
Hazard Minimum design density AMAO
Light mm/min m2
2.25 84
Ordinary
Group I 5 72
Group II 5 144
Group III 5 216
Group IIIS (Special) 5 360
High (process)
Type 1 7.5 260
Type 2 10.0 260
Type 3 12.5 260
Type 4 10.0 complete deluge
protection for each
building
Classification of fire hazards in the current 1.7.2 Requirements

BS/LPC rules considers systems which, addition-
ally, serve for the protection of life, where they are The 'Life Safety' requirements may include the
designed to restrict fire spread to predetermined following:
limits.
(i) The system should be of a wet type.
Buildings employing fire safety engineering prin- (ii) The system should be zoned, each zone
ciples, as defined in BS 7529, often rely on sprin- being controlled by a separate stop valve and
klers as part of a package of measures to create having a maximum of 200 heads.
safe egress from large or complex structures when (iii) A zone may require the installation control
fire occurs. valve-set to be duplicated so that one set of
valves can be serviced whilst the system is
operational.
1.7.1 General (iv) No zone shall extend to an area of the build-
ing under separate ownership.
Life safety systems are basic sprinkler systems (v) No zone shall extend to more than one floor
enhanced to give a higher standard of reliability level but a zone may include a mezzanine
and continuity of service. To ensure the system is floor of not more 100m2.
'live' during servicing, two main valves are nor- (vi) Stop valves shall be accessible at the floor
mally provided, one either side of the alarm valve. level of the zone they control.
This allows the alarm valve to be serviced whilst (vii) Only one zone of a multi-zone installation
maintaining the system through a by-pass valve. shall be shut down at any one time. The fire
This valve maintains water pressure to the system authority is to be advised of the intention and
via a by-pass connection. should have to approve.
8 Fire Safety Manual

(viii) All stop valves and tamper-proof electrical
switches indicating that the valves are in the
correct operating mode shall monitor alarm
valves.
(ix) All practical steps shall be taken to ensure
continuity and reliability of water supplies.
(x) Means shall be provided to initiate visual
and audible warnings to an area with respon-
sible manning when the pressure in the
sprinkler trunk falls to the point at which the
pump should start. These warnings shall
'latch in' and only be capable of manual can-
cellation.
(xi) On indicator panels, audible alarms may be
silenced after the system has operated, but
the visual alarm signal shall remain until the
installation has been reset to its normal oper-
ational position.
In theatres and similar buildings, where a fire

break curtain is protected by open drenchers or
sprinklers operated by a quick opening valve, the
water supply to these should not be taken from that
supplying the automatic sprinkler installation.

2
Chapter 2 - Automatic sprinklers - water
supplies
2.1 General (iii) An automatic suction pump drawing water
either from a suction tank complying with
Automatic sprinkler systems must be provided with BS/LPC Rules or a virtually inexhaustible
a suitable and acceptable water supply. It must have source, i.e. river, lake, canal.
a pressure and flow characteristic not less than that
specified in the BS/LPC Rules. It must be automat- 2.2.2 Superior supply
ic, thoroughly reliable and not subject to either frost
or drought conditions that could seriously affect the These will vary according to whether the system is
supply. The supply should be under the control of a 'low' or 'high' rise and will depend on the occu-
the occupier of the building containing the installa- pancy hazard rating.
tion or, where this is not practicable, the right of use
of the supply must be suitably guaranteed. For low rise systems - a superior supply shall be:
Close consultation must take place with Water UK (i) A town main; or
and/or the local suppliers, specifically to identify (ii) Two automatic suction pumps from a suction
what supplies are available which will impact on tank; or
the system design. (iii) Two automatic booster pumps; or
(iv) An elevated private reservoir; or
The water must be free from any matter in suspen- (v) A gravity tank; or
sion, which would be liable to cause accumulation (vi) A pressure tank (for low hazard or ordinary
in the system pipework. The use of salt or brackish hazards Group I occupancies only).
water is not normally allowed. In special circum-
stances, where there is no suitable fresh water For high rise systems - a superior supply shall be:
source available, consideration may be given to
the use of salt or brackish water provided that the (i) A gravity tank; or
installation is normally charged with fresh water. (ii) An automatic suction pump arrangement in
which each installation is served by either a
2.2 Types of water supply separate pump or separate stage of a multi-
stage pump.
Water supplies are graded into three categories:
single, superior and duplicate. 2.2.3 Duplicate supply
2.2.1 Single supply A duplicate supply shall include at least one of the
suitable combinations given in Table 2.1 with the
A single supply must be: supply pipes from each source joined into a com-
mon trunk main as close as possible to the protect-
(i) A town main capable of supplying the neces- ed premises.
sary pressure and flow requirements.
(ii) An automatic booster pump drawing water A common trunk main may serve more than one
from the town main capable of supplying the installation but shall not:
necessary pressure and flow requirements.

is blank
(i) Traverse ground not under the control of the If it is not possible to provide duplicate connec-
user; or tions, special consideration may be given to the
(ii) Be under a public roadway. waiving of the requirement if there is a stop valve
(secured open) on the town main immediately on
2.3 Details of particular supplies each side of a single branch connection.
2.3.1 Town mains In the event of a fracture or partial breakdown of

the main, operation of the stop valves ensures that
The mains water supply must be fed from both the supply is maintained by that part of the main,
ends by mains, each of which must be capable of which is still functioning.
sustaining the required pressure and flow. The
main at each end must not directly be dependent 2.3.2 Suction and booster pumps
on a common trunk main in the town main system,
and this must be fed from more than one source. If a water supply is available with no head or only
under limited pressure, a pump may be used to
The main must be capable of furnishing, at all times feed water into the installation at the required pres-
of the day and night, the minimum pressure and flow sure. In such cases, it is stipulated that the pumps
requirements for the appropriate category of risk. providing a superior supply shall draw water from
either a suction tank with full holding capacity
Duplicated connections from the main must be equal to that required for the particular hazard
carried separately to the premises, which contain class, or a secondary suction tank of smaller capac-
the sprinkler installation, and there should be a ity with automatic inflow, provided it meets with
stop valve on the main between the two branches. BS/LPC requirements.
Table 2.1 Combinations suitable for duplicate supplies

Town main Booster Suction Elevated Private Pressure
with or pump from pump gravity tank reservoir tank
without elevated
booster private
pump reservoir
Suitable Suitable
Pressure Light Light Light only with a Light only with a
tank ordinary ordinary ordinary third supply ordinary third supply
given as given as
suitable suitable
Elevated Light Light Light Light
private Not suitable ordinary ordinary ordinary ordinary
reservoir high high high high
Light Light Light
Gravity tank Not suitable ordinary ordinary ordinary
high high high+
Not usually Light Light
Suction permitted ordinary ordinary
pump high high*
Booster Not usually Light
pump from permitted ordinary
elevated high
private
reservoir
Town main Light
with or ordinary
without high
booster
pump
* A single virtually unlimited source such as a lake, river or canal may be used for light hazard only
+ A divided tank may be used

The most important provisions relating to auto- (v) Where permitted by the water authority, a
matic pumps are as follow: pump may draw directly from a town main,
provided the latter is capable of supplying
(i) With an automatic pump supply consisting water at all times at the maximum rated out-
of two automatic pumps, a compression igni- put of the pump.
tion (diesel) engine may drive at least one
with each pump capable of providing the (vi) The pump should be fully operational within
necessary pressure and flow. Where both 30 seconds after starting.
pumps are electrically driven, they must
either be powered from a supply independent (vii) The pump should have a direct drive and
of the other or automatically change over to must start automatically. Means should be
an alternative supply should the first supply provided for manual starting and once start-
fail. With three automatic pumps, which may ed the pump must run continuously until
be a combination of electric and diesel, any stopped manually.
two pumps together must be capable of pro-
viding the necessary pressure and flow inde- (viii) Where an automatic pump forms the sole
pendently. In both arrangements they must supply, a fall in water pressure in the sprin-
be capable of operating in parallel, i.e. with kler system, which is intended to initiate the
similar pressure and flow characteristics. automatic starting of the pump, shall at the
same time provide a visual and audible alarm
(ii) Pumps should be housed at ground level, at some suitable installation, e.g. in the gate-
either in a separate incombustible building or house or by the installation control valves.
in a room in the same building protected by
a 2-hour fire resisting-structure. The room (ix) A test for automatic starting of the pump
should be directly accessible from the out- must be carried out weekly.
side and should be as small as practicable, to
discourage it being used for other purposes. (x) Pumps must be driven either by an electrical
The building or room containing the pumps motor or an approved compression ignition
should be maintained at a temperature not type of engine. The electric supply must be
below 4°C. obtained from a reliable source, preferably
from a public supply. Where a compression
In the case of diesel pump rooms, the room engine is used, provision must be made for
should be well ventilated, sprinklered and two separate methods of engine starting, i.e.
maintained at a minimum temperature of 10°C. automatic or manual control, although a sin-
gle starter motor is acceptable.
(i i i) Automatic priming equipment must be provid-
ed where necessary to ensure that the pumps (xi) Any switches to the electric power feed to
will be fully primed with water at all times. motors must be clearly labelled: 'Sprinkler
pump motor supply - not to be switched off
(iv) The performance characteristics of the in the event of fire'.
pumps should be such that the pressure falls
progressively with the rate of demand. They 2.3.3 Elevated private reservoir -
must be capable of providing the rate of flow minimum supply capacity
and pressure required at the highest and most
remote parts of the protected premises. The This is defined as similar to a ground reservoir but
output must be so controlled that there is not situated at a higher level than the premises to be
an excessive rate of discharge at the lowest protected. Certain conditions regarding capacity
level in areas close to the installation valves. must be complied with before this type of reservoir
To meet these conditions pumps must have can be used as a source of supply to a sprinkler
performance characteristics complying with installation. The minimum capacity ranges from
the requirements laid down. 9m3-875m3 depending on the class of system

installed; this is on the understanding that the stored (iv) The tank must be fitted with a depth indica-
water is used entirely for the sprinkler system. tor, a permanent ladder or stairway to permit
access and the water must be kept clean and
Where such reservoirs serve other than sprinkler free from sediment.
installations, e.g. water for trade and domestic pur-
poses, there must be a constant capacity of at least: 2.3.5 Pressure tanks
 500m3 in light hazard categories A pressure tank is a cylindrical steel vessel with
 1,000m3 in ordinary hazard categories convex ends containing water under pressure.
 1,000m3 plus additional storage capacity of
between 225-1,095m2 in High Hazard cate- The pressure tank is an acceptable superior water
gories, depending whether the sprinkler sys- supply for not more than one sprinkler system of
tem is wet or alternate. Low Hazard or Ordinary Hazard Group I cate-
gories only, provided that:
In certain cases smaller capacities may be accept-
ed but only with the express approval of the LPC. (a) the water capacity is not less than:
2.3.4 Gravity tank  Sole supply:

(a) 7m3 for Low Hazard
A gravity tank is defined as a purpose built con- (b) 23m3 for Ordinary Hazard Group I
tainer. It is erected on the site of the protected  Duplicate supply:
premises at such a height as to provide the requi- (a) 7m3 for Low Hazard
site pressure and flow condition at the installation (b) 15m3 for Ordinary Hazard Group I
valves. The tank must be adequately protected
against freezing and, where it is not enclosed with- (2) there is an approved arrangement for main-
in a tower, the top must be covered so as to exclude taining automatically the required air pres-
daylight and solid matter. sure and water level into the tank under
non-fire conditions.
The main provisions are:
The general requirements for a pressure tank are:
(i) The tank must have a minimum capacity of
9m3 for the light hazard class rising to (i) It must be housed in a readily acceptable
1,095m3 for the High Hazard. Should the position in a sprinkler protected building of
capacity of the tank exceed these require- incombustible construction used for no other
ments, it is permissible to draw upon the sur- purpose. The tank must be adequately pro-
plus for other purposes by means of a tected against mechanical damage. The tem-
side-outlet pipe, which must be positioned perature of the room should be maintained
above the level of the quantity to be reserved above 40°C.
for the sprinkler installation.
(ii) When used as a single water supply, the tank
(ii) The quantity of the water required for the must be provided with an approved arrange-
sprinkler installation must be automatically ment for maintaining automatically the
maintained. If the tank forms part of the sole required air pressure and water level in the
supply to the system, the supply to the tank tank under non-fire conditions. The arrange-
must be capable of refilling it to the required ment should include an approved warning
capacity within six hours. system to indicate failure of the devices to
restore the correct pressure and water level.
(iii) The use of one tank to supply installations in This arrangement is also advocated in cases
two or more buildings under separate owner- where the tank provides the duplicate
ship is not allowed. supply.

(iii) The tank must be fitted with air pressure 2.4.1 Low hazard and ordinary hazard
gauges and a gauge glass to show the level of classes
the water. Stop valves and back pressure
valves must be provided on both the water For low hazard and ordinary hazard classes, the
and air supply connections to the tank and required pressure at the installation control valve is
they must be fitted as close to the tank as made up of:
possible (Figure 2.1).
(i) A nominal pressure figure for a given rate of
(iv) Where a pressure tank forms the sole supply flow (see Table 2.2 on next page); plus
to the installation, connections are not
allowed to be taken from the supply for any (ii) A calculated pressure figure (based on the
purpose other than sprinklers. If it forms one difference in height between the highest
source of duplicate supply, a pipe not exceed- sprinkler and the valve).
ing 50mm may be taken from the combined
water supply main to supply hydraulic hose 2.4.2 High Hazard Category
reels for firefighting purposes only, subject to
the pressure being replenished automatically In the first case of High Hazard Category, specific
as in (ii) above. tables of figures are laid down by the BS/LPC
Rules. The point of these tables is to ensure that
The maximum standing air pressure for pressure the water supply is capable of providing the
tanks is 10 bar. The air capacity should not be less required flow and pressure at the level of the high-
than one third of the capacity of the tank when est sprinkler in the High Hazard Category portion
full. of the premises. The supply must meet the neces-
sary density of discharge and AAMO specified for
2.4 Pressure and flow that particular class of occupancy.
requirements
2.5 Proving of water supplies
The BS/LPC Rules lay down the minimum
requirements for pressure and flow in any particu- In the case of town mains, elevated private reser-
lar sprinkler system. These will vary with the risk voirs and gravity tanks, facilities must be provided
category. to enable proving tests to be carried out at the
Figure 2.1 Pressure tank

and town main with back
To sprinkler installation
pressure valves.
Pressure
tank
Alarm valve Water

level
Stop valve gauge
Back
pressure
valve
From town main or

other pressure source Back pressure valve

Table 2.2
Risk Category Rate of Flow Nominal Pressure
(L/min) (running pressure + static pressure) (Bar)
Light Hazard 225 2.2
Ordinary Hazard Group I 375 1.0
540 0.7
Ordinary Hazard Group II 725 1.4
1,000 1.0
Ordinary Hazard Group III 1,100 1.7
1,350 1.4
Ordinary Hazard Group IIIS 1,800 2.0
2,100 1.5
valves on each installation to verify that the water

supply satisfies the requirements of pressure and
flow specified for each hazard class. Water sup-
plies from automatic pumps and pressure tanks are
designed to meet the pressure and flow conditions
appropriate to the hazard class and accordingly it
is not necessary to require practical flow tests in
these instances.
2.6 Fire brigade inlets

Sprinkler installations fed solely from water sup-
plies of limited capacity such as a pressure tank,
gravity tank or pump suction tank should, if possi-
ble and with the water authority's permission, be
fitted with a fire brigade inlet connection. This is
to enable the brigades to pump water into the
installation by using their own equipment. The fit-
ting of such inlets to other installations is a strong
recommendation to ensure protection under practi-
cally all circumstances.

3
protection systems
3.1 General (b)a flow is permitted to the water flow
alarm to indicate the system has activat-
According to the BS/LPC Rules a sprinkler instal- ed.
lation should be based on one of the following (v) A test and drain valve, used for testing the
main types: water flow of the installation and to empty
the system when necessary. The size of this
 Wet pipe system valve is 40mm in low hazard installations
 Dry pipe and 50mm in both ordinary hazard and high
 Alternate (wet and dry pipe) hazard installations.
 Life safety
 Pre-action 3.2.1 Types of wet pi pe installations
 Recycling
 Deluge In Figure 3.1, a typical wet pipe installation is
shown and it can be seen that there are two sources
Systems based on the first two types above may of supply, one from the town main (1) and the
also include extensions of an additional type as: other from a secondary source supply (2). Both are
fitted with stop valves and non-return valves to
 Tail-end alternate ensure that water from either supply will not flow
 Tail-end dry type into the other. These supplies unite in the main
supply pipe (3), which is fitted with a main stop
3.2 Wet pipe system valve (4).
In this type of system, all the pipes that lead from Above the main stop valve is an alarm valve (5)
the water supplies through the various controlling from which a pipe is led off to the alarm motor and
valves to the sprinkler heads throughout the build- gong (6). When the alarm valve functions some
ing are kept permanently filled with water. Wet pipe water passes through the annular groove in the
systems are installed in premises where there is no alarm valve seating to the water turbine causing it
danger, at any time, of the water in the pipes freez- to rotate and the clapper to strike the gong.
ing. The principle controls of such a system are:
Adjacent to the alarm valve there is a test and
(i) A stop valve on each separate source of sup- drainpipe (7) and the discharge from the pipe is
ply. controlled by a test and drain valve (8).
(ii) A non-return valve on each source of supply,
(iii) An installation main stop valve to cut off the There are three gauges:
flow of water to the system after a head has
opened and the fire has been extinguished, (i) Gauge (9) showing the pressure in the instal-
(iv) The alarm valve has two junctions, lation above the main stop and alarm valves.
(a) on actuation of a sprinkler head it allows (ii) Gauge (10) showing the pressure of the sup-
the valve to open, due to a drop in pres- ply below the main stop valves.
sure, and lets water flow into the system (iii) Gauge (11), which shows pressure in the
from the main supply, and town main.

Figure 3.1 A wet pipe
system showing the main
Alarm motor and gong (6) valve and gauges.
Pressure gauge
(installation) (9)
Pressure gauge
(town main) (11)
Alarm valve (5) Test and

drain valve
Pressure gauge (8)
(supply) (10)
Main stop valve (4)
Alarm
stop
valve
Test and drain

pipe (7)
Main
supply -
pipe (3)
Secondary Town main

water supply Non-return valves (1)
(2)
Stop valve Stop valve
A gauge indicating the pressure of the secondary sup- Wet pipe systems are designed so that the number
ply is not considered necessary unless the secondary of sprinklers controlled by one set of valves
supply is a town main. Secondary supplies in the (including tail-end extensions) does not exceed
form of pumps require pressure gauges to be fitted. 500 in the low hazard systems or 1,000 in ordinary
hazard or high hazard systems; this latter figure is
Another type of wet pipe system coming into use inclusive of any sprinkler on any low hazard sys-
incorporates a 'butterfly' clack valve. Figure 3.2( 1) tems. In a life safety installation the number
illustrates the general layout and the configuration of sprinklers is reduced to 200 per zone (see
of the valve. Figure 3.2(2) shows the method of Chapter 1, Section 1.6.) In calculating the total
compensating for a fluctuation in mains pressure number of sprinklers in wet pipe systems, any in
without allowing the turbine alarm to operate. concealed places or in machines may be ignored.
Figure 3.2(3) demonstrates the position of the Where more heads than this are installed, two or
clack valve fully open when a sprinkler operates. more sets of installation valves should be used.
Figure 3.3 shows a valve-group in position. Each set of valves must be numbered clearly and

Figure 3.2 Butterfly'
wet pipe installation. How the BW valve works
(1) Illustrates general
layout.
(2) Compensating for a
fluctuation in pressure.
(3) Valve fully open
when sprinkler head is
open.
WET WET
ALARM ALARM
SYSTEM SYSTEM
Town main and installation . Slight increase in town main

pressure in balance pressure. (Alarm port sealed/
clack valve in compensating
position)
KEY
1 Butterfly valve body
2 Clack valve
3 Alarm portway
4 Alarm portway seal
5 Pressure switch (Alarm)
6 Hydraulic alarm isolating valve
7 Installation stop valve
8 Water pressure gauge
9 Installation pressure gauge
10 Water proving test valve
WET 11 Proving pipe flow gauge
ALARM
SYSTEM 12 Weekly test valve
Sprinkler operation. Clack valve

open and alarms operating
the appropriate alarm gong must bear the same 70°C. The pipes are, at all times, kept charged with
number. In wet pipe installations, the heads may be air under sufficient pressure to hold back the water
installed in either the upright (above the range supply. Only upright or dry pendant sprinklers are
pipes) or pendant position (fitted to the underside fitted in this type of system,
of the range pipes).
Controlling valves of a dry pipe system are, usual-
3.3 Dry pipe System ly a main stop valve and a differential air valve,
which is the substitute for the alarm valve in a wet
Dry pipe installations are installed where the tern- system. A hydraulic alarm motor and gong, test
perature conditions are artificially maintained and drain valves, alarm cock and pressure gauges
close to, or below freezing point - e.g. cold stores, are also part of the valve system,
or where the temperature is maintained above

water seal. In theory, the air pressure acting on the
upper valve is capable of holding back a water
pressure eight times as great, but in practice it is a
little less. The area between the two sections of the
valve is subject to atmospheric pressure.
When a sprinkler head opens, the compressed air

escapes reducing the pressure on the upper valve,
allowing the lower valve to open and water to
enter the system and emerge at the open sprinkler
head. There is some delay before the water reach-
es the sprinkler head because of the time required
to release sufficient air from the system to allow
the valve to open and water to enter and travel up
the pipe to the open sprinkler head.
A device, known as an accelerator, is therefore

normally fitted or a special type of valve is incor-
porated. The function of both is to speed up the
entry of water into the system. It is undesirable to
Figure 3.3 An example of a Butterfly sprinkler valve group. maintain a greater air pressure in the system than
(Photo: Wormald) is necessary, and approximately one-third to one-
half of the maximum water pressure is the normal
3.3.1 Operation of the differential air figure. Provision is made for replacing any slight
valve system leakage that takes place.
A differential air valve system (Figure 3.4) con- 3.3.2 Action of the accelerator
sists of two valves, one large and one small. The
upper valve is eight times as large as the lower The action of the accelerator varies with each
valve and is held in position by air pressure and a make of differential valve. One type fitted to a
Figure 3.4 The

differential valve of a
dry pipe system. (I) In
the closed position.
(2) In the open position.
Air Upper valve
Lower valve Water seal

Mather and Platt alternate system is shown When an accelerator is fitted, the time taken for the
in Figure 3.5. water to reach the tire is reduced from about 2.5
minutes to about 20 seconds. But it will still take a
The accelerator consists of two vessels normally little time for the water to reach the actuated sprin-
filled with air at the same pressure as that of the kler head.
installation. The lower vessel (Figure 3.5(1)) is
connected directly to the installation through the 3.3.3 Maximum number of sprinklers
pipe (2), but the upper vessel (3) has no direct
communication with the installation except The maximum number of sprinklers controlled by
through the pinhole (4). one set of valves on a dry pipe system is shown in
Table 3.1.
When a sprinkler head operates, pressure in the
upper vessel and the interconnecting air chamber 3.4 Alternate wet and dry system
(5) falls less rapidly than the lower vessel. Soon,
therefore, the pressure exerted on each side of This system is usually installed in premises that
the diaphragm (6) becomes unequal and the are without adequate artificial heating and where
diaphragm moves away from the air chamber. water in a wet system would be liable to freeze
In doing so, it pushes the plunger (7) which in during cold weather. The system usually operates
turn knocks over the bob-weight (8) that opens on a wet principle in the summer months and dry
the valve (9), thus allowing air to pass principle in the winter. When functioning on the
through the lower vessel, through the pipe (2) wet system, the dry valve is either changed over or
to the pipe (10), as shown by the arrows in placed out of commission and the system functions
Figure 3.5. as a wet system.
The pipe (10) leads into the atmospheric chamber Changing the system from one method of opera-
between the upper and lower valves in the differ- tion to the other can be effected quickly. A wet sys-
ential air valve and the pressure of the air entering tem is to be preferred since statistics show that
the chamber quickly neutralizes the pressure hold- when fires occur, a greater number of heads open
ing the upper valve down, thus speeding up the when the system is on air, due to the delay in water
opening process. reaching the first sprinkler head affected.
Figure 3.5 Diagram

showing the principles
underlaying the
operation of an
accelerator.
Upper
vessel
(3)
Pipe
(2)
Pinhole Plunger Diaphragm

(4) (7) (6)
Bob
weight
(8)
Pipe- Lower vessel Cha mber Valve

(10) (1) (5) (9)
End elevation Air flow as Air f low when
sprinkler operates bob-weight activates

Table 3.1 Number of sprinklers permitted on dry pipe and alternate systems controlled by one set of
valves
Light Ordinary and/or
Hazard systems High Hazard systems
With accelerator 250 500
Without accelerator 125 250
3.4.1 Sprinkler heads ated, water flows through the pipe (12) past the
cock and into the alarm pipe (10). The correct set-
In dry pipe and alternate systems the heads are ting can be obtained by making the grooves on the
always placed above the distributing pipes, which face of the cock correspond with the water pas-
are themselves given a slight slope so that water sages it is desired to open.
will not be trapped in pockets when the system is
drained. The only exception to this rule is if The double clack of the air valve can only be reset
approved dry pendant pattern sprinklers are by hand. For this purpose the handhole cover (13)
installed or where standard sprinkler erected pen- is provided. This cover must not be removed to
dants have an approved anti-freeze device incor- reset the valve until the main stop valve (4) has
porated in them. been shut and the installation drained; otherwise
the room where the valves are located will imme-
diately be flooded.
3.4.2 Valve assembly
3.4.4 Other types of alternate systems
A typical alternate system valve assembly with the
valve clacks lifting vertically on a central spindle is
Another type of alternate system is that incorpo-
shown in Figure 3.6. This pattern has the accelera-
rating the butterfly valve. In this system the butter-
tor (1) separate from the main part of the assembly.
fly valve is held in the closed position by the
pressure on a diaphragm and spindle assemble
When set up as in Figure 3.6, the pipes of the adjacent to it.
installation are filled with air. The pressure is
shown on the supply pressure gauge (2) and the air
The alternate, or dry systems, is fitted with an
pressure on the installation gauge (3). The main
accelerator, which works on a similar principal to
stop valve (4) is open and the water is held back by
that illustrated in Figure 3.5. It is divided into two
the differential air valve (5 and 6).
chambers and, under dry conditions, in the sprin-
kler system the air pressure is equalised between
3.4.3 Three-way cock the two chambers their only connection being a
restricted orifice. On operation of a sprinkler the
It should be noted that the three-way cock (Figure air pressure in the installation and the top chamber
3.6(7)) is adjusted differently when the installation drops faster than that in the lower chamber
is on the wet pipe system than when it is on the dry because of the restricted orifice.
pipe system. When on the dry pipe system, as
shown in the illustration, the three-way cock must Because of the unequal pressure a diaphragm in
be set to allow water from the atmospheric cham- the accelerator inverts, opening a valve, allowing
ber (8) to flow through the pipe (9) and then into air to equalise the pressure on both sides of the
the alarm pipe. diaphragm holding the clack valve in position.
The clack valve opens under pressure of the water,
On a wet system, however, the pipe (9) is discon- is latched open and the water flows to the
nected and, as soon as the alarm valve (11) is actu- sprinkler.

Figure 3.6 Cross -
section through the air Water supply to installation
valve and alarm valve Upper accelerator
of an alternate sprinkler control valve
system.
Alarm pipe
(10)
Installation
pressure • Accelerator
gauge (3) (1)
Upper clack
valve (5)
Atmospheric
Handhole chamber (8)
cover (13) Pipe (9)
Lower clack
valve (6)
Lower accelerator
Alarm control valve
valve (11)
Main
stop
valve Three-way cock (7)
(4)
Supply Pipe (12)

pressure
gauge (2)
Town main Drain
3.5 Tail-end systems (dry pipe or alternate wet and dry principle in the case of
alternate) (i) and on the dry pipe principle for (ii).
(b) As extensions to an alternate wet and dry
These systems are essentially similar to those pre- system in high temperature areas or stoves,
viously described, except that they are of compar- when tail-end systems would be on the dry
atively small extent and form extensions to pipe principle.
standard sprinkler installations. They are permit-
ted: Sprinklers in tail-end systems must be installed in
the upright position above the lines of pipes, an
(a) As extensions to a wet pipe system in com- exception being if approved dry pendant pattern
paratively small areas (i) where there is pos- sprinklers are installed.
sible frost danger in an otherwise adequately
heated building, and (ii) in high temperature The number of sprinklers in a group of tail-end
areas or stoves. The tail-end would be on the systems controlled by one set of wet pipe system

or alternate wet and dry pipe system valves, must the fire temperature reaches a level where the sys-
not exceed 250 in total, with not more than 100 tem can be turned off, a delay mechanism main-
sprinklers on any one tail-end system. Each tail- tains the water flow for a further five minutes.
end system must be provided with a 50mm drain
valve and drainpipe. BS 5306: Part 1 recommends that recycling sys-
tems be only installed where there is a need to:
A pressure gauge must be fitted at a point above
the seating of the tail-end valve. A subsidiary stop (i) Reduce the total of water required to extin-
valve may be fitted below the tail-end valve, pro- guish the fire.
viding it is of the interlocking key type and in a (ii) Prevent unnecessary water damage.
conspicuous position. When the valve is temporar- (iii) Avoid the need to close the main valve to
ily closed the key must be readily visible. replace sprinkler heads.
(iv) Reduce the risk of water damage through
3.6 Pre-action systems mechanical damage to the system.
A pre-action system is a combination of a standard 3.8 Deluge systems

sprinkler system and an independent, approved
system of heat or smoke detectors installed in the The deluge system has been designed primarily for
same area as the sprinklers. Heat and smoke detec- special hazards where intensive fires with a very
tors will, generally, operate prior to sprinklers and fast rate of fire propagation are expected, and it is
open a 'pre-action valve' to allow water to flow desirable to apply water simultaneously over a
into a 'dry' system before the first sprinkler oper- complete zone in which a fire may originate. This
ates. is a system of open sprinklers controlled by a
quick-opening valve, operated by approved heat
The idea of the pre-action valve is to prevent acci- detectors or sprinklers installed in the same area as
dental discharge of water from sprinkler pipework the open sprinklers.
following mechanical damage.
Quartzoid bulb detectors (Figure 3.7) are mounted
The maximum number of sprinklers controlled by in an independent pipework system containing
a pre-action valve, whether it is in a heated or compressed air, so positioned that wherever a fire
unheated building, is 500 for low hazard and 1,000 may start, one at least will operate and allow the
for ordinary hazard and high hazard systems. As is compressed air in the pipework to escape. This
usual, operation of the detector system will auto- causes a rapid fall in pressure on the diaphragm in
matically operate an alarm. the automatic deluge valve, to which both systems
of pipework are connected. The movement of the
3.7 Recycling systems diaphragm causes the deluge valve to open and
water to discharge through the projectors.
There has been considerable recent interest in
automatic recycling systems where sprinkler sys-
tems or individual sprinkler heads will turn them-
selves off once a fire has been cooled below a
certain temperature and turn themselves back on if
the temperature rises again. However, they are
very rare and to date there is no specification for
the on/off sprinkler head or system in any British
Standard.
In a recycling sprinkler system, the main valve is

opened and closed repeatedly by a heat detection
system, thus turning the system on and off accord-
ing to the temperature in the area of a fire. When

Figure 3.7 Diagram of
a typical deluge system
Quartzoid bulb detectors
Projectors
Compressed air supply
- Diaphragm unit
Automatic deluge valve
- Water main

4
controls, gauges and alarms
4.1 Stop valves
Typical layouts of the various systems have
already been described. The main stop valve
(MSV), fitted to all installations, enables water to
be cut off after the fire has been extinguished in
order to reduce water damage. It also permits any
actuated heads to be removed and replaced.
An MSV is of the gate valve type, operates by

hand-wheel and must be right-handed (i.e. must
close by rotating clockwise). The hand-wheel must
be marked to show the direction of operation to
close the valve and some indication given of
whether it is open or shut. To prevent unauthorised Figure 4.1 A type of sprinkler location plate.
interference and to guard against accidental clo-
sure, MSVs are secured in the fully open position
with a strap, which can be cut in case of necessity. dry-pipe valve, when a system is permanently on a
They must be protected from frost. dry system or to control sprinklers on a tail-end
dry pipe system. The valves are of the interlocking
The BS/LPC Rules require that a plan showing the key type and when the valves are closed the key is
position of the MSVs must be placed within the readily visible.
building where it can be seen easily by firefighters.
4.2 Non-return valves
Where installations are arranged in zones, e.g. for
life safety, the plan must indicate the zone control The principle upon which a non-return valve
valves. In addition a sprinkler location plate must works is shown in detail in Figure 4.2. Water can
be fixed to an external wall as near to the MSV as pass through the valve, only in the direction of the
possible. It must bear the legend (shown in Figure arrows, by raising the clack valve. Any tendency to
4.1) in letters not less than 35mm in height, prefer- cause a flow of water in the reverse direction
ably in white on a black background. forces the clack valve on to its seating and so clos-
es the valve.
Where possible the MSV must be placed close to
an entrance to the premises, preferably the main Each water supply must be fitted with a non-return
entrance, in such a location as to be always readi- valve, unless there is only a single connection
ly visible to authorized persons. for the installation, when it is unnecessary.
However, a few water undertakings insist on the
In addition to the MSV, each supply to the system provision of a non-return valve on a single town
is fitted with a stop valve (see Figure 3.1). main connection as an additional safeguard against
Subsidiary stop valves may be used on certain sec- the return of water from a sprinkler installation
tions of an installation to facilitate the testing of a into the main.
Previous page
is blank Fire Protection of Buildings 27
Figure 4.2 Section through a non-return valve.
Clack
Seating valve
Non-return valves may be placed near the main (Figure 4.3) is specifically designed to be used for
stop valve, but are most frequently found close to the proving test.
the supply stop valve at the point of entry of the
supply into the premises. 4.4 Pipe drains
Non-return valves are fitted to prevent a reverse In some installations part of the sprinkler piping is
flow in the supply system due to the unequal pres- below the control valves and drain cocks are fitted
sures at which they operate. For example, if a town at the lower parts of the piping so that they may be
main, having a good pressure, and an elevated tank completely drained as necessary.
are used as water supplies to a sprinkler system,
water from the main would, unless a non-return 4.5 Pressure gauges
valve were fitted, pass up the supply connecting
the tank to the installation and cause it to overflow. Every sprinkler system must be fitted with a pres-
sure gauge (Figure 4.3(1)) above the alarm valve,
4.3 Drain valves and test valves and this shows the pressure in the installation
(which will be water pressure when the system is
A pipe is led from the side of the alarm valve, in on water, and air pressure when on air). Another
wet installations, and from the air chamber of the gauge (2) must also be fitted below the alarm and
differential air valve, in dry or alternate systems, main stop valve, and this indicates the water sup-
into a drain. The pipe is fitted with a valve and the ply pressure.
pipe and valve are used to drain the system when
necessary and also carry out pressure and flow When a connection from a town main forms one of
tests. The diameter of the pipe will depend upon the duplicate water supplies, a gauge (not shown in
the hazard rating of the occupancy. Figure 4.3) must also be fixed on the branch from
the main on the town side of the backpressure
With systems supplied by town main elevated valve. This gauge shows the pressure in the town
reservoirs and gravity tanks, facilities must be pro- main. The reading of this latter gauge may be
vided to enable 'proving tests' to be carried out at lower than that of the gauge (2) depending upon
the valves of each installation. This is to verify that the pressure available from the secondary supply.
the water supply satisfies the requirements of pres- A supply from a pump is also fitted with a pressure
sure and rates of flow specified for the particular gauge on the down side of the non-return valve.
hazard class (see Table 2.2). The proving tests
must be carried out by the installing engineers at The gauges used are normally of the Bourdon tube
the time the system is installed and subsequently type and conform to BS 1780. There must be
as required. The installation drain pipework means provided to enable each pressure gauge to

Figure 4.3 Diagram
showing the Test stop valve
arrangement of
installation proving
Installation Text
pressure pressure
equipment (for Extra
gauge (1) gauge
Light Hazard).
Alarm valve
Outlet
normally
plugged
Water
supply Orifice
pressure plate
gauge (2) assembly Temporary
flexible
hose for
40mm testing
nominal
bore pipe
To drain
be readily removed without interruption of instal- by a hammer rotated by a small pelton wheel
lation water supplies. (more generally called a turbine) actuated as water
flows into the system. The pelton wheel is fitted
The pressure indicated on the gauge (1) connected inside the building, and is connected by a spindle
above the alarm valve is sometimes higher than hammer which, with the gong, is positioned out-
that on gauge (2) below the main stop valve. This side the building.
is due to the fact that, after the system has been
charged with water, a rise in pressure in the town The gong is usually placed above and close to the
main causes the alarm valve to lift and admit pres- doorway that leads to the main stop valve. Where
sure to the installation. When, however, the main's more installations are fitted to that same building,
pressure falls again, the alarm valve retains the each has its own gong. Each gong must be num-
pressure in the installation, which is, of course, a bered in bold figures to correspond with the num-
non-return valve. ber painted on the controlling valves of each
installation. The flow of water to the turbine may
The difference in pressure sometimes results in a also actuate an electric alarm at a central point and
slight delay in the sounding of the alarm gong. so give immediate information as to the particular
When a sprinkler head opens, it is necessary for installation that has operated.
the pressure in the installation to fall below that in
the main before the alarm valve opens and allows There are four causes which may produce a ring-
water to flow to the water turbine of the alarm. ing of the alarm gong:
4.6 Alarm devices (i) The opening of a sprinkler head.

(ii) The opening of a drain or test valve,
Every installation must be fitted with an approved (iii) Damage to any part of the installation, which
water motor alarm (Figure 4.4), located as near the leads to an outflow of water.
alarm valve as practicable. The alarm is sounded

Figure 4.4 A water
Pelton wheel Spindle External wall
motor alarm showing
the arrangement of a
sprinkler gong and
the turbine which
Hammer
actuates it.
Feed pipe
Drain Gong Gong cover
A rise in the pressure of the water being sup- pressure in the installation can be raised a little
plied to the installation, thus lifting the alarm above the supply pressure by hand pumping.
valve and allowing water to pass to the tur-
bine operating the gong. In a wet pipe system, the gong may continue to
sound after testing owing to an obstruction, such as
As a precaution against false alarms caused by a piece of grit becoming lodged under the seat of
spasmodic increases of pressure in the town main, the alarm valve. Opening the drain valve fully will
most alarm valves contain a small compensating probably cause the obstruction to be washed away;
device which permits small quantities of water to if not, it may be necessary to close the main stop
pass through the installation without lifting the valve, drain the installation, remove the valve
clack. The pipe to the water turbine can be fitted cover and thoroughly clean the alarm valve. The
with a device known as an 'alarm delay cylinder' gong may continue to sound if the alarm valve seat
which comprises an air bottle fitted with a drain has become scored or pitted so as to allow water to
orifice to which the alarm valve connection is led flow continuously.
and from which the water turbine is supplied.
4.6.1 Electrically-operated alarms
If the alarm clack lifts momentarily the air bottle is
unlikely to fill with water, and thus a false alarm is Approved water flow alarm switches may be
prevented. When the alarm valve resets, the water incorporated in the system pipework above the
drains from the delay cylinder through the drain alarm or dry pipe valve to indicate on a central
valve. Another device is shown in Figure 4.5. This control panel the particular section of the system
device prevents false alarms without delaying, to which is operating. Electric alarm pressure switch-
any appreciable extent, the operation of the water es, operated at either an increase or fall in pressure,
turbine when the alarm clack valve is lifted where are permitted on a system to operate an auxiliary
a sprinkler has actuated, or during a periodical warning device, but are not accepted as a substitute
alarm test. for the standard water motor alarm device already
referred to.
Alternatively, a small semi-rotary hand-pump can
be fitted to the installation supply pipe and the

Figure 4.5 Compensating device on a clack valve
which allows a small quantity of water to pass
without hitting the clack.
4.6.2 Transmission of alarm signals to attention must be drawn automatically to this situ-
the fire brigade ation by means of conspicuous duplicated warning
lights linked to a buzzer warning. Means must be
Arrangements may be incorporated in the system provided to prevent false alarms occurring with
for the automatic transmission of alarm signals to water supplies, which are subject to fluctuation in
the fire brigade. Alarm signals may be initiated: pressure.
(i) By a flow of water in the sprinkler system The system wiring and power supply must con-
using an electric alarm pressure switch conform to the requirements laid down in BS 5839:
nected to the alarm valve in a similar manner Part 1, including a test of:
to the sprinkler alarm motor.
(ii) By using water flow alarm switches in the (i) The fire brigade or Alarm Receiving Centres
system pipework above the alarm valve. (ARC) connections,
(iii) By a fall in pressure in the system pipework (ii) The circuit between the alarm switch and the
above the alarm valve. control unit,
(iii) The batteries.
Pressure switches for transmitting alarm signals to
the fire brigade must be suitable for sprinkler service Tests must be made every weekday (except holi-
and must be mounted on a vertical branch pipe at days). The first two tests need only be made once
least 300mm long. They must be sufficiently sensi- a week provided the circuits used are continuously
tive to operate when only one sprinkler is actuated. monitored. A notice must be fixed close to the
sprinkler test valves of each installation to indicate
If the connection to the fire brigade is severed at a direct alarm connection to the fire brigade.
any time as, for example, during hydraulic testing,

On sprinkler systems where arrangements are
incorporated for the automatic transmission of
alarm signals to the fire brigade, the arrangements
will be regarded as approved by the BS/LPC if
they comply with certain conditions, as follows:
(i) There must be either a connection directly or

through a ARC, approved by the BS/LPC
and from there to a local authority fire sta-
tion staffed by whole-time personnel, or
part-time retained personnel alerted by call-
out systems; or
(ii) A direct connection to a permanently staffed
watchroom of a private fire brigade.
The direct line from the premises whether to the

fire brigade control, approved ARC or private fire
brigade must terminate in a watchroom or control
room permanently staffed day and night.

5
sprinkler heads
There are many different designs of sprinkler head metal diaphragm (3) with a hole in the centre over
but they may be generally divided into two cate- which fits a valve (4) of glass or gunmetal.
gories:
Over the valve is fitted a metal cap (5) which
(i) Those in which the operating medium is a contains a notch into which the end of the strut (6)
fusible solder, is inserted. The strut is supported by two other
(ii) Those in which a bulb is ruptured by the metal plates: the hook (7), the curved end of
expansion of a contained fluid (see Figure which engages the deflector end of the yoke, and
5.1). the key (8).
For normal occupancy situations, in temperate These three parts are held rigidly together by a
countries, the recommended operating temperature special fusible solder and keep the valve cap in
for sprinkler heads is 68°C. position against the pressure in the piping which
acts upon the other side of the diaphragm. When
the temperature surrounding the head rises to a
5.1 Fusible solder type level at which the solder is heated to its fusing
point, the strut, hook and key fly apart owing to the
A head of this type is shown in Figure 5.2. The strain under which they are held. The valve cap is
deflector (1) is designed to spread the water issu- released and allows the water an uninterrupted
ing from the orifice and is supported by the two passage to the deflector.
arms of the yoke (2). The yoke screws into the
body of the sprinkler which is itself, screwed into In another type of head (Figure 5.3) the metal parts
the pipe. Held in place by the yoke is a flexible holding the valve cap in place are constructed on
Figure 5.1 Three

sprinkler heads: one
bulb and two fusible
solder
(Photo: Building Research
Establishment)

Figure 5.2 One type of fusible solder type sprinkler
Glass valve (4)
head.
Cap (5) Diaphragm (3)
Yoke
(2)
Key (8)
Deflector (1) Hook (7) Strut (6)
Figure 5.3 Second type

Disc Upper cantilever of fusible solder
(6) member (1) sprinkler head which
operates on a cantilever
principle.
Fusible
link (5).
Gunmetal
valve (2)
Deflector Lower cantilever

(4) member (3)
the cantilever principle. Here, two cantilever mem- for this purpose. When a fire occurs, the tempera-
bers pivoted on one another are connected by a ture of the heat collector rises until the solder melts
fusible link placed outside the arms of the yoke. to release the key. The hook and key then spring
outwards and, together with the strut, valve and
The upper member (Figure 5.3(1)) is socketed in gasket, are thrown clear to allow the discharge of
the gunmetal valve (2), and the lower member (3) water on to the deflector.
in a slot of the adjustable screw assembly in the
deflector boss (4), which enables tension to be Fusible metal type heads are supplied to operate at
given to the cantilever members. When the fusible various temperatures (see Table 5.1). The fusing
link (5) melts, the members are thrown clear of the temperature of a soldered sprinkler is stamped on
head, additional thrust being given by the pressure the metal strut and the yoke arm can be coloured
of the water on air behind the disc (6) which is held (see Table 5.1).
in place over the orifice by the valve (2).
A third type of soldered sprinkler head is illustrat- N.B. Sprinkler heads may become uncertain in
ed in Figure 5.4. This shows how a soft metal gas- their operation if the normal ambient temperature
ket and valve, which form the watertight joint, are approaches too closely to operating temperature.
supported by a soft metal strut, which is retained in The temperature rating chosen should therefore be
position so long as the hemispherical key remains as close as possible to, but not less than, 30°C
held to the heat collector by the special solder used above the highest anticipated ambient temperature.

Figure 5.4 Third type
of fusible solder
sprinkler head.
Gasket and valve
Key
Solder
Heat collector
Strut
Table 5.1 Ratings and colours of fusible metal cap (3) which in its turn is held in place by a valve
sprinkler heads assembly (4) and a spring (5) in order that this will
throw the parts clear. At the other end, the bulb is
Rating of sprinkler in Colour of yoke arm
held in a conical metal cup (6).
Degrees C
68/74 Natural (no colour) By adjusting the composition of the liquid and to
93/100 White some extent the size of the bubble, the bulb type
head can be set to operate at any desired tempera-
141 Blue
ture. Those most commonly employed are shown
182 Yellow in Table 5.2.
227 Red
Firefighters may also find in certain occupancies, a
sprinkler fitted with a very thin bulb. This is
5.2 Bulb type described as a 'fast-response' type (see section 4)
but operates in the same way as the conventional
In the bulb type head (Figure 5.5), a small barrel or quartzoid bulb.
cylinder made of special glass is used to hold the
water valve in place. This bulb is hermetically 5.3 Sprinkler orifice sizes
sealed and contains a quantity of liquid and a small
bubble. As the temperature rises, the liquid Sprinklers are normally manufactured with nomi-
expands and the size of the bubble decreases until nal orifice sizes for the respective hazard class, and
it disappears. these are shown in Table 5.3. (see also BS 5306
Part 2)
A further rise shatters the bulb, breaking it into
small pieces so that it cannot obstruct the water 5.4 Types of sprinkler head
flow, and so opens the head. In spite of this ease of
fracture, the strength of the bulb is such that it can 5.4.1 General
withstand any pressure applied to the pipe. In the
pressure destruction test, it is the metal parts of the Sprinklers must be of a type approved by the
head that fail first. BS/LPC Rules. After dispatch from the production
factory they must not be altered in any respect or
The gasket (2) is held in position by the bulb (1) have any ornamentation or coating applied. An
which rests at one end upon a hollow in the valve approved coating for anti-corrosion purposes is

Figure 5.5 Bulb type
sprinkler head.
Spring (5)
Gasket (2)
Valve assembly (4)
Cap (3)
Quartzoid bulb (1)
Cone (6)
Table 5.2 Standard bulb filling colours for vari- allowed provided it is not applied to any glass
ous rating of bulb-type sprinkler heads bulb.
Sprinkler rating Colour of bulbs
5.4.2 Approved types
57°C Orange
68°C Red The BS/LPC specify the following types of sprin-
kler heads:
79°C Yellow
 Conventional pattern
93°C Green  Spray pattern
I41°C Blue  Ceiling or flush pattern
 Recessed pattern
182°C Mauve
 Concealed pattern
204° to 260cC Black  Sidewall pattern
Table 5.3 Sprinkler types and sizes for various hazard classes
Hazard class and Pattern of sprinkler Sprinkler nominal orifice size
sprinkler location
Precalculated Fully hydraulically
installations calculated installations
mm mm
Light hazard Any 10 10
Ordinary harard Conventional
Spray
Ceiling or flush 15 10 or 15
Recessed
Concealed
Sidewall 15 15
High hazard
Ceiling or roof sprinklers Conventional or spray 15 or 20 15 or 20
High hazard
Intermediate sprinklers Conventional - 15
in piled storage

Figure 5.6 A sprinkler head operating.
(Photo: Building Research Establishment)
Figure 5.7 Types of sprinkler: (1) Dry upright type.

(2) Dry pendant pattern. (3) Ceiling flush pattern.
(4) Sidewall pattern.
5.4.3 Conventional pattern 5.4.4 Spray pattern
This pattern produces a spherical type of discharge A hemispherical discharge below the plane of the
with a proportion of the water thrown upwards to deflector is produced by this pattern with little or
the ceiling (see Figure 5.6). They may be installed no discharge upward to the ceiling. An upright ver-
upright (Figure 5.7(1)) or pendant (Figure 5.7(1/2)). sion is also available.

5.4.5 Ceiling or flush pattern
This pattern (Figure 5.7(3)) is for use with con-

cealed pipework. The heads are installed pendant
with the plate, or base, flush to the ceiling but with
the heat-sensitive element below the ceiling line.
They are also allowed to be installed in light or
Sprinkler
ordinary light hazard areas. cup Cover
assembly plate
5.4.6 Recessed and concealed pattern assembly
These patterns are similar to those described above

in Section 5.4.5. The concealed pattern however is
recessed almost level with the ceiling line and is
covered by a plate (Figure 5.8). In a fire situation Ceiling
either the solder holding the plate in position melts
or bi-metal clips distort, allowing the plate to fall Figure 5.8 Recessed and concealed pattern of sprinkler
away and expose the heat-sensitive element of the head.
head to the rising temperature.
5.4.7 Sidewall pattern Three diverse examples of areas where these types
of heads are desirable are high-bay warehouses,
This type (Figure 5.7(4)) is installed along the residential care premises and private homes. In
walls of a room close to the ceiling. It produces a these examples the amount of heat generated needs
discharge pattern resembling one quarter of a to be sensed, retained and conveyed to the bulb or
sphere with a proportion discharging onto the wall soldered strut more quickly, either to avoid the
behind the sprinkler. unusual rate of spread (high-bay warehouse) or to
save lives (residential premises).
It can be used in positions where condensation
dripping from sprinkler pipework might be a prob- 5.4.9 Design
lem or, for aesthetic reasons or access problems,
where ceiling sprinklers are unacceptable. (a) Fusible strut type (FRS)
Sidewall sprinklers should not be installed in High
Hazard areas above suspended ceilings. The first fusible strut type were fitted with addi-
tional heat collecting fins and later there were sup-
5.4.8 Fast-response sprinkler heads plemented by having chrome-on-copper
(FRS) construction to transmit the heat to a greatly
reduced amount of solder (see Figures 5.9 and
These are examples of recent developments. 5.10).
Technology is constantly advancing and new sys-
tem designs being produced. Further reading of Various refinements to these early types are:
appropriate new technical information will be nec-
essary to keep aware of such developments.  Copper fins to circulate the hot gases around
the link
Normal sprinkler heads have fixed operating tem-  A very thin link construction (reducing ther-
peratures and their design is such that they are usu- mal mass)
ally slower to react than electrical detectors. In  The minimum amount of solder
recent years certain hazards or types of premises  A small amount of material which not only
have required not only fast detection but fast con- holds the link in place but insulates it from
trol and thought has turned to changing the design the strut thus stopping heat loss to the body
of sprinkler heads to enable this to be done. of the head.

Figure 5.9 Fast-
response fusible-strut
type sprinkler head.
COMPONENTS 1
7
1 Frame
2 Button assembly 2
3 Strut 6
8
4 Deflector
5 Hook
3
6 Link assembly
7 Bushing
8 Ejection spring
4
5
used. In high-bay storage for instance this type will

vary according to whether this type are in-rack,
over-rack, side-rack, zone controlled, etc.
In residential care premises and private houses the

discharge pattern could be as shown in Figure 5.11.
Water needs to be projected more horizontally to
ensure it is above the fire and can take in such items
as curtains and furniture that are often placed
around the edge of the room. Another consideration,
especially in care premises, could be the usual posi-
tion of the bed in relation to the rest of the room.
5.4.11 Water droplet size
The factor of discharge has to be looked at careful-

ly in order to ensure maximum visibility during the
control/extinguishment period. Too small a droplet
Figure 5.10 Gem fast-response sprinkler head. size can cause the water spray to drag ceiling smoke
( Photo: Kidds General Fire Ltd) down which could hinder evacuation. The discharge
density will depend on the size of the head orifice
(b) Bulb type (FRS) and the design chosen for the deflector.
In the bulb type similar refinements have been tried. 5.4.12 Further information
In one the bulb is very thin and as far as is possible,
insulated from the body. In another the bulb is very A disadvantage in the FRS type of head is that the
thin but set at an angle in the head to place it further material used to hold the struts together, over a
out into the hot gas flow whilst keeping it as far period of time, tends to 'creep'. This has the effect
away from the body of the head as possible. of sometimes leading to premature failure of a
joint or, conversely, raising the operating tempera-
5.4.10 Discharge patterns ture. Manufacturers now tend towards bulb-type
heads and there may need to be a much-reduced
The configuration of the premises and where the replacement period for these heads. As little as
heads are placed often dictates the type of FRS four years has been advocated.

Figure 5.II Discharge
Conventional Sprinkler Discharge patterns for
conventional and
6' (1.83m) residential sprinkler
systems.
8' (2.44m)
Residential Sprinkler Discharge
6' (1.83m)
8' (2.44m)
5.5 Life of sprinkler heads 5.6 Protection of sprinklers in

certain risks
The life of a normal sprinkler head may be as much
as 50 years if it is uncorroded and has not been sub- Besides the anti-corrosion treatment mentioned in
jected to rough treatment or abnormal temperature. Section 5.4.1 above, sprinkler heads in certain
As mentioned in Section 5.4.12 above, FRS heads industries where they are liable to mechanical
may be subjected to a four-year change period. damage, or where otherwise specified by the
BS/LPC Rules, must be protected by approved
Usually, it is advisable to have a sample of heads metal guards. Guards should not be used in con-
in a system removed and tested when the installa- junction with ceiling or flushing fitting sprinkler
tion is 20 years old. heads.

6
general
6.1 Siting of sprinkler heads 6.2 Area covered by sprinklers
The following definitions are used to differentiate The maximum area covered by a sprinkler in the
between the various pipework used on a sprinkler different classes is shown in Table 6.1.
installation (Figure 6.1).
Sprinkler design usually ensures that some water
(i) Main distribution pipes: main pipes feeding will be deflected onto the ceiling and out in a wide
the distribution pipework, circle which will overlap the distribution from the
(ii) Distribution pipes: pipes directly feeding next head. The deflector should normally be
range pipes, between 15mm and 150mm below the ceiling and
(iii) Range pipes: pipes on which the sprinklers roofs (for exceptions, see Section 5.4.6).
are attached either directly or on short arm
pipes which do not exceed 300mm in length. Where this is not practicable, sprinklers may be
installed at lower levels providing they are not
Table 6.1 Maximum area covered by a sprinkler more than 300mm below the underside of com-
Hazard class General Special risk bustible ceilings and roofs or 450mm below the
areas or underside of incombustible ceilings or roofs.
storage racks
To ensure that the efficiency of the sprinkler pro-
Light Hazard 21m2 9m2
tection is not diminished a clear space below the
Ordinary Hazard 12m2 9m2 level of the sprinkler deflector is required. The
High Hazard 9m- 9m2 requirement of the BS/LPC Rules is:
(i) For high piled combustible stock - lm.
(ii) For potable spirit barrel storage - 0.3m.
The number and layout of sprinklers allowed on (iii) For sprinklers above open suspended ceil-
range pipes depends on the layout and size of pipe ings - 0.8m.
used, but does not exceed nine on any one pipe.
The number of sprinklers fed by a distribution pipe (iv) For other than (i), (ii) or (iii) - 0.5m.
is also determined by the size of the pipe, with a
maximum of 48 heads fed by one distribution pipe. Roof trusses must at all times be accessible to
Pipe sizes are determined hydraulically, partly by water discharged from the sprinklers.
pre-calculated pipe size tables and partly by
hydraulic calculation. Sprinklers must cover all parts of a building,
otherwise fire can develop undetected for a
The hazard class of the installation determines the period and become too large for the system to deal
area covered by a sprinkler and the distance with effectively. Any roof space or floor space
between sprinklers on range pipes and adjacent exceeding 800mm in depth must be sprinkler
rows of sprinklers. protected.

Figure 6.1
Main distribution pipe Diagrammatic layout of
the pipework of a
sprinkler installation.
Range pipes
Riser
Riser Distribution pipe
Installation
control valves Fire brigade inlet
50mm Branch
Supply for hose reels
pipes
Town main fed from both ends
Sprinklers Stop valve Back pressure valve
Where holes are cut in floors to take machinery 6.4 Extent of sprinkler System
drives, conveyors, chutes and other vertical open-
ings such as hoists, lifts, elevators, it is important Where a sprinkler system is installed, it must cover
that a sprinkler is sited above the opening on the the whole building, except where the omission of
upper floor in order that vertical spread of fire does sprinklers is specifically allowed under the rules,
not take place without early detection. Every building communicating directly or indi-
rectly with, or adjoining the sprinklered building,
6.3 Multiple controls must be sprinklered throughout unless it is one of
the permitted exceptions and has a separating wall
Heat sensitive sealed valve control outlets (Figure with openings protected by fire-resisting doors or
6.2) are used when it is desired to operate small fire-resisting shutters,
groups of sprayers simultaneously - hence the
term multiple control. Certain detached buildings within a specified dis-
tance of the sprinklered building which are consid-
The heat sensitive device will be a glass bulb or a ered to present an exposure hazard should also be
soldered link or lever. When this shatters or fuses, protected by sprinklers. Alternatively, the sprinkler
water is delivered to open sprayers which cover protection in the protected building may be
the protected area. An example of a control is extended to provide external sprinkler protection
shown in Figure 6.3(1) and an open sprayer in over window and door openings and over any
Figure 6.3(2). Where simultaneous operation on a combustible sections of the wall opposite the
larger scale is required a deluge system (similar to exposure hazard,
that shown in Figure 9.5) will be fitted.

Figure 6.2 Diagram of a
multiple control system.
Distributing pipe
Heat sensitive
device
Feed pipe
Sprayer
Figure 6.3 (1) An

autuomatic control.
(2) An open sprayer.
6.5 Firefighting in a sprinklered (a) all operating sprinkler heads have been iden-
building tified,
(b) the incident commander is satisfied that the
The following are the principal points a firefighter fire is under control and can best be tackled
should bear in mind when fighting a fire in a sprin- with brigade apparatus,
klered building: (c) the incident commander is satisfied that turn-
ing off the sprinkler system will not hinder
(i) On arrival at the fire, a member of the crew the evacuation of people in the building or
should immediately be sent to the main stop put firefighters at risk.
valve so that:
Many so-called sprinkler failures have been due to
(a) the valve can be opened if found premature closing of the main stop valve. A head
closed, and opens and apparently extinguishes the fire, the
(b) the valve is not closed except on the water supply is cut off in order to prevent further
express instructions of the incident water damage and the fire which has continued to
commander. smoulder in a hidden place later bursts out again.
On no account should the sprinkler system be The premises being deprived of sprinkler protec-
turned off until: tion, the fire grows to large proportions, possibly

opening a number of heads. Should the valve then pumps should be set into hydrants on the lat-
b e reopened the simultaneous discharge of water ter, or on a different main. Local fire brigade
from these heads causes a drop in pressure and a officers should know the layout of mains
less effective flow from each head. supplying sprinkler installations in their
areas.
N.B. A sprinkler system is designed to check an
incipient fire and not to cope with one that has (v) Although a sprinkler may appear to have
got away. extinguished the fire, careful examination of
the area involved must be made in order to
(ii) On arrival at an installation where principal verify that no trace of fire remains.
supplies of water can be augmented through
a fire brigade inlet, a pump should be con- (vi) When a fire is out and, for any reason, it is
nected to the inlet ready to increase the pres- impossible to turn off the main stop valve
sure should a large number of heads have immediately and thereby cut off the flow of
operated. water to the sprinkler head, water damage
can be prevented by securing the female cou-
(iii) It should be remembered that there are many pling of a length of hose over the head and
cases where sprinklers will satisfactorily leading the hose out of the building.
hold the fire, which can then be finally extin-
guished by firefighters using hose reels. The 6.6 Re-setting of sprinkler systems
sprinklers should not normally be turned off
in order that the fire may be fought with jets It is usual for brigades to issue specific orders that,
or spray branches. following a fire in a sprinklered building, the occu-
piers are left with the responsibility for re-setting
(iv) If additional water is needed, it should not be the system. This avoids any problems regarding
taken from the main supplying the sprinklers insurance or adverse comment against the fire
unless it is of large size. This main will usu- brigade should another fire occur and the system
ally be a branch from a larger town main and fail to operate.

7
Chapter 7 - Protection of special risks
7.1 High-bay warehouse storage range pipe and sprinklers located immediate-
ly below it.
7.1.1 General
(iv) Partial capping of the side of the rack and the
The high-bay (or high racked) warehouse presents space between the end pallet position and the
a particularly difficult type of fire risk, not only end of the rack.
because of its size and height but also in the variety
of goods stored in close proximity under one roof. (v) In very high storage, e.g. over 15m, interme-
The problem of providing efficient sprinkler pro- diate rack capping to be considered with
tection for this type of building has been the subject pipes and sprinklers underneath it.
of a great deal of research during recent years.
(vi) Certain minimum aisle widths to be main-
It has been found that ordinary in-rack sprinkler tained.
systems using conventional fusible solder or glass-
bulb sprinklers give a generally unsatisfactory per- (vii) The division of the protected area into a
formance. Flames tend to pass a sprinkler location number of zones such that within each indi-
before its actual operation and ignite goods at a vidual zone, all sprinklers operate together.
higher level, mainly due to the flue effect of the
racking layout. (viii) The hydraulic design of the system should be
adequate for the height and area of each pro-
7.1.2 Design recommendations tected zone in the worst incident.
An in-rack system incorporating a 'fast response' 7.1.3 Categorisation of risks

head (see Sections 5.4.8-5.4.12) has proved more
effective, especially when allied to recommenda- High-piled storage (HPS), as found in these ware-
tions on construction of the racking and positioning houses, comes under the High Hazard category
of heads. (see Section 1.4.3). For each of the sub-categories
I-IV the BS/LPC have specified minimum densi-
These recommendations include: ties of water application based on hydraulic calcu-
lation. They consider, however, that there is a
(i) Range pipes located at alternate levels: i.e. 2, difference between HPS freestanding storage and
4, 6, etc, the top level being covered by a HPS palletised-rack storage.
pipe above it.
The reason is that in a fire, freestanding goods tend
(ii) Fast response sprinklers located above the to break apart, allowing water to penetrate the stack.
junction of transverse and longitudinal flues, This does not readily happen in palletised rack stor-
pendant-mounted and incorporating a spe- age and BS/LPC consider that this warrants an
cially designed water-deflecting shield. increased water density to protect it against fire.
(iii) A non-combustible covering (rack capping) This has been done by requiring that commodities
located above the top level of goods with a stored in this way (palletised) have their category

Table 7.1 Minimum design density and AMAO for high-piled storage hazards (goods), storage types
S1 and S4 roof or ceiling sprinklers
Category I Category II Category III Category lV Minimum AMAO
Sl only S 1 only S1 and S4 S1 only design
Stack height Stack height Stack height Stack height density Wet pipe, Dry pipe
more not more more not more more not more more not more pre-action and
than than than than than than than than and alternate
recycling systems
systems
m m m m m m m m mm/min m2 m2
0 5.3 0 4.1 0 2.9 0 1.6 7.5 260 325
5.3 6.5 4.1 5.0 2.9 3.5 1.6 2.0 10.0 260 325
6.5 7.6 5.0 5.9 3.5 4.1 2.0 2.3 12.5 260 325
- -
5.9 6.7 4.1 4.7 2.3 2.7 15.0 260 325
- -
6.7 7.5 4.7 5.2 2.7 3.0 17.5 260 325
- - - - 5.2 5.7 3.0 3.3 20.0 300 375
- - -
- 5.7 6.3 3.3 3.6 22.5 300 375
- - - - 6.3 6.7 3.6 3.8 25.0 300 375
- - - - 6.7 7.2 3.8 4.1 27.5 300 375
4.1 4.4 30.0 300 375
NOTE: Class S4 includes only category III goods.
Table 7.2 Location of intermediate sprinklers in type S5 storage (beam pallet racking)
Highest Location of Maximum Each transverse Maximum Minimum clearance
category rows at vertical flue and distance between sprinkler
of goods least at distance stack ends between deflector in any row
in the between protected at sprinklers and storage
rack rows least at in row immediately below
m m mm
I or II every other tier 3.5 every fourth tier 2.8 150
(see note)
III every other tier 3.5 every alternate tier 1.4 150
(see note)
IV every tier 2.3 every alternate tier 2.8 150
NOTE. Where the number of tiers is odd and the goods in the top tier are more than 3.0m below the roof or ceiling sprinklers (or are otherwise
not protected by them), the rows of sprinklers shall be provided above each even-numbered tier, and above the top tier.
increased by one-half except in the case of Group Category III - Wax-coated paper, foamed plastics
IV. Group IV requirements for water discharge (except celluloid) rubber goods,
density is already very large.
Category IV - Offcuts of foam plastic, sheet
Examples of goods in HPS categories are as fol- foamed plastic, celluloid, foamed
lows (the categories are listed in order of increas- rubber,
ing hazard):
Table 7.1 is an example of how the BS/LPC rules
Category I - Wool carpets, textiles, electrical are applied in discharge densities,
appliances
Table 7.2 and Figure 7.1 illustrate typical
Category II - Baled waste paper, chipboard, requirements for sprinkler density in the four
plastics (non-foamed), wooden categories,
furniture.

Figure 7.1 Typical
requirements for 150 mm min
clearance
sprinkler density in the
Sprinkler
four categories of HPS row
storage.
3.5 m max
3.5 m max
Tiers
3.6 m max
3.2m
max
Aisle 1.4m max
3.2 m Each individual
Longitudinal Transverse flue section
flue max
DEFINITION OF TERMS CATEGORY III GOODS
3.5
max
2.3m max
3.5m Each Individual
max section
3.5m
max
2.8m 2.8 m max

3.2m max 3.2m
max max
2.8m max 2.8m max
3.2m 2.8m 12m 2.8m max

max max
max
CATEGORY I or II GOODS CATEGORY IV GOODS
7.2 Aircraft maintenance and is divided into zones and each zone contains an
assembly areas average of 110 sprinklers. These are supplemented
by wall-mounted, over-wing oscillating jets and
7.2.1 Ground level sprinklers the whole system is actuated by automatic radia-
tion fire detectors.
Protection of aircraft maintenance and assembly
areas presents special problems, especially when The extinguishing agent is Aqueous Film Forming
dealing with fires under the large wing areas of Foam (AFFF). The sprinklers each produce verti-
modern commercial aircraft (see Fire Service cal jet at least 5m high plus three peripheral jets
Manual, Volume 2, Fire Service Operations - giving a ground spray about 8m in diameter.
Aircraft Incidents, Chapter 4).
7.2.2 Portable units
In one example, the aircraft maintenance area is a
hangar 320m wide, 128m deep at the centre bay During the assembly of large aircraft there are
and 82m deep at each of the east and west bays. It often portable fire detection and extinguishing
is also 30m high. units placed within the aircraft and linked to an
outside control unit. Ionization and heat detectors
To overcome this problem, the hangar is fitted with (linear and point) are used and the unit includes a
sprinkler nozzles in the floor, which raise and Bromochlorodifluromethane (BCF) container
operate automatically in a fire situation. The area which will be activated by the detectors.

8
Chapter 8 - Domestic sprinkler
installations
A recent innovation in the UK is the development  A stop valve to close the system down.
of simplified sprinkler systems designed for use in  A priority demand valve to isolate the
domestic dwellings and other residential premises. domestic service in the event of sprinkler
This follows a similar initiative in the USA where operation.
such systems have become mandatory in certain
states. At the time of writing (2003) the British 8.2 Water supplies
Standards Institution has published a draft for
development (DD) code of practice for residential Sprinkler systems can be supplied by:
and domestic sprinkler installations - DD251,
which is in the process of being upgraded to a full  Town main
BS following comments that have been recieved  Pressure tank or vessel
over the DD stage being integrated into the  Automatic pump drawing from a stored
Standard. water supply
 Automatic booster pump drawing water
Domestic fire sprinkler systems will provide an from a town main or elevated storage tank
additional degree of protection of life and proper-  A gravity fed water system.
ty above that already achieved through building
design and the use of smoke alarms. Where stored water is used, the capacity required
should be 110% of the minimum amount necessary
It should be noted that new technology and sys- to achieve the following:
tems are continually being developed so that the
systems can be introduced into a larger market to (a) in domestic occupancies, the quantity
form an additional life safety feature in buildings. required to maintain pressure and flow for 10
minutes to whichever is the greater of:
8.1 The system
(i) A single operating sprinkler in the
The system is wet providing sprinkler protection in hydraulically most favourable position
all parts of a dwelling except small bathrooms (ii) A pair of operating sprinklers in a single
(less than 5m2) and cupboards with a floor area room.
below 2m2. Roof spaces or basements can also be
omitted if they are not used for storage purposes. (b) in residential occupancies, the amount nec-
essary should be calculated on the actual
The system comprises of all or any of the follow- pressures and flows for 30 minutes to which
ing, depending on the water supply used: ever is the greatest of any combination of up
to the maximum design number of sprinklers
 At least one sprinkler head in each room and operating in a single room (not more than
stairway/corridor four) in the hydraulically most favourable
 A flow switch to activate an audible alarm position.
 A check valve to prevent the system drain
back into the water supply at times of low
pressure

is blank
8.3 Sprinkler heads sitive elements not more than 100mm below
the ceiling (100-150mm in the case of side-
The system uses either conventional spray or side wall sprinklers).
wall sprinkler heads or residential and domestic (ii) The whole of the floor and the walls up to
pattern heads, which give an outward and down- 0.7m below the ceiling should be wetted by
ward discharge of water. In both cases, the water an operating sprinkler.
flow rate should not be less than: (iii) No sprinkler is within 50mm of a wall or par-
tition.
(i) For domestic occupancies: (iv) Sprinklers may be either strutted or glass
(a) 60 1/min through any single sprinkler; bulb and should be colour coded. The tem-
(b) 42 1/min through each of two sprinklers perature rating for sprinklers should be:
operating simultaneously in a single (a) the closest but at least 30°C greater than
room. the highest anticipated ambient temper-
(ii) For residential occupancies: ature of the location;
(a) 60 1/min through any single sprinkler (b) within the range of 79°C-100°C when
(b) 42 1/min for each sprinkler operating installed under glass roofs.
simultaneously up to a maximum of (v) The potential for a shielded fire should be
four sprinklers in a single room. taken into account.
8.4 Sprinkler spacing and 8.5 Alarms

coverage
The discharge through any one-sprinkler head
The maximum area covered by each sprinkler should cause the alarm valve to trigger an alarm in
should either be in accordance with the manufac- the protected property. The alarm should be audi-
turer's specification or 15m:, whichever is the ble throughout the property.
lesser. Sprinklers should not be more than 4m apart
or more than 2m from any wall or partition. The An additional alarm should be positioned outside
distance between sprinklers in a room should not of the protected property and give both an audible
be less than 2m. and visual signal. The alarm should be clearly
labelled 'Fire Alarm'.
Sprinklers should be positioned so that:
(i) Pendant upright conventional or residential

and domestic sprinklers have their heat sen-

9
Chapter 9 - Other installations using
water
9.1 Drenchers A drencher system is comprised of water heads
somewhat similar to those of sprinklers; these may
While a sprinkler system protects a building from be sealed or unsealed (open drenchers), but in the
internal fire, drenchers are placed on roofs and latter case the water is turned on manually. In a few
over windows and external openings to protect the instances drenchers may be controlled by quick-
building from damage by exposure to a fire in opening valves operated by loss of air pressure in a
adjacent premises. The layout of a typical drencher detector line system in a similar manner to high
system is shown in Figure 9.1 velocity water spray systems (see Section 9.2).
Figure 9.1 Diagram

showing a typical
Roof drenchers. Drencher heads
drencher system.
Main stop valve

Fire Service inlet
Drain valve

Drenchers are of three main types: cial use for this type of drencher is on the stage
 Roof drenchers; side of a theatre proscenium arch to protect the
safety curtain.
 Wall or curtain drenchers;
 Window drenchers. 9.1.3 Window drenchers
9.1.1 Roof drenchers As their name implies, window drenchers (Figure

9.2(3)) are used to protect window openings. They
Roof drenchers (Figure 9.2(1)) have a deflector are placed horizontally level with the top of the
rather similar to that of a sprinkler head. From the window, with the deflector 100mm from the sur-
roof ridge they throw a curtain of water upwards face of the wall providing a curtain of water to pro-
which then runs down the roof. All parts of the tect the glass. From the tail of the deflector, a jet is
roof and any skylights, windows or other openings thrown inwards on to the glass near the top of the
must be protected. window, while two streams are directed at an angle
of 45 degrees to the lower corners.
9.1.2 Wall or curtain drenchers
9.1.4 Water supplies
Wall or curtain drenchers (Figure 9.2(2)) throw
water to one side only of the outlet in the form of The installation should be connected to a nominal-
a flat curtain over those openings or portions of a ly unlimited water supply with a pressure suffi-
building most likely to admit fire. In order to cover cient to give it at least 0.34 bar at the level of the
all combustible portions of a wall, it is the usual highest drencher with the 50mm drain valve fully
practice to put a line of drenchers just below the open.
eaves if these contain flammable material, and to
fit every window or opening on the top two storeys A fire brigade inlet should be provided on the basis
with a drencher. of one connection for installations of 55 heads.
These inlets should be fitted with a non-return
Those below this level, except the ground floor valve, as should the normal supply type.
and basement, are fitted on every alternate storey.
9.1.5 Valves
The drenchers must be fitted so that the streams
form a water curtain, which must come into con- The controlling valves must be located in accessi-
tact with the window 600mm from the top. A spe- ble positions on or near ground level but away
Figure 9.2 Types of

drencher. (1) Roof
drencher. (2) Wall or
curtain drencher.
(3) Window drencher.

from the adjacent fire risk. Protection from frost In an open drencher system, the drain taps must
for the supply pipe and valves is essential. A pad- always be kept open except when the drenchers are
locked or riveted strap must be used to secure the in operation. A full-way 50mm waste valve and
valves in the appropriate position. The position of pipe must also be installed below the controlling
each valve and the drenchers it controls must valve or valves, so that the running pressure tests
be clearly indicated by a wall plate. A single can be carried out at any time.
controlling valve may control not more than 72
drenchers. 9.2 Water-spray projector systems
9.1.6 Spacing of drencher heads 9.2.1 Extinction of oil fires by water
Drenchers fitted on the top row below the eaves When water is used as the sole means of extinction
and those on the apex of the roof, must have a of oil fires, it is normally applied by means of spe-
maximum horizontal spacing of 2.5m. Windows or cially installed fixed firefighting equipment close-
other openings, or combustible materials in walls ly resembling a sprinkler system.
exceeding 2.5m in width must be protected by two
or more drenchers not more than 2.5m apart, and Precise information as to the way in which burning
not more than 1.25m from the window jambs. oil is extinguished is still incomplete, but three
main factors are known to be involved. These are:
Windows separated by not more than 600mm of
incombustible material may be treated as one win- (i) Cooling.
dow. Not more than 12 drenchers may be fixed on (ii) Dilution of oxygen supplies.
any horizontal line of pipe, and not more than six (iii) Dilution (or removal) of the liquid (fuel).
on one side of the vertical feedpipe.
9.2.2 Cooling
9.1.7 Discharge
Oil burns as a vapour distilling from the surface of
Drenchers may be either open or sealed. Open the liquid involved in fire. Cooling the liquid
drenchers are operated simultaneously by the reduces the rate of vapourisation and consequently
opening of the main valve, while the sealed types the rate at which the fuel can reach the fire. When
are individually actuated in the same way as a water is applied to the burning surface, the oil is
sprinkler head. Sealed drenchers differ little from cooled by contact with it, and heat absorbed by the
sprinkler heads except in the shape of the deflector water raises the water temperature and converts
plate. They normally operate on the alternate sys- part at least into steam.
tem, and are more economical in the use of water
than open drenchers, since only those heads oper- The latent heat of vaporisation of water (2,260
ate which are required, and the pressure in conse- kj/kg) is such that it is of little importance whether
quence is maintained more efficiently. the water projected on to the oil is hot or cold - the
cooling effect is caused primarily by its conversion
Multiple control layouts (similar to that shown in to steam. When water strikes the hot surface of the
Figure 6.2) may also be found. Although they have oil, considerable disturbance is caused and the
open heads, the main distribution pipes are charged underlying cool oil is mixed with hot oil, which is
with water or air, as the case may be, and these sys- thereby cooled, thus further reducing the rate of
tems are therefore classed as 'sealed' types. vapour formation.
9.1.8 Drainage 9.2.3 Dilution of oxygen supplies
All pipes and fittings above the controlling valves The steam formed by the vaporisation of the
must be so arranged that the water can be drained applied water displaces air from the zone of com-
away. A 20mm drain tap and pipe must be fitted bustion and thus tends to smother the fire.
immediately above each controlling valve. Furthermore, in water-spray projector systems,

projectors, all of which come into operation at the other is used to provide protection to plant equip-
outbreak of fire, surround the whole of the proba- ment and to prevent explosions (medium velocity
ble fire area. system).
The steam generated, together with the products of (a) High velocity system
combustion seeking to escape from the fire, tend to
be driven back into the zone of combustion, and The high velocity system is used on fires involving
thus still further reduce the oxygen available for medium and heavy oils or similar flammable liq-
combustion. uids. This system applies water in the form of a
conical spray consisting of high-velocity droplets;
9.2.4 Dilution of the liquid the three principles of extinguishment described
above are employed, namely, cooling, smothering
If a flammable liquid, which will mix with water, and emulsification.
is progressively diluted, a stage will be reached
where so much water is present that the liquid will (i) Projectors
no longer burn. Petroleum oils, however, cannot
mix with water but under certain conditions are The conical spray of water is discharged through
capable of forming an emulsion, which may con- specially designed high velocity projectors (Figure
sist of globules of oil suspended in water, or glob- 9.3). These are made in various sizes and are
ules of water suspended in oil. designed to give an even distribution of water over
the area covered. The different sizes give a combi-
The nature of emulsion varies widely, as does its nation of differing flow rates and angles.
stability; for instance, an emulsion will only last in
spirit, such as petrol, whilst it is being formed, The equipment is equally suitable for indoor or
whereas in heavy oils it may take several hours to outdoor use because the pipework can be so
break down. The formation of emulsion demands designed that no water enters the installation until
energy, which must be provided by the water strik- a fire is detected. The risk of water freezing in the
ing the surface of the oil, thus high velocity, is pipework is, therefore, eliminated.
required to give high energy to the water drops.
Some of the energy may also come from the heat (ii) Methods of operation
content of the hot oil.
High velocity water-spray projector systems can
This, in evaporating some of the water supplied, be either automatic or manual in operation or, in
causes turbulence, which emulsifies the rest. The some cases, manual only. Manual control is usual-
flammability of an oil-in-water emulsion (that is ly by hand-operated valves placed outside the
one in which the drops of oil are surrounded by probable fire zone or by valves with remote con-
water) is low because the heat from the fire must trol from one or more points. There are two main
pass through the enevelope of water surrounding forms of automatic operation.
each drop of oil before the latter can be vaporised
and add its fuel to the fire. The arrangement shown in Figure 9.4 is used in
situations where fires in their incipient stages are
The relative importance of each of these three fac- likely to be small. Projectors are arranged in small
tors in the extinction of an oil fire varies consider- groups to cover the risk, each group being con-
ably, but all three undoubtedly play a part in the nected by pipework to glass-bulb type automatic
operation of a water-spray projector system. controls. When fire causes a control to operate,
water is discharged simultaneously through the
9.2.5 Types of system projectors in the group.
There are two basic types of water-spray systems When this type of equipment is installed in situa-
installed as fixed equipment. One of these is used tions where the temperature may fall below freez-
to extinguish fires (high velocity system) and the ing point, the pipework between the controlling

Figure 9.3 Two types of
high velocity water-
spray projectors.
Figure 9.4 An
illustration of a water
spray projection system Automatic control
and (inset) detail of an
automatic control.
Projector
To alarm motor
and gong or
pressure
switch
Drain pipe
Section
control valve
Detail of the
(wet or dry)
automatic
control viewed
Water main from below
valves and the automatic controls is charged with projectors are designed to operate simultaneously,
compressed air. A typical application of this method of control is
the deluge system illustrated in Figure 9.5 and
Where fires are likely to be larger or to spread Figure 9.6.
rapidly over an extended area, a larger number of

Figure 9.5 Diagram
showing the
Compressed air
supply Projectors Detector arrangement of
projectors to protect an
electrical transformer.
Automatic
deluge valve
Water main Dwarf wall Related items not to scale
The escaping compressed air causes a rapid fall in

pressure on the diaphragm in the automatic deluge
valve, to which both systems of pipework are con-
nected. The movement of the diaphragm causes
the deluge valve to open and water to pass through
the projectors.
(iii) Alarms
An alarm is a normal part of a water-spray projec-

tor system. It is usually of a type very similar to
that used in a sprinkler system, i.e. a loud sound-
ing gong operated by a water motor which is dri-
ven by a small flow of water diverted at the
installation controlling valves when open. In addi-
Figure 9.6 A typical emulsified water projection system
tion, an electrical alarm may be provided to give
in operation.
warning at some control point of the outbreak of
Projectors mounted on empty pipework command fire and its location.
the whole of the exterior of the transformer and its
conservation tank, and also the floor area around (iv) General
the transformer. Glass bulb detectors, mounted on
independent pipework containing compressed air, Combined high velocity systems and sprinkler
are so positioned that, wherever a fire may origi- protection may be used in some industrial process-
nate, one at least will operate and allow the comes, which involve the use of flammable liquids. A
pressed air in the pipework to escape. glass bulb control forms the fire detecting element

and automatic valve for a group of projectors and 1301 as an extinguishing agent has created a need
open sprinklers of a special type which are for a suitable alternative and, in many applications,
designed to distribute the water discharge over a water mist can be used.
wide ceiling area.
BS 6266, a code of practice for the fire protection
When the control operates, water is discharged of electronic equipment installations recognises
from the projectors on to the burning liquid and water mist suppression as a suitable extinguishing
from sprinklers on to the ceiling and adjacent walls. medium.
(b) Medium velocity system Water mist systems generate a water spray pattern
of finely divided droplets from a very small supply
When a fire occurs, this system applies water in of water.
finely divided droplets travelling at medium veloc-
ity. It is primarily a protective rather than an extin- Pumps generate pressures of:
guishing system, and produces the following  Low pressure system - up to 12 bar
effects:  Intermediate pressure system - 12-34 bar
 High pressure system - 34-272 bar.
(i) Cooling of the external surface of exposed
vessels and supporting structures, thus
inhibiting fire spread, pressure build-up or Water flow rates are between 1-13 1/min
structural failure.
Discharging water through small nozzles creates
(ii) Controlling the burning of flammable liq- the spray pattern in high water pressure systems. In
uids, by cooling their surface and the area lower pressure systems the spray is created by dis-
above it by diluting the air and vapour feed- charging water through nozzles, which create the
ing the fire. mist mechanically. Mechanical nozzles either cre-
(iii) Producing air turbulence in the vicinity of ate the mist by swirling the water on discharge or
gas leakages, thus diluting the gas and thereby causing the water to impact on a deflector,
by reducing the possibility of combustion or rather in the manner of a standard sprinkler head.
explosion.
Water mist extinguishes fire by three combining
Medium velocity systems are very similar in opera- effects. These are
tion and layout to the high velocity systems previ-
ously described. The sprayers discharge a cone of (i) heat extraction (cooling),
water spray consisting of small droplets of water (ii) oxygen displacement,
with a range of different sizes and discharging
angles. In most installations the system can be dis- (iii) radiant heat blocking.
charged automatically and manually, although some The mist behaves as a vapour and can be drawn
systems may be found which only operate manually. towards otherwise inaccessible areas by the air
There are three main forms of automatic operation: flow created by a fire. The finely divided droplets
have an extraordinary large surface area to volume
(i) The automatic control type, similar to that
ratio and thus are extremely efficient at absorbing
shown in Figure 9.4.
heat. The cooling effect of the mist is enhanced by
(ii) The deluge type, as shown in Figure 9.5. the ready conversion of the water droplets into
steam, taking advantage of the latent heat of vapor-
(iii) Glass-bulb sealed sprayers, which operate isation of water.
individually like sprinkler heads.
9.2.6 Water mist systems This is particularly the case where large or hot fires
are being tackled. There is also some displacement
Water mist systems were developed as an extin- of oxygen by the mist and, ultimately, steam in the
guishing system for marine and other specialist vicinity of the fire and blocking of some of the
applications. However, the withdrawal of Halon radiant heat reaching the fuel source. However,

Figure 9.7
Foam concentrate Proportional-lank
Filler cap
mechanical foam
Manhole installation.
Foam concentrate
Flexible
bag Perforated
syphon tube
Valves
open
Water
Pressure Inter-
vessel connected
valves
Valves
Flow indicator closed
Water main
Drain supplying
valve f oam-making Venturi
equipment
Direction
of water
flow
Foam
solution
both of these effects are considered secondary to and generators, and the operational use of foam are
the cooling effect of the mist. to be found in Fire Service Manual Volume 1.
Firefighting Foam - Techniques and Volume 2.
Water spray systems can be used on live electrical Fire Service Operations - Foam.
apparatus including sensitive electronic apparatus,
particularly where de-ionized water is used. 9.3.1 Foam and foam-making
However, it is thought advisable to power down equipment.
equipment before the water is applied.
(a) Proportional-tank mechanical foam
Water mist systems can be activated automatically installation
either by using heat sensitive discharge nozzles or
by responding to remote heat detection such as This type (Figure 9.7) comprises a pressure vessel
point heat detectors or a line detection installation. inside which is fitted a flexible rubber bag. The bag
is filled to maximum capacity with foam concen-
There are no British Standards relating to water trate. A venturi is fitted into the main water line, and
mist systems. However, the National Fire a connection made from the upstream side of the
Protection Association (NFPA) in the USA pro- venturi to the outside of the flexible rubber bag. A
vides detailed analysis of water mist systems and connection is also made from the inside of the bag
their components in the eighteenth edition of their to the downstream side of the venturi.
Fire Protection Handbook.
When an outlet is opened, water flows through the
9.3 Foam installations (Low venturi creating a slight downstream pressure
Expansion - LX) drop. The relative upstream pressure squeezes the
bag and forces the foam concentrate into the main
There are three types of fixed foam installation and water supply downstream of the venturi.
these are described below. Details of the types and
properties of foam, the principles of operation of An increase in the water flow causes the down-
basic foam-making equipment such as inductors stream pressure to drop even more; this in turn

Figure 9.8 Pump-
Filler Breather
operated foam
installation.
Pressure Control orifice

relief or constant
valve flow valve
Sight
tube
-Foam concentrate pump
Main water supply Foam solution to

protected area
allows more foam concentrate to flow into the carbon dioxide gas cylinder (or cylinders) of
water stream, thus maintaining the correct propor- appropriate capacity, having a disclosure valve and
tion. The resulting foam solution is fed to the a lever-operated piercing head. The rate of dis-
appropriate foam makers or pourers in the area to charge of the CO2 gas in the event of fire is con-
be protected. trolled so that a continuous pressure will be
maintained within the storage tank, giving a con-
As with most foam systems, this type of installa- stant rate of flow of foam.
tion is situated outside the area to be protected.
An outbreak of fire will cause the fusible link
(b) Pump-operated foam installation (Figure 9.9( 1)) to break and allow the weight (2) to
fall. This raises the lever of the piercing head (3)
This system is illustrated in Figure 9.8. Actuation thus releasing CO2 gas from the cylinder (4) into
of the system (either manually or automatically) the storage tank (5). The foam solution (6) is
triggers a pump, which draws foam concentrate forced up the siphon tube and along the outlet pipe
from a simple atmospheric tank and injects it into to the foam generator (7). The foam is distributed
the main water supply at a higher pressure. The by perforated pipes or spreaders (8) which are
flow of foam concentrate is controlled by either a arranged to give even or concentrated distribution
metering orifice or a constant flow valve. Unlike (e.g. over a boiler front) as required.
the system illustrated in Figure 9.7, this system is
only suitable for a fixed flow. If any of the systems described in (a), (b) or (c)
above protect more than one area of risk, distribu-
(c) Pre-mixed foam installation tion valves may be included to direct the foam to
the required area.
A pre-mixed foam installation (Figure 9.9) compris-
es a cylindrical storage tank, designed for a maxi- 9.4 Foam Installations
mum working pressure of about 10 bar, which is (High Expansion - HX)
filled with a foam solution (i.e. foam concentrate
and water). The quantity and depth of the foam cov- High expansion foam, as used in fixed installa-
erage required determine the capacity of the tank. tions, is a mass of uniform bubbles normally hav-
The tank is fitted with an inlet connection from a ing an expansion ratio of between 200 and 1200

volumes of foam for each volume of solution. One (i) Alarms sound in the affected area.
of its principal attributes, therefore, is the ability to (ii) A valve opens allowing water to pass to the
produce a large amount of foam from a small generator,
amount of water, with a consequent reduction in (iii) The pump motor is switched on and foam
water damage. concentrate is injected into the water supply
at a predetermined rate,
In addition to the actual production of foam, high
(iv) The fan motor (if fitted) is started.
expansion foam installations can incorporate
devices which automatically close fire-resisting Water gathers in an accumulator, producing pneu-
doors and open roof vents. Such installations are matic pressure which opens protective doors on
electrically operated by relays from an automatic the generator, opens doors covering duct openings
fire detector operating on the 'rate of rise of tem- in the affected area and sets in motion the mecha-
perature' principle. nism for closing fire-resisting doors and opening
roof vents.
The output of an automatic high expansion foam
installation will vary depending on the generator High expansion foam installations may also be
used. These are available in a wide output range, found in open areas, as shown in Figure 9.10. The
and the use of multiple generators can provide sys- system illustrated uses a series of generators pow-
tems with a virtually unlimited output so allowing ered by water turbine as described elsewhere. It
an assessment to be made of the size and number produces foam with an expansion ratio of between
of generators required to provide adequate foam 400:1 and 700:1, and operation can be either man-
delivery in any type of building. ual or automatic.
If any one detector locates a fire, the install- 9.5 Foam inlets
ation actuates and the following sequence of
event is set in motion. (In practice they occur In many buildings rooms containing oil or other
simultaneously.) flammable liquids are protected by fixed piping
Figure 9.9 Pre-mixed

Actuating head (3) Foam generator (7) Fusible link (1) foam installation.
Storage tank (5) Spreader (8)
Outlet pipe Foam
Fire risk area
Weight (2) C0 2 (4) Foam solution (6)

Figure 9.10 A typical HX
foam application system
in operation.
through which foam can be pumped. The piping is ilar principles and for all practical purposes may
run from the room to an appropriate point in the be treated as being the same.
street where it terminates in a fire service inlet
(Figure 9.11) usually protected by a glass panel and The outlet valves of these hydrants are usually
marked with the words FOAM INLET, together sealed with a wire and lead seal by the water author-
with an indication of the particular risk involved. ity to prevent them from being used for purposes
other than firefighting. The outlets are mostly of the
The inlet pipes are fitted with a foam inlet adaptor, wheel-operated type opening anti-clockwise; the
a specification for which is included in BS 336 direction of opening, however, is always indicated
(1980). This has a tapered orifice against which the either on the wheel itself or on a plate fitted between
foam-making branch is held by hand. The orifice is the wheel and the locking nut.
suitable for most types of low expansion (foam-
making) branch. The occupier may provide hose for use with risers
or internal hydrants, but the modern tendency is to
This arrangement ensures that foam can be applied provide a small diameter hose reel, which is more
where it is required in the early stages of what may manageable by untrained persons making an initial
be a fierce fire without it being necessary for fire- attack on a fire.
fighters to enter the compartment.
There are two types of rising main:
9.6 Rising mains  Wet risers.
A rising main (Figure 9.12) consists essentially of  Dry risers.

a pipe installed vertically in a building with a fire
service inlet or town main connection at the lower 9.6.1 Wet risers
end and outlets at various levels throughout the
building. A wet riser is a pipe kept permanently charged
with water, which is then immediately available
In some buildings a system of internal private for use on any floor at which a hydrant outlet
hydrants is fitted and whilst this system is not (sometimes known as a landing valve) is provided.
strictly speaking a rising main, it operates on sim- The riser is connected to a town main of

Figure 9.11 A Fire
Service foam inlet.
Tapered type in
accordance with BS 336.
suitable capacity with a shut-off control valve It enables an upper floor level fire to be attacked
installed. by the fire brigade with a line of standard hose
without the loss of time entailed in having to
If the building height is such that the pressure in lay hose up through the building from the
the main is insufficient to supply four 13mm jets at street.
2.5 bar at the highest outlet, booster pumps are
necessary at suitable levels to ensure the mainte- It also has a considerably greater capacity than
nance of the required pressure and flow. 70mm hose and obviates the risk of water damage,
which might occur if a hose line burst in a part of
Where these pumps are employed, the landing the building not affected by fire.
valves must be fitted with a pressure regulator to
ensure that the pressure head against the pumps Further, since an outlet at or near roof level is
(which can be in excess of 20 bar), is not transmit- invariably provided, a riser can be used to feed
ted to the hose. branches covering a fire in an adjacent
building.
A similar function to that of a wet riser is per-
formed by what is known as a 'down-comer'. This, A dry riser is charged through inlets at ground
like a wet riser, is constructed of vertical piping, level, which are usually housed in external glass-
but is supplied with water from a tank in the roof fronted boxes. Each box is normally identified by
or at intermediate levels. the words 'DRY RISER' painted in red on the
glass. Inlets may occasionally be found below
9.6.2 Dry risers pavement level in a box with a cover similar to that
used for a hydrant.
A dry riser is simply a vertical pipe, which is
normally kept empty of water, fitted with outlets at An air valve is sometimes fitted at the highest point
various floor levels in the building. It is not in the pipe (see Figure 9.12) to allow contained air
connected to a water supply, but is charged when to discharge to atmosphere when the riser is charged
required by means of fire service pumps. In effect, with water. Without such a provision, air in the riser
it is a substitute for a line of hose, over which it has might be compressed in the upper part of the pipe
many advantages. and prevent it being fully charged.

The air valve, if fitted, is constructed to admit air quantity of water pressure above this
to the pipe where it is drained after use and so pre- height. For operational reasons, however, the fire
vent the creation of the partial vacuum, which service may require dry or wet risers at levels
would result in pockets of water being trapped. lower than those quoted above.
Dry risers are provided with a drain cock fitted The outlets from risers should be found in a fire-
beneath the inlets to enable the system to be fighting staircase lobby, in an enclosed staircase
drained after use. Additionally, where an outlet is forming part of an exit, or in a fire enclosure. They
fixed at a position below the inlet valves, a further may be placed in a glazed cupboard, clearly
drain valve is fitted at the lowest point of the riser. marked in accordance with BS 5499: Part 1.
When emptying a dry riser, it is advisable, if no
automatic air valve is fitted, to open the highest Brigades should devise their own plans to over-
outlet to admit air. come the problem of theft of wheel valves and
other removable parts of outlets which, if not
9.6.3 Types to be used anticipated, will render the riser unserviceable in
the event of a fire.
The type of rising main to be installed in a build-
ing is generally determined by the height of the Further, where a dry riser is installed, the possibil-
building. In buildings over 20m in height, it is rec- ity of vandalism may make it necessary to check
ommended that a dry rising fire main be installed, that the wheel valves on each floor are in fact
and in those above 60m, a wet riser is necessary. turned off before charging the riser at the inlet.
As mentioned earlier, booster pumps will be Various methods are being tried in buildings to
required and a storage tank of about 45m1 disguise and/or protect riser outlets from vandals.
capacity will be needed with a wet riser. The It is important therefore that the fire brigade is
reason why a wet riser must be provided above 60m familiar with the siting of, and access to, rising
is that brigade pumps will not supply the necessary main outlets in buildings within its area.
Figure 9.12 Diagram illustrating the salient

features of a dry-rising fire main.
Air valve •
Dry rising main
Inlet
Drain valve

9.7 Hose reels 20-25mm in diameter is employed and a light
branch with a shut-off nozzle is fitted.
Hydraulic hose reels (Figure 9.13) are suitable as
the first line of attack in buildings as an alternative 9.7.2 Operation
to portable fire extinguishers. The comparative
lightness and lack of jet reaction from the nozzle To operate this type of hose reel, all that is neces-
makes the hose reel easy to operate. sary is to turn on the valve and, holding the branch,
pull off as much tubing as necessary from the reel;
Since only the amount of tubing required needs to the shut-off nozzle is opened when the fire is
be pulled off the reel before the water is turned on reached. On some types an automatic valve is fit-
(in some cases the water can be turned on before ted to obviate serious delay should the operator fail
any tubing is run out) only one person is needed to to turn on the valve before taking the branch to the
operate it. fire.
So many different types of hose reel are in use that In one type the action of removing the branch from
it is impractical to describe every variation. In its holder opens the valve; in another the valve is
principal, however, the equipment is very similar automatically turned on by the rotation of the drum
to the standard hose reel fitted to fire appliances, after a few turns of tubing have been pulled off.
and no difficulty should be experienced in using
any type found. To ensure that the tubing pays out easily without
kinking or fouling, some form of metal guide is
9.7.1 Connections provided, or alternatively, the whole reel swings in
the direction in which the tubing is being unreeled.
A connection is made to the nearest water supply, Hose reels are sometimes provided with a fixed
which may be a wet riser or some kind of internal metal cover to prevent the collection of dust and to
hydrant system. A stop valve is fitted to control protect the rubber tubing from exposure to light,
the supply of water to the hose reel, which is which in time causes deterioration of the rubber.
usually charged to the nozzle before this valve is
closed. 9.8 Private hydrants
The reel itself is mounted on a hollow rotating Private hydrants are often installed in premises
shaft, to the centre of which is fed through a stuff- with extensive yards, sidings, storage areas, etc.
ing box gland, the tubing being connected to an where the nearest statutory hydrant is a consider-
outlet on this rotating shaft. Rubber tubing of able distance from the risk, or where the nature of
Figure 9.13 Cross-sectional drawing of a typical

hydraulic hose reel.
Tubing
- Connection
Rotating
stuffing-
to tubing
box
gland Hollow
• rotating
shaft
Swinging
stuffing-
box
gland • Hose
reel

the risk requires large quantities of water to be to mark the position of private hydrants, although
immediately to hand. various individual markings may still be found.
The hydrants themselves are of various patterns,
9.8.1 Connections the most common being the standard underground
hydrant; less common are pillar hydrants and wall
These hydrants may be connected to the service hydrants.
main to the premises, if this is of large enough capac-
ity, to a separate branch from the town main, to a 9.8.3 Outlets
ring main which is connected to the town main at
two points or, occasionally, by a single connection. The outlets of private hydrants usually conform to
BS 750, although other types may be found. Where
Ring mains are also installed without any connec- private hydrants are non-standard, adaptors should
tion to town mains, being supplied from private be provided at the premises to enable fire brigade
water supplies such as overhead tanks, reservoirs, equipment to be used.
lakes, canals, etc. Some premises with a supply
from lakes, canals, etc. may also use the town main 9.8.4 By-pass valves
as a supplementary or primary supply in a fire
situation. As private mains usually supply the domestic
needs of the premises, they are almost always fit-
In this event, the arrangement of valves in the sys- ted with a water meter so that the water undertak-
tem must ensure that there can be no possibility of ings can record the consumption. Where water is
contamination of the town main. fed into industrial premises for business purposes
through a meter, it is common practice for a by-
A ring main installation has many obvious advan- pass to be fitted.
tages. The most important is that any hydrant is fed
by both arms of the ring, since a division valve is If water on the factory side of the meter is required
fitted in connections with the town main or other for firefighting, the meter can be by-passed by
water supply and, sometimes, at intermediate opening the by-pass valve, thus eliminating fric-
points. tional resistance through the meter. In addition, the
water used for firefighting does not register on the
It may be possible to isolate a damaged section and meter.
thus allow a portion of the ring to remain in action.
Where premises are equipped with a sprinkler The location of the valve controlling a meter by-
system as well as private hydrants, separate pass should be indicated by a standard by-pass
branches should be provided for each. indicator plate (see Fire Service Manual, Volume 1
Fire Service Technology, Equipment and Media -
9.8.2 Hydrant markings Hydraulics, Pumps and Water Supplies.). The
valve is usually wire-locked in the closed position
Increasing use is being made of standard hydrant and when a hydrant is used for fire fighting, the
indicator plates (see also Fire Service Manual, valve should be opened fully to enable the maxi-
Volume 1 Fire Service Technology, Equipment and mum flow to be obtained.
Media - Hydraulics, Pumps and Water Supplies)

10
Chapter 10 - Extinguishing systems not
using water
This chapter deals with the equipment and fittings (ii) Flammable liquids, e.g. paint store, paint dip
installed to protect buildings by means other than tanks, small spray booths, solvent stores,
the use of water. A firefighter needs to be familiar printing ink.
with the types of media used in the installations.
They include carbon dioxide and halon systems (iii) Chemical laboratories and chemical stores
with a brief mention of powder and inert gas (depending on the type of chemicals
equipment. involved).
10.1 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) (iv) Libraries, archives, valuable art stores,
installations record stores, etc.
10.1.1 Applications and limitations of (v) Diesel locomotives, ships' holds, machinery
carbon dioxide in textile industry.
The use of carbon dioxide installations is confined Systems may be:

primarily to hazards which are located inside
buildings, or around which protective screens can  Total flooding system
be erected. Although heavier than air, the gas may  Local application system
be dispersed away from the fire if subjected to any  Manual hose reel system.
appreciable currents of air.
A total flooding system is one where CO2 is dis-
The gas discharges at low temperature, but this charged into an enclosed space in sufficient quan-
does not produce much cooling effect in the fire tity to produce a concentration able to extinguish a
area and is never taken into consideration when fire throughout that space.
designing an installation, dilution of the atmos-
phere being the main extinguishing effect. A local application system is one where a fire-
fighting concentration of CO2 is discharged onto a
Carbon dioxide is not suitable for extinguishing specific hazard or into a defined area which has no
fires involving materials which contain their own surrounding enclosure. Examples of local applica-
oxygen supply, e.g. nitrates, chlorates or reactive tion systems include printing presses, textile
metals such as sodium, potassium, magnesium, machinery, spray booths and oil-filled electrical
etc. It has a particular application where delicate transformers and switchgear.
equipment or materials are involved and some
examples of the type of risk where it can be used A manual hose reel system consists of a hose
satisfactorily are: stowed on a reel or on a rack with a manually oper-
ated discharge nozzle supplied by a fixed pipe
(i) A wide variety of electrical apparatus and from a bulk supply. Manual hose reel systems can
electronic equipment, e.g. electrical switch- be used as an alternative to fixed pipe systems pro-
gear, transformers, alternators, computers, viding the hazard being protected is accessible for
and telephone relays and repeater stations. manual firefighting.
Previous page
is blank
However, there is a risk to persons using such ular hazard. Operation of the installation can be
equipment, not only from asphyxiation but also either automatic, or manual, by the use of electri-
from frost burns from the low temperatures associ- cal or mechanical equipment (see Figure 10.1 and
ated with CO2 discharge. Figure 10.2).
10.1.2 Gas stored in cylinders Where protection is required for more than one
compartment or zone, one of the following
An installation consists of a battery of one or more arrangements is usually found:
cylinders of carbon dioxide interconnected by a
manifold and feeding into a system of high-pres- (i) Sufficient cylinders may be provided to
sure distribution pipework. flood all spaces simultaneously;
Special discharge nozzles are fitted at intervals on (ii) A separate group of cylinders may be pro-
the pipework and upon operation of the installa- vided for each space, in which case they can
tion, the gas is discharged, with considerable be interconnected and used as reserves;
noise, into the protected space or on to the partic-
Figure 10.1 A battery of

CO2 cylinders covering
Pressure a small risk.
Typical Nozzles To Indicators etc Switch
Flexible
Connector Actuators
(various)
Manifold
Valve
Valve Masters
Slaves
Container
Supports

Figure 10.2 An example of a small local application
CO2 system.
(Photo: Chubb Fire)
(iii) One battery of cylinders may be used with allowing sufficient gas to be released to totally
adjustable valves to direct the gas to the re- flood the protected space, and then automatically
quired space (this is termed 'joint protection'). closes.
10.1.3 Gas stored in refrigerated tanks Overriding manual control is incorporated into the
design of the system and, should re-ignition occur,
Here the gas is stored in a refrigerated tank at a further charges can be released into the space as
temperature of -180°C and at a pressure of about required.
20 bar. The tank is connected by suitable pipework
to the discharge nozzles in the protected space. 10.1.4 General considerations
Tank capacity ranges from 3 tonne and a number
of different risks within the same premises can be When considering how much gas is required and
protected using a single tank. what type of installation is necessary, the main fac-
tors, which are given attention, are:
Operation of the system is usually triggered off by
the use of a suitable automatic fire detection sys- (i) The volume of space,
tem. When it operates, a distribution valve is auto-
matically opened for a predetermined period, (ii) The nature of the hazard.

(iii) Whether the hazard is enclosed or not. matic feature only (leaving overriding manu-
al control).
(iv) Whether fire is likely to spread from one
compartment to another. (ii) Completely immobilise the installation.
(v) The chances of fire recurring in more than These devices can usually be operated from a
one space at a time. remote position outside the protected area.
10.1.5 Methods of operation 10.1.7 Indicating and alarm devices
(i) Total flooding systems Automatic visual warning, using a system of

coloured indicator lights, is usually provided to
Total flooding systems are often operated automat- indicate:
ically either by point heat detectors or a line detec-
tion system installed in the protected area. (i) Manual control.
Facilities to operate the system manually are also
provided outside of the protected area. (ii) Automatic control.
Activation of the system is indicated by a system (iii) Carbon dioxide discharged.

alarm in the protected area. The system alarm
should also trigger the general fire alarm in the In addition, visible and/or audible warning may be
building. Lock off devices are provided to prevent provided to indicate an electrical fault. All indica-
the discharge of CO2 whilst persons are in the pro- tors may terminate at a central control where nec-
tected area. (See Section 10.1 below.) essary, in addition to a warning on site.
(ii) Local application systems 10.1.8 Other automatic devices
Local application systems are operated in much By diverting a small amount of gas to pressure-
the same way as total flooding systems except that operated switches and trip mechanisms it is possi-
where people can leave the space in which the dis- ble automatically to:
charge takes place, no lock-off provision is
made. (i) Operate door-closing devices.
If it is necessary for people to work close to the (ii) Close openings in ventilating ducts,
hazard protected by a local application system
where they might be enveloped with CO2 gas, a (iii) Switch off ventilating systems,
pre-discharge alarm is provided. This will give
them sufficient time to evacuate the area before (iv) Operate fire curtains.
CO2 is released.
10.1.9 General safety precautions
Where it may be difficult for people to make a
rapid exit, such as maintenance workers servicing Aisles and routes of exits should be kept clear at
plant protected by a local application system, lock- all times. Adequate lighting and/or emergency
off devices will be provided. lighting with directional signs to ensure quick staff
evacuation may be necessary for large protected
10.1.6 Lock-off devices chambers. Sufficient alarms should be provided
within the area to operate immediately upon detec-
Lock-off devices are designed to: tion of fire and at the time of CO2 discharge.
(i) Disable the automatic operation of a CO2 Alternatively, the alarms should sound for a timed
system. The device will 'lock-off the auto- interval before operation of the CO2 installation.

Automatic closure of doors should not prevent the 10.1.10 Action by the Fire Service
doors being reopened by trapped personnel.
Outward-swinging self-closing doors are recom- In addition to being an asphyxiant, discharged car-
mended. bon dioxide should be regarded as a toxic gas.
Exposure to atmospheres containing about 5%
Warning and instructional signs or notices should CO2 leads to shortage of breath and headache.
be positioned at the entrance to protected fire risks. Concentrations of around 10% can cause visual
In most cases where CO, is installed, the actual disturbance, ringing in the ears and tremor, fol-
hazard to personnel is rather small, but the hazard lowed by loss of consciousness. Concentrations
will always be greater where the enclosure is large for firefighting often exceed 30%. Breathing appa-
and where carbon dioxide may enter adjacent ratus must be worn by personnel entering an area
spaces such as pits and basements. in which a CO2 installation has been discharged
The extent and type of warning must be designed CO 2 is denser than air and will accumulate at lower
to suit the particular site but it should always levels. Care should be taken to ensure that areas
include the symbol shown in Figure 10.3. Usually, likely to contain residual pockets of CO2 gas are
adequate warning notices, bells and indicating thoroughly ventilated before being entered by
lights are provided with an installation for the unprotected personnel.
guidance of staff and it is recommended that fire-
fighters should comply with the instructions given 10.2 Halon installations
on such notices.
Halon has been identified as a source of ozone
Instruction and drills should be carried out to depletion. Consequently, European and UK legis-
ensure that correct action is taken by staff when the lation requires that, except for a very few 'critical
equipment operates. Provision should be made for situations', all halon installations must be decom-
the prompt ventilation of areas into which CO2 has missioned by the 31 December 2003.
been discharged. The hazardous atmosphere
should be dissipated and not merely transferred to In addition, no system can be refilled after
another area. 1 January 2003. The decommisioning of halon sys-
tems must be undertaken by a person certificated
as being competent in the disposal of redundant
halon. Under no circumstances should halon be
released into the atmosphere.
Brigades having halon installations in their area

under the 'critical user' definition should ensure
that personnel likely to be called to an incident
Central disc Vertical white band involving the discharge of halon are familiar with
762mm x 152mm the safety precautions to be taken.
At the time of writing (2003) various halon alter-

native gaseous products are coming onto the mar-
ket. Where these systems are known to exist, the
safety procedures outlined for CO2 installations
should be adopted.
10.3 Powder installations

Figure 10.3 Standard CO2 warning symbol.
Powder provides a further range of chemical
agents available as extinguishing media, and the
properties of these are dealt with in the Manual of

Firemanship, Book 3 Chapter 5. In common with lations can normally be operated automatically or
halons, powders offer the advantage of a quick manually.
knock-down of fire, but unlike halons, they have
negligible toxic effects. Powder can be used on various flammable liquids,
flammable gases, oil-filled equipment and in the
A major disadvantage is that powders require a lot case of general combustible solids where the fire is
of clearing up once an installation has operated. on the surface. Special powders have been devel-
Compacting of the powder is also a problem, due oped to deal with metal fires (see Manual of
to heat or vibration in normal storage and in moist Firemanship, Part 6C, Practical Firemanship III,
atmospheres; this could present difficulties in the Chapter 45 Section 7 'Metal Fires').
maintenance of the system, especially after dis-
charge when compacting could take place in 10.4 Inert gas installations
valves, etc. The more recently developed powders
however, do not have this problem. Several inert gas systems using the combustion prod-
ucts of diesel oil have been developed. These systems
A dry powder installation consists of specially can generate large amounts of gas (being mostly
designed pipework and discharge nozzles covering nitrogen) so that whilst a fire is being dealt with in
the protected risk, the pipework being linked to the one particular space, the gas can also be directed to
powder containers. When a fire occurs it is neces- adjacent spaces to stop it spreading. Alternatively,
sary to exert pressure on the powder so that it is spaces can be kept permanently filled with inert gas
forced through the pipework and discharge nozzles. as a precaution against an outbreak of fire.
This is usually done with CO2; a line detector is
linked to a lever which when actuated allows the The use of this type of installation is mainly con-
head of a CO2 cylinder to be pierced (similar to the fined to the protection of ships' holds and is
operation shown in Figure 9.9). The carbon diox- described in detail in the Fire Service Manual,
ide thus released ejects the powder. Powder instal- Volume 2, Marine Incidents.

Section 2 - Fire warning and detection

systems

Introduction
This section deals with electrical fire warning and

detection systems. These may be a simple manual-
ly operated system or a combination of manual and
automatic operation. Thus, a warning of fire in a
building can be given either by a person actuating
the fire warning system by means of a call point or
automatically by means of a detection system.
Automatic fire detection systems (AFD) are

increasingly being used to compensate for varia-
tions to the means of escape or structural protec-
tion standards, or to activate equipment designed
to reduce the spread of fire, heat and smoke by
ventilation or other means.
Automatic fire warning systems can be linked

directly into fire brigade control rooms, alarm-
receiving centres or to automatic dialling appara-
tus that will put in an emergency call to the
brigade.
Fire alarm and detection systems are covered by

the British Standard BS 5839: Part 1 'Fire and
Detection and Alarm Systems for Buildings'.
Systems installed and maintained to this standard
will not only meet optimum levels of efficiency
but may also attract insurance premium benefits.
This part of the Manual examines the principles of

the various types of fire alarm systems, including
those designed specifically for domestic use, and
gives examples of situations where their use can be
most advantageous.
Previous page
is blank Fire Protection of Buildings 75
i
11
Chapter 11 - Automatic fire detection
11.1 Principles of automatic fire  Smoke

detection  Heat
 Flame
An automatic fire detection system consists of  Line.
point type detectors linked by a dedicated circuit to
a control system and arranged to give a prescribed The choice of type of detector system (Figure
warning when fire is detected. 11.1) has to be based on the type of risk to be pro-
tected, the circumstances surrounding that risk,
The function of the fire detectors is to detect one or reliability, robustness and, lastly, economics.
more changes in the protected environment
indicating the development of a fire condition. 11.2 Types of fire alarm and
They may operate: detection systems
(i) When the invisible products of combustion Systems may be installed in buildings for:
are being released.  The protection of life.
(ii) When smoke is being produced,  The protection of property.
(iii) When the temperature in the vicinity of the  A mixture of these purposes, either simulta-
fire rises rapidly or reaches a predetermined neously or at different times and places.
figure.
BS 5839: Part 1 divides systems into a number of
The types of detector designed to operate at these different categories, each identified by a letter and
stages are: a number.
Figure 11.1 Types of

detector systems.
FIRE DETECTORS
HEAT (CONVECTIVE)
SMOKE FLAME RADIATION

POINT LINE
DETECTORS DETECTORS
FIXED RATE OF RISE INTEGRATING NON- ULTRA-VIOLET INFRA-RED

TEMPERATURE OF TEMPERATURE DETECTORS INTEGRATING DETECTORS DETECTORS
DETECTORS DETECTORS DETECTORS
POINT LINE SAMPLING

DETECTORS DETECTORS DETECTORS
IONISATION LIGHT LIGHT IONISATION LIGHT

CHAMBER SCATTER OBSCURATION CHAMBER SCATTER
DETECTORS DETECTORS DETECTORS TYPE TYPE

is blank
11.2.1 Category M systems are manually ty engineering objective. Such a system could be
operated systems and therefore do used to compensate for a departure from a pre-
not incorporate automatic detec- scribed structural or means of escape standard or
tors. Category M systems have no where an outbreak of fire may otherwise put peo-
numeric sub-divisions. ple at exceptional risk.
11.2.2 Category L systems are automatic 11.2.3 Category P systems are automatic
fire detection systems intended for fire detection systems designed for
the protection of life. Category L the protection of property.
systems are sub-divided into five
types: Category P systems are divided into two types.
(i) L1: systems installed throughout a (i) P1: systems installed throughout all areas
building. of a building.
The objective of a Category L1 system is to offer The objective of a Category P1 system is to offer
the earliest possible warning of fire so as to the earliest possible warning of fire so as to min-
achieve the longest possible time for escape. imise the time between ignition and the arrival of
firefighters.
(ii) L2: systems installed only in defined
parts of a building. (ii) P2: systems installed only in defined
parts of buildings.
An L2 system is identical to that of an L3 system
with the additional objective of giving early warn- The objective of Category P2 systems is to provide
ing of fire in specified areas of high fire hazard or early warning of fire in areas of high hazard or
high fire risk. where the risk to business continuity from fire is
high.
(iii) L3: systems designed to give a warning of
fire at an early stage to allow all occu-
In all cases the systems should included manual call
pants to escape, other than possibly those
points to allow people in the vicinity of a fire to
in the room in which the fire originated.
operate the system before it is detected automatical-
ly. Where systems are installed to meet mixed crite-
The objective of an L3 system is to provide an
ria, it should always be ensured that the installation
early warning to occupants before escape routes
meets requirements of each category, in particular
become impassable through heat and smoke.
meeting the higher criteria in the case of life risk.
(iv) L4: systems installed only within escape
routes such as corridors and stairways 11.3 Definition of a detector
and other circulation areas.
BS 5839: Part 1 states that a detector is:
The objective of an L4 system is to enhance the
safety of occupants by providing a warning of 'A part of an automatic fire detection system that
smoke on principal escape routes. Detectors may contains at least one sensor which constantly, or at
also be provided in other areas within the system frequent intervals, monitors at least one suitable
category L4. physical and/or chemical phenomenon associated
with fire. It provides at least one corresponding
(v) L5: systems installed to satisfy a specific signal to the control and indicating equipment. The
fire safety objective and which does not decision to give the alarm of fire, or to operate
fall within any of the other categories. automatic fire protection equipment, may be made
at the detector or at another part of the system, e.g.
The objective of category L5 is to offer a system at the control and indicating equipment'.
based on fire risk assessment or to meet a fire safe-

11.4 Classification of detectors (iii) The detector may be unable to detect the
products of that particular fire.
11.4.1 Analogue detector
(iv) A fault in the system may have made the
A detector which is part of a system where the out- detector inoperative.
put signal representing the value of the sensed fire
phenomena is analysed, either at the detector or (v) The system may be switched off for servic-
within the control equipment. The purpose of the ing (more strictly a maintenance system fail-
analysis is to identify conditions that are not repre- ure).
sentative of fire, which may result in a false alarm
from a 'two state' alarm system. (vi) The detector may be prone to false alarms, so
that a genuine alarm may be ignored until a
11.4.2 Two state detector late investigation is made.
A 'two state' fire detector is one which is only (vii) In certain areas at certain times insects
capable of indicating two output states, 'normal' invading detectors may trigger false alarms.
and 'fire' conditions.
11.4.3 Multi state detector
A multi state detector is one capable of indicating

more than two output states, which include Ignition Environment
'normal', 'fire' and other abnormal conditions.
Multi state detectors are less likely to give false
alarms of fire.
Fire Growth
11.5 Success or failure of operation
When a fire occurs in an area protected by an AFD, Spread of
the probable sequence of events is as depicted in Fire Products
Figure 11.2. After ignition, the fire will grow,
probably slowly and irregularly at first, but then at
an accelerating rate.
Further Detection
Fire Growth
Generally, products of the fire will be transported
to the detector and they will be 'checked' against
the prevailing environment. When the detection Alarm
system is sufficiently 'sure' that what it is detect- Transmission
ing is not an 'environmental fluctuation' it will
'decide' that a fire exists and raise the alarm. All
this appears straightforward but there are many Action
ways in which an AFD system could fail. For
example:
Extinction ?
(i) Wind or draught fluctuations causing a false
Evacuation ?
temperature reading.
(ii) Obstructions to smoke travel heat or flame Figure 11.2 Probable sequence of events leading to
radiation preventing the detector from acting automatic detection.
quickly enough.

11.6 Fire products
Ceiling
11.6.1 Types of products
Products from fire will travel either by radiation or

by physical movement of the atmosphere.
Radiation is fast moving in straight lines, physical Laminar
movement is slower but more flexible. A broad ceiling
term used for physical transport is 'mass transport' Turbulent, layer
plume
and it is by this means that most smoke and heat
detectors work. Flame detectors use radiation.
11.6.2 Mass transport

Clean air being
The effect of mass transport will generally depend entrained in
on the height of the ceiling from the floor, or level plume
where the fire occurs. For example, taking a fire at Fire
floor level in a 2.5m high room, to obtain a ceiling
temperature of 65°C from an ambient temperature
of 20°C, requires a heat output of 22.5kW. In a
10m high room it will require 720kW. It is obvious Figure II.3 Probable movement of smoke and gases on
that, for the same type of detector in each case, it reaching a horizontal ceiling.
will take a much larger fire to operate it in a 10m
room than in a 2.5m room.
Other factors are also relevant. It is well known that

if a plume of smoke and gases from a fire reaches a Ceiling
horizontal ceiling, it will stop rising and spread
radially outwards under the ceiling (Figure 11.3).
Laminar flow
under ceiling
If the ceiling is sloping it will spread up the slope
but there will be little movement down the slope
(Figure 11.4). As they rise, the gases will begin to Turbulent flow
cool and, with a small fire, if there is already a in plume
heated layer of air at, or near, ceiling level, e.g.
solar heating of a roof, the plume may not even Smoke plume
reach the ceiling.
SIDE
VIEW
11.6.3 Smoke
Smoke plume
Smoke consists of particulate and aerosol products
Fire position
of combustion generated by a fire, whether this be
of the smouldering or open flame type. Its con-
stituents will depend largely on what is burning
and how it is burning.
Particles in smoke vary in size from about one PLAN

nanometre to 10 micrometres. As smoke is VIEW
produced the particles coagulate into larger and
larger solids until, eventually, they could precipi- Figure 11.4 Probable flow of smoke and gases on
tate out. reaching a sloping ceiling.

The process of coagulation depends on the source wavelengths and it is this band that can be used by
and speed of the combustion. Slow-burning fires detectors if they are not designed specifically to
tend to produce larger particles and this, in itself, combat UV radiation.
can have significance in the choice of detector for
a particular risk. Another source of natural UV radiation is light-
ning but this is of such brief duration that detectors
NB: A micrometre is one millionth of a metre are easily able to disregard it. Again, welding and
and a nanometre is one thousandth of a tungsten lamps are examples of man-made UV
micrometre. radiation and the same precautions need to be
taken as for infra-red.
The optical properties of a particle will affect light
by absorption or refraction. Depending on its con- Any flame detector needs to 'see' its protection
stituents, smoke can appear almost white or any area clearly because, as stated before, radiation
shade from that to sooty black. These effects are travels in straight lines. Any obstruction, however
due to how much light is being absorbed or 'scat- temporary, could severely limit a detector's capa-
tered' by the particles. This is another aspect, bility.
which will affect the choice of detector.
11.6.5 Heat
11.6.4 Radiation
Heat is transmitted in three ways: conduction,
All objects give off thermal radiation. As the tem- convection and radiation (see Fire Service
perature of an object increases, the radiation it Manual, Volume 1 - Physics and Chemistry for
emits increases in intensity and changes colour Firefighters). Heat detectors rely primarily on
(from red heat to white heat). Flames also emit convection.
radiation, the wavelengths depending on what is
burning and how much oxygen is available. The amount of heat produced by a fire depends on
Certain wavelengths are characteristic of certain the source and speed of combustion, whilst the
materials, e.g. a town-gas flame is transparent and speed at which it is transmitted to the detector will
dark blue. depend on the ambient conditions. This latter fac-
tor is a particularly important consideration in
These wavelengths, however, can be absorbed by choosing the most suitable detector (see Section
background interference, either natural or man- 14.4.3). The size and shape of the room, or space,
made. A major natural interference source is, of will also need to be taken into account.
course, the sun. Infra-red radiation from the sun is,
generally, more powerful than infra-red from a Since heat, generally, takes longer to evolve in sig-
fire, so a special design has to be incorporated in nificant quantities than either smoke or radiation,
flame detectors to account for solar radiation. it should not be used as the sole basis for fire
detection in situations which demand a high speed
The usual method is to design the detector to response, e.g. where there is a life risk.
detect flame flicker. This latter, however, can be
simulated by sunlight through the moving branch- 11.7 Conclusion
es of a tree, reflection from water surfaces and so
on where this can happen, it must be modulated It can be seen from the foregoing that the correct
out. Man-made interference may come from weld- choice and siting of detectors for the particular risk
ing or tungsten lamps and thought must also be is essential. This part of the Manual describes
given to these sources of false alarms. some of the various systems used. It examines the
principles of the three main types, i.e. smoke, heat
A fire also gives off ultra-violet (UV) radiation and radiation, and describes how these principles
and, again, one natural source is the sun. However, are applied to examples of the many current mod-
the ozone layer does filter out a certain band of UV els available.

12
Chapter 12 - Detectors which respond to
smoke
12.1 Smoke detectors chamber and interfere with the flow of electricity,
causing a reduction in the current flow.
Point smoke detectors use one or more of the fol-
lowing principles. When the current falls below a predetermined
level, the detector activates the fire alarm (see
 Ionisation chamber smoke detectors Figure 12.2). That is the basic concept of the ioni-
 Optical smoke detectors sation detector - in practice it is a little more
 Multi-sensor detectors sophisticated as can be seen from the following
paragraphs.
12.2 Ionisation detectors
An illustration of one type of double chamber ion-
In this type of detector, an open chamber within isation detector is shown in Figure 12.3 and 12.4.
the detector contains a small radioactive source. One ionisation chamber is in a semi-sealed envi-
The source, usually Americium 241, emits alpha ronment, which does not permit the entry of
particles and low energy gamma rays. This radia- smoke, the other is open to the atmosphere and
tion causes the air in a chamber within the detector therefore permits smoke to enter.
to become 'ionised', thus promoting the flow of
electricity between two electrodes (see Figure In normal conditions both the inner and open
12.1). In the event of fire, smoke will enter the chambers will be free from smoke and form a
Figure 12.1 Process of

ionisation.
Radioactive
source
To alarm circuit
Amplifier
Negative ions Positive ions
Electrodes

is blank
an ionisation detector
(fire condition).
Radioactive
source
To alarm circuit
Amplifier
Smoke
enters
chamber
in simple terms the open chamber now offers a

higher resistance to the flow of electricity than the
inner chamber does. This increases the voltage at
(1) and causes the cold cathode tube to 'strike' thus
forming a high current path to operate the relay
and hence sound the alarm.
Although this example, for ease of illustration,

shows a cold cathode tube as the amplifier and
'switch mechanism', solid state amplifiers (using
transistors, etc.) are used to perform this function
in many ionisation detectors.
An advantage of the ionisation detector is its sen-

sitivity in the early stages of fire when smoke par-
ticles are small. Because of this sensitivity care
must be taken in the siting of the detector heads. In
some locations such as a garage or kitchen the
Figure 12.3 Ionisation smoke detector. products of combustion could be present in 'non-
(Photo: Chubb Fire)
fire' conditions. Siting ionisation detectors in these
areas could result in repeated false alarms.
It is particularly important that the detectors are

balanced electrical circuit (Figure 12.4). In a 'non- not placed near a ventilator or fresh air inlet where
fire' condition the voltage at (1) is sufficient to fire a current of clean air can pass over them and inhib-
the cold cathode tube (2) which acts as a switch it their speed of reaction in a fire situation.
controlling the operation of the relay.
Most types of ionisation detector head are
When smoke enters the chamber, however, it will designed to be mounted on the ceiling and usually
reduce the current flow, as described earlier. As the provide adequate coverage for 100m2 of floor area.
reduced current flow is only in the open chamber With slight modifications they can be fitted in air
this effectively unbalances the electrical circuit - ducts for air-cooled machinery and thus give early

one type of ionisation Neon light shows when To power supply
detector. head has operated
Relay
Cold
cathode
tube
'x'
Inner
(sealed) -
ionisation
chamber
Open 2
ionisation
chamber
Radiation source
Americum 241
warning of possible fire damage to intricate and designed so that, in a fire situation, more light is
expensive equipment. thrown onto the photoelectric cell. These are
called the Might-scatter type'. Others are designed
Ionisation detectors with single chambers have so that less light is thrown onto the photoelectric
been produced using a capacitor as a replacement cell in a fire situation. These are called 'obscura-
for the second (inner) chamber. They have not tion type'.
been widely used however and the two-chamber
type described above is the one most commonly 12.3.1 Light-scatter type
found.
The light source and the photoelectric cell are
The radioactive source used in most ionisation- mounted in a lightproof housing, which is
type detectors, Americium 241, presents no danger designed to allow smoke to flow into it unimped-
to people even when damaged by fire. ed. In the 'non-fire' condition light from the light
source (usually a light emitting diode) does not fall
12.3 Optical detectors on to the photoelectric cell. Figure 12.5 shows a
light-scatter type in this condition.
While the ionisation detector responds to the invis-
ible products of combustion the optical detector, as When smoke particles enter the housing, however,
its name implies, reacts to the visible products of some light is deflected upwards onto the photo-
combustion, i.e. the particles of carbon and other electric cell. In response to the light falling onto it
chemicals which give smoke its characteristic the cell will either create an electrical current in
appearance. the detector circuit or allow more current to flow
through it (depending on the type of cell being
An optical detector has two important compo- used).
nents, a light source and a photoelectric cell. It is
the amount of light falling onto the photoelectric The small increase in current is normally amplified
cell which is the critical factor in the operation of by a transistorised circuit in order to energise a
the optical detector. Some optical detectors are relay which controls the alarm. The detector is pre-

Figure 12.5 An optical smoke detector 'light-scatter
To alarm type' (non-fire condition).
Photo-electric cell
Light source
Figure 12.6 An optical smoke detector light-scatter

To alarm type' (fire condition).
Photo-electric cell
Deflected light
Light source
Smoke enters chamber
set so that the alarm is given when the smoke den- 12.3.2 Obscuration type
sity reaches a predetermined level (Figure 12.6).
The obscuration type optical detector works on the
The light-scatter type of optical detector, illustrat- reverse of the principle just described — the
ed in Figures 12.7 and 12.8, is more common than smoke obscures the light. The resultant reduction
the obscuration type previously mentioned. in the intensity of light falling onto the photoelec-
tric cell causes an alarm signal to be raised. Most
Should there be a failure in the power or light sup- optical smoke detectors now work on the
ply in the light-scatter detector, a special relay will light-scatter principal although obscuration point
signal this at a central point and also illuminate the detectors can be found in installations and in the
indicator lamp on the detector head; an actual beam detectors discussed below (see Section 12.7).
'fire' signal is not produced in these conditions.
12.4 Combustion gas detectors
The area protected by a detector head will vary
depending on the risk involved, the floor plan and Combustion gas detectors are point type detectors,
other variables, the nominal area coverage for the which respond to the gases produced by a fire, e.g.
detector illustrated in Figure 12.8 is 100m2 per carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide may spread
head. As with the ionisation detector it is possible, through certain forms of construction and thus
with modifications, to mount some optical detec- combustion gas detectors could operate at a con-
tors in air ducts, etc. siderable distance from the fire, including on

Figure 12.7 Optical smoke detector.
(Photo: Chubb Fire)
floors other than the fire floor. Care should be taken type of detector is also useful in detecting the pres-
that this does not present misleading information to ence of smoke in ducts. The probes entering the
firefighters or others responding to a signal. ducts must be positioned correctly to operate
at maximum efficiency. The air flow, at the posi-
Users of combustion gas detectors should be aware tion, should be between l-10m/sec and away
that the electro-chemical sensors in combustion from areas of turbulence, e.g. bends, fans, inter-
gas detectors have a finite life and should be sections.
replaced in accordance with the manufacturers'
recommendations. Care must also be taken to ensure that a common
duct does not extract from too many points
12.5 Multi-sensor detectors. because the amount of any smoke may then
become too diluted to operate the detector.
In multi-sensor detectors, as the name implies,
more than one sensor is employed. This can An example of a duct smoke detector is shown in
improve the efficiency of the detector over a wider Figure 12.9.
range of fire characteristics. It can also bring about
a significant potential for a reduction in the num- 12.7 Linear beam detector
ber of false alarms generated by the detector.
This type of detector is effective for use in large
12.6 Aspirating detection system premises, particularly long, high buildings, e.g.
aircraft hangars, museums, tunnels or large ducts.
In an aspirating smoke detection system, air sam- Beam detectors are effectively optical smoke
ples are drawn by a pump or fan through holes in detectors. A beam detector consists of two units: a
pipes running through the protected area. The air is transmitter producing a pulsed beam of infra-red
exhausted into a central unit containing a smoke light generated by a gallium arsenide light emitting
detector. The smoke detector, which may be of diode (LED); and a monitor receiver tuned to
either the optical or ionisation type responds to the accept that frequency.
presence of smoke. Each air entry hole in the sys-
tem is considered as though it is a separate smoke The two units are mounted at opposite ends of the
detector. space to be protected. The distance between the
units must not be more than 100m for a single
Aspirating systems are particularly useful in pro- beam. The minimum height, in an area where peo-
tecting equipment held in enclosed cabinets. This ple are moving about, is 2.7m; the maximum

Figure 12.8 Kidde
optical smoke detector.
Lens Assembly Emitter LED
Skirt
Indicator LED
Electronics
Light Trap Gauze
End Cap Housing
Test Plunger Photocell
height is 25m, but this can be increased to 40m Some beam detectors can also detect heat by
provided that, generally, combustibles are not responding to the refractive shimmer effect that
stored more than 5m high in that building or com- occurs at the interface between hot and cold air.
partment.
12.8 Video detector
Depending on the circumstances and risk, beams
should be placed to achieve the greatest efficiency A new technique being developed at the time of
but the horizontal distance between them (mea- writing (2003) is the detection of smoke by video
sured at right angles to the beam) should not be equipment. Closed circuit television cameras mon-
more than 14m. Normally, critical alignment itor an area, the signals from each camera being
between the two units is not essential because the analysed electronically. The analysis detects the
beam is relatively wide. presence of smoke from the obscuration of part of
the camera's field of view. Detection by this means
The principles of operation are as follows. The depends on the illumination of the field of view
infra-red beam produced by the transmitter is either by normal lighting or by specially installed
analysed by the receiver photo sensor for loss of infra-red light sources.
strength caused by smoke obscuration (see Figure
12.10(b)) and for fluctuations caused by thermal 12.9 Conclusion
turbulence (see Figure 12.10(a)). When either
of the phenomena exceeds a pre-set level the The detection of fire by smoke detectors is depen-
'smoke' or 'heat' LED is illuminated and a fire dent on a number of factors, e.g. smoke concentra-
signal is transmitted. (The receiver also tion, size, and shape of smoke particles (see
contains LED's indicating 'fault' or 'normal' Section 18.2). The wide variety of smoke pro-
conditions.) duced by different materials complicates the situa-
tion. In the early stages of most fires the smoke
Another type of beam detector works on the same particles are small, but as the fire develops they
principal but uses retro-reflectors. After the beam tend to conglomerate to form larger particles.
has crossed the protected area, it is reversed by the
retro-reflectors, focused by the large lens and mon- The ionisation detector is generally more sensitive
itored by the receiver within the same housing as to the smaller, normally visible, smoke particles.
the emitter. This makes it particularly useful in the early stages

Figure 12.9 GENT 7500
dual optical smoke
detector.
Figure 12.10 Effect of

flame on an infra-red Receiver
beam detector. Heat
Emitter
Fire
Receiver
Emitter Smoke
Fire
of relatively clean burning fires (e.g. of wood and efficient in situations where the protected risk is
paper). likely to give rise to dense smoke (i.e. larger parti-
cles) in the earlier stages of a fire as in some burn-
It will not, however, always operate in the pres- ing plastics. Multi-sensor detectors using both
ence of cold' smoke. The optical detector is more technologies tend to balance out the disadvantages

of each type, making them suitable for most types
of fire. In the main, earlier detection can be
obtained with a smoke sensitive system than with
a heat sensitive one.

13
Chapter 13 - Flame detectors
13.1 General
Infra-red Ultra-violet
Visible light
A flame detector is an automatic fire detector,
which responds to the radiation emitted by the
flames from a fire. This radiant energy may be in
the form of:
(i) Infra-red radiation

(ii) Visible light
(iii) Ultra-violet radiation.
These forms of energy travel in waves radiating

from their point of origin and radiation detectors
are designed to respond to this radiation.
Figure 13.1 Forms of radiant energy produced by a fire
Obviously the use of the visible light band to acti-

vate a detector would present many problems
because the detector would not be able to differen- only producer of infra-red radiation in the protect-
tiate between the various legitimate sources of vis- ed area; there may be a limited number of other
ible light and those created by a fire (Figure 13.1). producers, e.g. sunlight or heaters. To distinguish
In practice therefore these detectors are designed flame from other likely sources of radiation, the
to respond specifically to either infra-red radiation detector also recognises the distinctive flicker
or ultra-violet radiation. given off by flame, normally in the frequency
range of 4Hz-15Hz.
13.2 Infra-red detector
The function of the filter/amplifier, therefore, is
The basic components of the infra-red detector are not only to amplify but also to filter out signals not
shown in Figure 13.2. in this range. If the signal is in this range
(4Hz-15Hz) it is then fed to the integrator/timer
Whilst is necessary to protect the photoelectric cell which will activate the alarm circuit only if the sig-
and electrical components from dirt and moisture, nal persists for a pre-set period (normally 2-15
the protective covering must also allow the infra- seconds). While this small delay may slightly off-
red radiation to pass through it. set the quick response time of the detector, it is
necessary if false alarms are to be kept to a mini-
Not all material is transparent to infra-red but mum. Once any signal is rejected the detector goes
quartz is. Consequently, quartz is commonly used back on standby.
as the protective shield in these detectors. The lens
and filter will allow only infra-red radiation to fall 13.2.1 Fixed types
onto the photoelectric cell. On detecting the radia-
tion, the cell will transmit a signal to the Figure 13.3 shows how these components can be
filter/amplifier. Flame, however, may not be the fitted into an actual detector.

Figure 13.2 Schematic
diagram of components
Infra-red Photoelectric Integrator/Timer of an infra-red detector.
radiation cell
Lens and filter Filter/Amplifier Alarm
ty might be impaired. Individual detector heads

can protect each compartment or be placed in
Neon flasher strategic positions in the congested area.
13.2.2 Scanning type
For larger areas, free of congestion and with a

Plug in more open plan, a scanning infra-red detector is
connection pins
available. One of these is illustrated in Figure 13.4
and Figure 13.5.
The detector continually scans the protected area

Integrator/Timer
(approximately every 20 seconds). This enables
the detector to monitor 360 degrees in the horizon-
tal plane and a wide angle on the vertical plane.
Immediately the photoelectric cell is struck by
Filter/Amplifier
deflected infra-red radiation and the characteristic
'flicker' is identified by the filter/amplifier, the
Photoelectric cell integrator stops the motor in order that the deflec-
tor can 'view' the flame source directly and allow
radiation to fall continuously onto the photoelec-
Infra-red filter tric cell.
and lens
The timer can then check whether the flame

flicker persists for the 12-15 seconds as explained
Figure 13.3 Schematic diagram of an infra-red radiation earlier. Where the infra-red source is present
detector beyond this period the alarm is raised; if it is not
present the integrator restarts the deflector motor
putting the detector back on standby.
This detector has a neon flasher to indicate which
head has been activated. The infra-red scan detector has an amber fault light
which will light up a few seconds after a fault is
detected; the red alarm light illuminates once the
As an infra-red detector must 'see' a flame before integrator activates the alarm.
it will raise an alarm, the one illustrated in Figure
13.3 is useful where the risk is divided into com- The domed cover is thermally insulated and the
partments or is a congested area in which visibili- cell and deflector are shielded by a quartz globe.

a scanning infra-red Integrator Timer Alarm
detector
Stop/Start
Fault light Filter/Amplifier

alarm light
under canopy
Motor Deflector
Filter
Photoelectric cell
develop at an early stage of combustion. This is

because of the almost instantaneous transmission
of radiation.
Unlike smoke or heat detectors, which can only be

used indoors, the infra-red detector can be equally
efficient inside or out. This is because it simply
needs to 'see' the flame, whereas smoke or heat
detectors have to rely on ceiling or walls to direct
combustion products to the sensing device.
This ability makes the infra-red detector (especial-

ly the scanning type) useful for protection of open
storage areas, aircraft maintenance areas (both
inside and out), etc. However, some problems
occasionally arise due to sunlight, rippling pools
of water, welding, etc. but modern detectors incor-
Fig 13.5 Infra-red scanning radiation detector. porate integrated circuits, which can filter out
(Photo: Thorn Security Ltd.) these potential false alarms.
Theoretically, there is no limit to the range of the 13.3 Ultra-violet detector

infra-red scan detector but, for quick detection in
the early stages of a fire, the radius of detection Like the infra-red detector, the UV detector also
should be limited to about 90m. needs to be able to 'see' the flame before it will
operate, but since legitimate sources of UV radia-
A much greater area of coverage can be obtained tion are very limited, flicker discrimination is not
from the scanning type than from the static type needed.
but which type is used in any particular situation
will depend on the interior plan and use of the pro- Basically, the UV detector consists of an amplifier
tected area. Infra-red detectors can provide rapid and a photoelectric cell of gas-filled tube sensitive
detection in risk areas where flame is likely to to UV radiation (Figure 13.6).

Figure 13.6 Diagram of an ultra-violet detector
Detector circuit Amplifier
Ultra
violet
radiation
Relay
Alarm circuit Gas-filled tube
Connector pins
Electrodes
When UV radiation strikes the gas-filled tube it monitoring of aircraft engine nacelles, but it can
ionises the gas in the tube. A small current is set up be used to protect fuel storage tanks, oil drilling
between the two electrodes and the tube becomes rigs, warehouses, paint spray booths, etc.
a conductor of electricity. When the current flow is
greater than the set point of the amplifier the alarm 13.4 Conclusion
relay closes immediately and causes the alarm to
sound. The circuit can also have an integrator Flame detectors have a quicker response capacity
incorporated in it, which will effectively delay the than point detectors but are expensive when com-
alarm for 10-15 seconds. This can reduce false pared to point detector systems. They are best suit-
alarms from legitimate external sources of radia- ed for plants using or storing highly flammable
tion, e.g. lightning. liquids or gases. However, flame detectors are
sometimes used to protect very high spaces within
The detector is not affected by sunlight or artificial buildings such as cathedrals or atria. Unlike point
light but is sensitive to electrical arcs and would detectors, they do not have to be ceiling mounted
not therefore be recommended for areas in which but can be fitted at relatively low levels. Because
welding was being done. ultra-violet radiation can be masked by smoke,
infra-red detectors are more suitable for this pur-
In practice, the UV detector is most commonly pose.
used for specialised applications such as

14
Chapter 14 - Heat detectors
14.1 General determines the temperature at which the alarm will

sound it will be chosen for the type of risk to be
Heat detectors are designed to detect fire in its protected and the normal ambient temperature in
more advanced stages when the temperature in the that protected area. Fusible alloy heat detectors are
protected area starts to rise. Given that the effects often in the form of fusible links found, for
of heat are easy to observe it is not surprising that instance, across the front of oil-fired boilers (see
heat detectors were the earliest form of detector to Manual of Firemanship Part 6c, Section 5) or con-
be developed. trolling self-closing fire doors in compartment
walls.
The effects of heat which provide the basic operat-
ing principles for heat detectors are:
14.3 Heat detectors using the
 Melting (or fusion) in metals or plastics. principle of expansion
 Expansion in solids, gases and liquids.
 The electrical effect. 14.3.1 Expansion of a single metal strip
These allow a wide choice in methods of heat A piece of metal will expand when heated; this
detection. This chapter explains, in turn, each one expansion is most noticeable in a length of metal
of the above effects and detectors which use them. with its ends unrestrained.
In discussing heat detectors reference will be made
to 'fixed temperature' detectors and 'rate-of-rise' If both ends of the metal are secured to a solid base
detectors. A 'fixed temperature' detector is one that and the metal is then subjected to heat the effect of
responds only when a predetermined temperature the expansion is to cause the metal strip to bow. If
is reached. contacts are added, as shown in Figure 14.1, the
principle can be used in a detector to complete an
A 'rate-of-rise' detector is one that responds when electrical circuit when a predetermined tempera-
the rate of temperature rise is abnormally rapid. In ture is reached.
practice 'rate-of-rise' detectors generally incorpo-
rate a fixed temperature device in accordance with 14.3.2 Expansion of a bi-metallic strip
BS EN 54-5 for heat detectors. This is particular-
ly useful where a very slow growing fire would not The bi-metallic strip is a development of the basic
generate heat sufficiently rapidly to operate the principle of metal expansion due to heat and makes
'rate-of-rise' element. use of the fact that, when heated, some metals
expand at a greater rate than others (Figure 14.2).
14.2 Heat detectors using fusible
alloys If these two metals are bonded together to form a
bi-metallic strip and then subjected to heat the strip
This type of detector is based on the fact that cer- will bend (Figure 14.3) to accommodate the differ-
tain metal alloys and plastics melt at relatively low ing rates of expansion. Figure 14.4 shows a simple
temperatures, the general range available being example of the use of a bi-metallic strip as a heat
between 55°C to 180°C. As the metal/plastic used detector.

Figure 14.1 Illustration of the expansion of a metal
strip with secured ends.
Contacts
'Non-fire' condition
Fire condition
Figure 14.2 Illustration of differing rates of metal

Iron. expansion.
Brass.
Before heating
Iron
Brass
After heating
Two similar composition bi-metallic strips are

used but one is suitably shielded and protected to
reduce its rate of expansion (Figure 14.5(1)). If
there is a rapid rise in temperature (Figure 14.6
(2)) strip (1), which is not shielded, will expand
more rapidly than strip (2) and, as a result, will
quickly cause the two electrical contacts to come
together.
As shown in Figure 14.5(3) there is a slow rise in

Figure 14.3 The effect of heat on a bi-metallic strip. temperature, which may be for reasons unconnect-
ed with the fire, the slow rate of expansion in both
The advantage of a bi-metallic strip over a single strips keeps them, roughly, the same distance apart
metal strip is the greater movement resulting from and the contacts do not touch. It is undesirable
a given rise in temperature. however for this situation to continue too long
because a slow burning fire might be the cause of
14.3.3 Expansion of bi-metallic strips in the temperature rise.
a 'rate-of-rise' detector.
For this reason (as mentioned at the beginning of
Bi-metallic strips are also used as the heat sensi- this Chapter) a fixed temperature device (3) is usu-
tive elements in some 'rate-of-rise' detectors. The ally fitted in 'rate-of-rise' detectors. This will stop
principle of operation is explained below. the movement of strip (2) when a predetermined

Figure 14.4 An example of a bi-metallic strip used as
Power supply
a heat detector.
Contact
Bi-metal strip
'Non-fire' condition
Expansion of
bi-metal
strip completes
electrical circuit
'Fire' condition
temperature is reached and thus allow strip (1) to This is because of the longer time needed for
close the contacts and raise the alarm. the ambient temperature to reach the operat-
ing temperature of the detector. A 'rate-of-
14.3.4 Advantages and disadvantages rise' type on the other hand will take the
same time to respond in both situations - it
 The main advantage of detectors operating reacts to the relative rise in temperature.
on the expansion-of-metal principle is that
they generally suffer no damage from opera- 14.3.5 Typical rate-of-rise detector
tion and are generally self-resetting. They
are therefore back on standby automatically This point detector (Figure 14.6 and Figure 14.7)
immediately any fire has been dealt with. operates on the principle of expansion of air for the
rate-of-rise element, and a bi-metallic disc for the
 Where there is likely to be a large but grad- fixed temperature element.
ual variation in ambient temperature during
normal processes, the 'rate-of-rise' detector The detector head comprises a circular white plas-
has the advantage of giving a quick response tic moulding to which is attached a metal cap
to any sudden abnormal temperature rise forming a sealed chamber (Figures 14.6 and 14.7).
whilst minimising the number of false The upper surface of the air chamber includes a
alarms. diaphragm and a leak element, which communi-
cates with the upper part of the detector. The rapid
 However, where a rapid rise in temperature rise of ambient temperature due to a fire causes an
is a normal result of work processes, the equally rapid expansion of air inside the chamber.
fixed temperature detector is to be preferred. This deflects the centre of the diaphragm (1),
In this type of situation it is less prone to which rises to make an electrical contact (2). This
false alarms than the 'rate-of-rise' type. A triggers the circuit to 'fire' condition, sounds the
fixed temperature detector will take longer to alarm and illuminates the 'fire' indicator (3) in the
respond in a cold area than in a warm one. detector and, if necessary, the remote indicator on

Figure 14.5(1) Illustration of rate-of-rise principle
Strip Contacts Fixed
temperature (non-fire condition).
stop
1
3
Shielding

(rapid rise in temperature).
1
3

(slow rise in temperature).
1
3
2
Heat source
Figure 14.6 Chubb rate-of-rise detector.

C o n t a c t Point (2) C o m m o n Base
Alarm
Indicator
L a m p (3)
Leak Element (4) Diaphragm (1)

Bi-metallic disc (5)

Figure 14. 7 Rate-of-rise heat detector.
(Photo: Chubb Fire)
linked with sprinkler or other extinguishing sys-

tems. Once activated, the detector not only raises
the alarm but also causes the sprinkler system to
release extinguishing agent into the affected area.
In many cases this arrangement can reduce sprin-
kler response time.
14.4 Linear heat detectors (LHD)

14.4.1 General
There is a problem when protecting cable tunnels,
conveyors and similar areas with lengthy runs. Point
detectors may have to be unacceptably close, or
dense, to be effective. Flame detectors are one
method used but, with cables, flame is not necessar-
Figure 14.8 Linear heat detecting cables protecting a ily the first manifestation of fire, and beam detectors
cable tunnel have to depend on the configuration of the tunnel,
etc.
the panel. If the ambient temperature increases
slowly air is leaked through the leak element (4) to A line of sensing material which can follow the
compensate for the local fluctuation but, should the
contours of the risk are obviously a method and
rise persist, a bimetallic disc (5) deflects the centre of
this is generally known as linear detection. There
the diaphragm at the predetermined temperature to
are, at the moment, three types:
indicate the 'fire' condition. Preset temperatures arc
(i) Relying on the effect of heat on electrical
60°C and 90°C depending on the type of detector.
resistivity.
(ii) Relying on the effect of heat on the insula-
14.3.6 Expansion of liquids tion between two conductors.
(iii) Relying on the melting of a thermo-plastic
The liquid filled quartzoid bulbs used in sprinkler tube containing compressed air or an inert
systems are probably the most common form of gas.
heat detector operating on the the expansion of liq-
uid principle (see Section 5.2). All three types are able to detect overheat condi-
tions possibly even before a fire occurs and can,
Many of the detection systems discussed in this for instance in a cable tunnel, follow the risk close-
second section of the Manual are, in practice. ly wherever it runs (see Figure 14.8).

Conductor 1 Conductor 2
High temperature Temperature sensitive Stranded rayon

PVC dielectric material core
14.4.2 Operating methods (or inert gas) at, perhaps, about 5 bar pressure.
This pressure is used to hold back a mechanism
which, when the pressure is released, trips and
(i) Resistivity type transmits the alarm. The tube is designed to melt at
In this type the conductors are separated by a sen- a certain temperature within a 5% tolerance.
sitive dielectric material which, when subjected to
heat, decreases in resistance and allows a measur- It is relatively inexpensive to install and replace
able leakage current to develop (Figure 14.9). when it is damaged or has detected a fire. It is
basically mechanical and any fall in pressure,
This type is limited in the length of risk zone that e.g. due to leaks or damage, will raise the
it can cover - basically, because resistivity is not alarm.
only related to temperature but also to length. An
advantage, however, is that, following an overheat 14.4.3 General comment on heat
condition, the LHD will reset, providing that it has detectors
not been damaged or destroyed by the fire. This
type can also be programmed to take account of Heat detectors, and the 'fixed temperature' type in
different ambient temperatures prevailing in any particular, are dependent for their operation on
zone it passes through. heat being transferred from the surrounding air to
the detector itself. As the air will heat more quick-
(ii) Insulation type ly than the detector, the operating element in the
detector will usually be at a slightly lower temper-
This type relies on the melting, at a predetermined
ature than the surrounding air. This difference in
temperature, of the insulation separating two con-
temperature is referred to as 'thermal lag' and
ductors. A fire alarm is, therefore, indicated by a
could in some circumstances delay a detector's
short circuit, whilst an open circuit gives a fault
response. Its extent will depend on a number of
indication.
factors, e.g. the surface area of the detector, the
amount and speed of air passing the device.
There is no limitation on the length of the insula-
tion type but that section of the cable which has
detected the fire will have to be replaced. This is an important point to be borne in mind
when deciding on the suitability and desirable
(iii) Compressed gas type operating temperature of 'fixed temperature'
detectors. These are not generally suitable for use
Some areas to be protected are very hostile to both in very cold areas or locations subjected to strong
the resistivity type and the insulation type. This currents of fresh air.
compressed gas type utilises a thermo-plastic
small-bore tube fed by a source of compressed air

15
Chapter 15 - Automatic fire detectors -
Radio-based systems
15.1 General ply with the Loss Prevention Certificate Board test
standard LPS 1257. In all other respects, the sys-
In circumstances where the installation of a wired tem should be installed to comply with the relevant
system is not possible, either because of building parts of BS 5839.
aesthetics or complexity, a radio-based system
may be appropriate. Such systems are designed to Radio systems should only be installed after a
signal faults or fires to a central receiver capable of radio survey is undertaken to confirm that:
instigating all the conventional functions, e.g.
sound an alarm, indicate the detector's position, (i) There are no other sources of radio transmis-
call the brigade. sion which could interfere with the system;
(ii) There is no possibility of interaction
The detectors are all of a conventional type and between the system and other radio linked
they, together with the transmitters, form entirely systems.
separate units energised mainly by batteries (see (iii) There is adequate strength of signal between
Section 5.4). The receiver/control is conventional- components.
ly powered as required by BS 5839: Part 1.
15.3 Advantages and disadvantages
Usually the transmitters all operate on the same
frequency in any one system, but each transmitter 15.3.1 The advantages of a radio system
has its own modulation, which is decoded by the are:
receiver. Further pulse length coding differentiates
between fire and fault signals, and the detectors (i) It is quick to install with no wiring and,
can also be designed to "report in' periodically to therefore, there is no requirement to redeco-
ensure that the transmission path between rate, which, in turn, means little disturbance.
transmitter and receiver is still effective (see
15.3.2(iv)). (ii) The risk of wiring damage, which could iso-
late several detectors, is avoided.
15.2 Safeguards
(iii) The location of the detectors is flexible, e.g.
Various safeguards are built in to prevent interfer- they can be installed in buildings under con-
ence by outside radio signals and to prevent the struction or areas where partitions are fre-
system interfering with other electronic equip- quently moved.
ment, e.g. computers. The system can also be
zoned, i.e. a number of detectors can be designed (iv) Radio links will function even in a fire situ-
to give a common signal. ation, so there is no need for special fire-pro-
tected cabling.
Radio repeater stations can be installed where
local screening is a problem. At the time of writing (v) Extra zones can easily be connected to the
there is no British, European or international stan- main receiver, or remote indicator panels set
dard for radio linked systems. Consequently, the up.
components of a radio-linked system should com-

15.3.2 The disadvantages can be that: 15.4 Power supplies
(i) The initial capital cost of radio system equip- BS 5839 recommends the types of power supplies
ment is relatively high. for detectors, manual call points and sounders
forming part of a radio interconnected system:
(ii) Temporary screening may occur, although
frequent 'report-ins' will indicate this fairly (i) The normal mains supply plus a reserve bat-
quickly. tery (primary or continuously charged sec-
ondary).
(iii) The system has to be designed very careful-
ly to avoid clashes of frequencies and inter- (ii) A primary battery plus a reserve second pri-
ference either into or from the system (see mary battery. The primary battery used for
Section 15.2 above). the normal supply should have an opera-
tional life of at least one year.
(iv) There may be a significant delay between
occurrence of a fault and its indication on the (iii) Power supplies having one or more primary
control equipment. This arises because limi- batteries are required to give at least 30 days
tations of allowed frequency spectrum can warning of impending failure of any primary
lead to interference between simultaneous battery.
signals at very frequent intervals. BS 5839
suggests that radio links be monitored so that, (iv) Where the power supplies to any radio-
if signals are not received from any remote linked component can maintain the compo-
component, the failure will be indicated at the nent in operation for no more than seven
central control and indicating equipment days, or 30 minutes in the alarm condition, a
within two hours of the fault occurring. warning should be given.
(v) Frequent tests or fire drills can seriously

reduce fire alarm sounder battery life.

16
Chapter 16 - Automatic fire detection -
detector circuits
16.1 General As there is no current flow when on standby it is
not self-monitoring. A short circuit in the detector
The function of the detector circuit in an automat- wiring will raise an alarm, as it effectively closes
ic detection system is to transmit the signal given the circuit. A broken circuit, on the other hand, will
by the activated detector head (or manual call not and if unidentified could render some detector
point) to centrally situated control and indicating heads or call points inoperative.
equipment from which the alarm is raised. In prac-
tice these processes occur simultaneously. It is important to remember that in all except the
simplest systems the detector and alarm circuits
Basically, there are two types of detector circuit: are separate - meeting only in the alarm control
unit. (For simplicity this has been omitted from
 'Open' circuit; Figures 16.1 and 16.2.)
 'Closed' circuit.
16.3 'Closed'circuit systems
Their condition being reversed in each case to
raise the alarm. Modern fire warning systems are invariably of the
closed circuit type. Closed circuit detectors and
16.2 'Open'circuit systems manual call points can be regarded as a series of
switches whose contacts are normally closed when
the system is on standby, thus allowing current to
In an 'open' circuit system detectors or call points flow in the detector circuit. The current flow is
are wired in parallel and can be regarded as recognised by the control equipment, which main-
switches in the 'off' position i.e. there is no current tains the alarm circuit inoperative. Once a detector
flow when in standby. The operation of a detector (or call point) operates the detector circuit is
effectively closes the contacts and activates the broken, interrupting current flow to the relay.
alarm system.
Figure 16.1 Diagram

Manual call point Detector
of an 'open' circuit Detector circuit (wired in parallel)
system.
To power
supply
Alarm circuit

Manual call point Detector a 'closed' circuit system.
v
Detector circuit (wired in series)
Relay
To power supply
Alarm circuit
The relay is therefore de-energised (see Figure electronic circuitry is incorporated to reduce false
16.2) releasing contact (1) which springs back to alarms by providing for separate signalling of fault
contact (2), completing the alarm circuit and conditions, e.g. a broken circuit or a short circuit.
sounding the bells.
'Closed' circuits have the advantage mentioned
The main advantage of this type of circuit is that earlier that they are continuously under test, i.e.
the continuous current on standby makes it partly current flows in the circuit on standby. If desired,
self-monitoring. however, the continuity of an 'open' circuit can be
tested incorporating an end-of-line resistor in the
Any break in the detector circuit will cause the circuit (Figure 16.3).
alarm to ring; which, although it may be false,
does at least draw attention to the fault. The fact This allows a continuous but reduced current flow
that the circuit is drawing current from the supply through the detector circuit. The continuity of the
on standby can be regarded as a disadvantage - the flow will be monitored at the control unit. The
size and cost of the battery and charger will be resistor incorporated in the circuit reduces the cur-
increased. Also in a basic 'closed' circuit system a rent sufficiently to prevent it activating the alarms.
short circuit could remain unnoticed as it simply
completes a separate path for current flow. In The more components there are introduced into a
doing this it could by-pass some detectors and call circuit of course, the more there are to fail. It is
points, rendering them inoperative. essential that a system can discriminate between a
fire signal and a fault signal and be designed to
16.4 Detector and alarm circuits. reduce false alarms of fire to a minimum.
It is essential that detector and alarm circuits are 16.5 Wiring and power supplies
reliable. Figures 16.1 and 16.2 are basic illustra-
tions of 'open' and 'closed' circuits. In practice the 16.5.1 Wiring
circuitry, although based on these principles, is It is essential for reliability that the wiring in auto-
more sophisticated. matic fire alarm systems should be of high stan-
dard and suitably protected against the possibility
Modern systems will be controlled electronically of accidental damage.
rather than by the electro-mechanical switching
shown in Figures 16.1 and 16.2. Ring circuits and BS 5839: Part 1 requires cables used on the critical
other refinements can be used to achieve, as far as parts of systems and on mains supply cables to be
possible, a fail-safe situation and to overcome the either:
disadvantage mentioned earlier. Sophisticated

Figure 16.3 An 'open'
circuit system with CONTROL UNIT
Detector circuit
end-of-line resistors.
End System
of line on
Alarm
resistor
To power
supply
Alarm circuit
(i) Mineral insulated copper sheathed cables To guard against the possibility of a mains elec-
with or without an overall polymeric cover- tricity failure, the mains supply should be backed
ing, conforming to BS 6207: Part 1; or up by a standby supply that will automatically sup-
(ii) Cables that conform to BS 7629, other than port the system until the mains supply is restored.
in respect of performance when affected by The alternative supply is normally from a battery
fire. maintained in a fully charged state able to support
the system for at least 24 hours. The transfer of
16.5.2 Power supplies power supply between the two sources should not
affect the operation of the system.
BS 5839: Part 1 recommends that the power sup-
ply for a fire warning system should normally be N.B. The provision of alternate power supplies
derived from the mains electricity supply to the is a requirement of the Health and Safety (Signs
building, transformed or modified as necessary. and Signals) Regulations 1996.

17
Chapter 17 - Fire alarm operation and
control
17.1 General Detection zone indication will help direct fire-
fighters to the area of the fire. This is particularly
Fire alarm systems are essential if people are to the case where the system is automatic. In the case
evacuate a building successfully at the time of a of a Category M system (see Section 11.2.1),
fire. Often the evacuation process is simple where where only manual call points are provided, a per-
all people leave the building when the alarm son might operate a point some distance from the
sounds. However, in some larger buildings a two- fire. The advantages of zoning in those cases may
stage or phased evacuation may be desirable per- be less significant.
haps to maintain an essential service. In some
buildings, the means of escape arrangements are BS 5839: Part 1 makes certain recommendations
designed to cope with a flow of people, phased to for the size and configuration of zones:
evacuate the building in a predetermined sequence
rather than in one mass. The control of both two- (i) Where manual call points are provided on
stage and phased evacuation is through the fire landings, the call point should be incorporat-
alarm system on a zoned basis. ed in the zone served by that landing.
17. 2 Zones (ii) If the total floor area of the building exceeds
300m2 zones should be restricted to a single
In larger buildings, the fire detection and alarm storey. If the total floor area of the building
system may be divided into zones. These are: is 300m: or less, the building may be consid-
ered a single zone even though there may be
 Detection zones more than one storey.
 Alarm zones
(iii) The floor area of a single zone should not
17.2.1 Detection zones exceed 2,000m2 except in a single storey
open plan area (e.g. warehouse) where the
In most larger fire alarm systems, particularly zone should not be more than 10,000m2.
automatic systems, the detectors and manual call
points will be based on zones within the protected (iv) Where a zone is served by non-addressable
premises. This enables the indicator boards to detectors, the 'search distance', i.e. the dis-
show more precisely the whereabouts of the origin tance that may have to be travelled by a per-
of the signal. son responding to a fire alarm signal seeking
to locate the fire visually should not exceed
Depending on the sophistication of the system, this 60m.
signal could be a visual and audible indication
plus, possibly, a logging printout of the exact Note: A person need not reach the seat of the fire,
location of the actuated device within the zone. only travel sufficient distance to make visual
Simpler systems will just indicate the zone as an contact with it. This requirement does not apply
illuminated sign of a certain colour denoting the where the zone is served by addressable
states of the signal plus an audible signal. detectors.
Previous page
is blank
(v) Where the zone is served by addressable The actual zoning will be determined by the evac-
detectors, the control equipment should uation strategy for the building. The fire alarm
automatically give a visual indication of the sounders or voice system will thus be grouped so
zone affected together with a text display of that all of the sounders in each individual zone will
the location of the first detector to respond to transmit the appropriate signal.
the fire. This display should be supported by
other information, e.g. a building floor plan, BS 5839 recommends that:
to enable firefighters who may be unfamiliar
with the building to proceed directly to the (i) The internal boundaries between zones
location of the fire. should be of fire resisting construction.
(vi) Automatic detectors in an enclosed stairwell,
liftwell or other flue like structure are con- (ii) Where audible alarms are used, alarm zones
sidered as a separate zone. should be acoustically separated from each
other. Where an overlap of signals does
17.2.2 Alarm zones occur, it should not cause confusion to occu-
pants of the building.
In buildings with simple evacuation strategies, the
actuation of a call point or detector will cause the (iii) The evacuation signal should be sufficiently
alarm system throughout the building to operate. different from the alert signal to avoid con-
In larger buildings the means of escape arrange- fusion.
ments may be designed around more sophisticated
evacuation process. That may be: (iv) Alarm zones may incorporate more than one
detection zone but should coincide with
 Staged evacuation detection zone boundaries. No detection
 Phased evacuation zone should cover more than one alarm zone.
 Progressive horizontal evacuation.
17.3 Alarm signals
In staged evacuation, the 'evacuation7 signal is
given in the zones where people might be at great- Alarm signals may be:
est risk, e.g. the fire zone and those immediately
above or adjacent to it. In all other zones, an 'alert'  Audible
signal is given which may be converted to an evac-  Visual
uation signal if the situation demands it.  Sensual.
Phased evacuation is a more complex process (a) Audible

where people are evacuated in a predetermined
sequence according to the degree of risk they may Audible alarms may be of the bell or siren type,
be in from a fire. Instructions to people in the each installed to give a distinctive and unambigu-
building at the time of a fire are normally by use of ous signal throughout the alarm zone. In areas
a voice system, often triggered automatically in where people sleep, the alarm should be sufficient
the first instance. Subsequently, the phasing of the to rouse them from their sleep. Where the provi-
evacuation process will often be controlled manu- sion of an audible signal is considered inappropri-
ally from a control position. ate, such as in a place of public entertainment, the
audible signal can be confined to staff areas. In
Progressive horizontal evacuation is a form of hospitals the audible signal can be reduced to a
phased evacuation used in hospitals or residential point sufficient to make staff aware of an alarm
care premises where patients are moved horizon- signal but without causing distress to patients.
tally from the zone where they are at risk to adja-
cent safe zones on the same floor. To support the Once activated, audible signals should operate
evacuation arrangements, the building is divided continuously until silenced manually. However, in
into individual alarm zones. the case of radio-operated fire warning systems.

extended operation of battery powered alarm They can also be used in buildings used by
devices may compromise battery life. To avoid the profoundly deaf people. Care has to be taken to
risk of leaving premises with a defective fire warn- ensure that the radio link to the devices functions
ing system, battery powered alarms may be auto- throughout the building and is free from interfer-
matically silenced. Sound pressure levels ence from other sources. Sensual alarms are also
(loudness) are measured in decibels (dB(A)). useful in places where people with hearing disabil-
ities sleep. The device is placed under the bed,
Generally, the minimum levels in most areas mattress or pillow and connected to the fire
should not be less than 65dB(A). This can be warning system.
reduced to 60dB(A) in certain enclosed spaces
such as stair enclosures but should be increased to 17.4 Power supplies
75dB(A) at the bedhead where people sleep. The
Department of Health publication HTM 82 gives As stated, BS 5839: Part 1 requires that fire alarm
advice on the outputs from tire alarm sounders in systems have to have power available from two
hospitals. entirely separate sources. Failure of one source
must leave the other capable of operating under all
Voice fire warning systems are those where the fire likely alarm conditions and for long enough to
alarm signal is accompanied by a voice message. allow the necessary action to be taken to rectify the
The advantage of a voice system is that actual original fault.
instructions are given whereas with a simple signal
system, people need to be able to recognise the sig- Both supplies must be continuously monitored to
nal as an alarm. It has been found that people react ensure that an early warning of failure of either
more quickly to voice systems than is otherwise supply is given. Batteries especially must be main-
the case. Voice systems are useful in buildings tained so that their capacity does not drop below
having a two-stage evacuation system. In cases the level where they would be unable to maintain
where phased evacuation is used a voice system is the system in operation for an acceptable period
essential. after failure of the mains supply.
Recommendations as to the quality of messages to 17.5 Control and indicating

be given out by a voice system are given in BS equipment
5839: Part 8.
Except in the case of simple systems, all modern
(b) Visual fire detection and alarm systems incorporate a con-
trol facility.
Visual alarm signals can be used to supplement
audible signals in areas where an audible signal
might be ineffective, such as in areas of high back- The control unit is the nerve centre of any system
ground noise. They may also be used as the single and is usually placed in a prominent position in a
form of alarm where an audible alarm might cause building to ensure that its signals will be easily
unwanted disturbance or distress, such as in places seen and heard by the building's occupants, fire
of public assembly or entertainment or in certain brigade, etc. Its functions can include:
parts of hospitals. Visual alarms are distributed in
sufficient numbers around an alarm zone and are (i) Automatically monitor and control the
designed to be distinctive against other back- equipment in the system, such as the fire
grounds. The preferred colour of visual alarms is detection and fire alarm device circuits and
red. the power supply to that equipment.
(ii) Indicate fire and fault signals and their loca-

(c) Sensual
tion.
Sensual or vibrating alerters can be used as part of
an internal paging system to alert staff in circum- (iii) Provide manual control facilities for testing
stances where public alarms are inappropriate. the circuit, triggering fire alarm signals,

silencing audible fire warnings and resetting of a 2-zone system with some of the components
the system after a fire signal. of Figure 17.1. The control/indicator facilities may
be in one place in a building, such as near the main
(iv) Operate the alarm either throughout the entrance which firefighters would use when
building or in any particular sequence attending a call to the building.
related to an evacuation plan for the build-
ing with manual override facilities as neces- Alternatively, in larger buildings, the control
sary. equipment may be dispersed around the building
in key locations to meet staff and maintenance
(v) Transmit the signal to an Alarm Receiving requirements, providing information indicating the
Centre (ARC) for onward transmission to the location of a fire is adjacent to the entrance used by
fire brigade (if a fire signal) or other inter- firefighters. Where a dedicated control room
ested parties, e.g. the keyholder, mainte- is provided to take control of an incident in its
nance engineer. initial stages, some of the control and indicating
equipment shown in Figure 17.1 may have to be
(vi) Indicate from which zone the signal is com- duplicated.
ing, not only at the main indicator panel but,
if necessary, at repeater indicators through- 17.6 Faults
out the premises, e.g. the gatehouse.
The control and indicating equipment is designed
(vii) Operate other equipment e.g. de-activation to give a visual and audible warning of a fault and
of door-holding devices, opening smoke its location, e.g.:
ventilators.
(i) A fault in any detector or manual call point
(vii) Operate fixed firefighting equipment. in the circuit.
(ii) A short or break in any circuit forming part
This list is not comprehensive as designers are of the system.
constantly adding to these functions.
(iii) A failure of the mains power supply (within
Figure 17.1 gives a schematic diagram of a possi- 30 minutes) or of a standby supply (within
ble 2-zone system and Figure 17.2 a simple layout 15 minutes).
SECTOR ?
Figure 17.1 A schematic
diagram of a possible
END OF LINE
MONITOR DEVICES ALARM
MANNED 2-zone system.
CENTRE
SOUNDERS LINK
ZONE I UNIT PO LINES
TO
MANNED CENTRE
ANCILLARY
TRIGGER DEVICES EQUIPMENT
CONTROLLER EMERGENCY LIGHTS
SECTOR 1
MASTER ALARM
SOUNDER CIRCUIT
ZONE 1
ZONE 1 ZONE 2 FAULT ZONE 1 ZONE 2

AC MAINS IP
FIRE FIRE SOUNDERS FIRE FIRE
POWER
FAULT FAULT FAULT FAULT
AC DC RESET EARTH
POWER SOUNDERS
SUPPLY
UNIT AND
BATTERY ENABLE ZONE MASTER SECTOR POWER
CHANGER BATTERY
EARTH
CONTROL AND INDICATING EQUIPMENT REPEAT INDICATOR PANEL

Figure 17.2 Diagram
of an automatic fire
detection system Protected building Internal alarm
showing zones and
enlarged insert of Detectors
control/indicator
panel.
Zone 2
External.
alarm Zone 1
(iv) A failure of the transmission links between these 'addresses' and, as a device recognises its
the system and an ARC. 'address', it transmits its status back to the unit.
The unit will note the status and react if necessary
(v) Any other fault that may render the system and, in some systems, any reaction will be record-
or part of the system inoperative. ed and, when requested, will respond with a print-
out.
Where there is a possibility of concurrent fire and
fault signals the control unit incorporates special With sensors in detectors, for instance, they may
logic circuits, which differentiate between the sig- be programmed to answer:
nals and give preference to fire signals.
(i) Normal condition (sometimes called
Almost every part of a modern fire alarm system 'healthy').
now has an 'address' which is usually a unique
electronic code decided by the installer. The con- (ii) Pre-alarm level, i.e. the status is not at
trol unit regularly monitors at frequent intervals, fire level but is above its normal 1 level.
Fire Service Manual 111

The control unit can then give a pre-alarm signal, 17.9 Fault level
display the location of the sensor in an liquid crys-
tal display (LCD) or visual display unit (VDU), This is a fault on any part of the system, e.g. cir-
make an audible signal and may record the date, cuitry data output, below a certain level. The fault
time, location, status, etc. on the LCD display. A indicator LED will illuminate, an audible alarm
system could be programmed to give an alert sig- signal operates and, possibly, a LCD display and
nal if one detector in a room moves to a fire con- printout also occur. In order not to deactivate a
dition and a full alarm signal only when a second number of sensors or a complete zone, some sys-
detector in the same room also signifies a fire con- tems can isolate the device creating the fault con-
dition. dition but still leave the remainder fully alert. In
this case a fault is indicated and a 'device isolated'
17.7 Fire level light will illuminate plus the audible alarm.
The control unit monitors the response and it will 17.10 Monitoring the system
decide if there is a fire. Consequently it will dis-
play a fire signal, i.e. the fire LED (see Section Other facilities, which could be included in a sys-
12.7) will illuminate, the location and the time will tem, are:
be displayed on an LCD panel, the audible alarm
will sound, alarm sounders will trigger and the sig- (i) The unit can be programmed to note the
nal will be transmitted to an ARC, etc. ambient conditions in certain areas and
adjust its response to the signals accordingly.
17.8 Silence alarms and reset
(ii) The unit can note, over a period of time,
BS 5839 requires that a system should have deterioration in a sensor, e.g. from an exces-
a silencing device, which can silence general sive accumulation of dust, excessive insect
alarm sounders or, in a two-stage system, alert inhalation. Taking this into account it can
signals. adjust the sensors response up to a predeter-
mined limit and beyond that will register a
The operation of the device should: fault.
(i) Require a manual operation. (iii) If a sensor is removed for any reason this can
be noted and it will register a fault if the
(ii) Sound an audible alarm at the control unit. wrong type of sensor is reinstalled or the
new sensor is not coded with the correct
(iii) Not cancel any visual signal of the alarm at 'address'.
the control unit.
17.11 Maintenance
(iv) Not prevent the proper receipt of alarms
from any zone not already providing an If continuous logging is included in the system, an
alarm. engineer on regular inspection can spot trends in
deterioration or areas of intermittent faults. The
(v) Not prevent the correct operation of any con- engineer can carry out tests on individual devices
trol for starting or restarting the alarm from the control unit using a coded keypad, identi-
sounder. fy faults, or even impending faults, and take the
necessary action.
(vi) Not prevent the transmission of an alarm to
an ARC. 17.12 Visual displays
The system should not be able to reset until all The use of LEDs and LCDs are examples of the
devices are reinstated to 'NORMAL' condition. types of display being used together with alphanu-

meric characters to give highly visible notifica- mal' LEDs illuminated. If the power supply fails
tions on the indicator board. Figure 17.4 shows a the supply 'fault' LED is lit and the internal fault
LCD display and printout. sounder activates.
Other systems incorporate a VDU showing a plan (i) Fire condition

of the area protected using colours to identify the
type and location of the event. When a fire condition is detected the zone alarm
circuitry is activated and latched. The alarm
17.13 Examples of control and sounders operate and the 'fire' condition is indi-
cated by the illumination of the 'fire' LEDs. When
indicating equipment the key switch on that zone is turned to the 'silence
17.13.1 3-zone type detection system alarm' position the 'fire' LEDs remain illuminated,
the alarm sounders are silenced and an internal
Figure 17.3 illustrates a control unit designed to sounder is activated.
cover up to three zones. It can accept up to 40 heat
detectors and 40 smoke detectors per zone and can (ii) Reset
be fitted with a remote signal module for sig- When all detectors are free from combustion prod-
nalling to an ARC or fire brigade control. It can ucts, expendable fixed temperature detector ele-
also accept signals from manual call points. ments replaced and manual call points reset; the
zone is reinstated to an active condition by turning
Various coloured LEDs indicate the state of each the key switch to 'reset' and then to 'normal'.
zone and there are key switches for test, reset and
silencing alarms. (iii) Fault
In a quiescent condition zone switches are at If a detector line is broken, or short-circuited, or a
normal with power supply 'normal' and zone 'nor- zone fuse fails, the zone fault circuitry is activated
Figure 17.3 Typical

3-zone control/indicator unit. Power Supply Section Zone Section
NORMAL FIRE FAULT
Single Green LED Twin Red LEDs Twin Amber LEDs
FAULT
Single Amber LED
SILENCE ALARMS
RESET
TEST FIRE/SOUND
ZONE ALARMS
REMOTE KEYSWITCH
SIGNAL
MODULE
When fitted

and indicated by the illumination of that particular On this particular system 'normal' is given a fig-
zone 'fault' LED. The internal sounder is activated ure/level of'25'.
and the 'normal' LED is extinguished. An open or
short circuit fault in an alarm sounder circuit sig- (i) Normal level
nals a 'fault' condition.
In an active state the only indicator LED illumi-
(iv) Other interfaces nated is 'A.C Healthy' indicating that the power
supply is correct. The LCD display will show sys-
This control unit can also be adapted to work in tem normal and alarms '000' (see Figure 17.5).
conjunction with an extinguishant control unit
capable of meeting BS 5306. (ii) Pre-alarm level
17.13.2 Multi zone type with The levels of '25', '45' and '55' conform with the
microprocessor required LPC and BS EN 54-7 Rules, where 25 is
normal, 45 pre-alarm level and 55 the fire level.
Figure 17.4 illustrates a control unit based on an
addressable-analogue concept using a micro- If a sensor/device reports a transient condition, i.e.
processor, the system conforming to BS 5839: different from '25', the system logs the event,
Parts 1 and 4. interrogates the identified device for further data
and checks whether it is an alarm condition or only
The whole system is 'addressed' every three sec- spurious data, i.e. electrical interference. If the
onds and the replies checked for a 'normal' return. device returns to a level of '45' a 'pre-alarm' is
Figure 17.4 Detector control panel showing a

pre-alarm signal, displayed message and printout.
(Photo: Kidde General Fire Ltd.)

Figure 17.5 Micro-processor indicator board
showing system 'Normal'. EVENT LOCATION MESSAGE
SYSTEM NORMAL 05/11 /02
ALARMS : 0.00 11:25:44
Figure 17.6 Indicator

100 P
hoard registering a ADDRESS EVENT LOCATION MESSAGE
pre-alarm signal. 062 01 FOYER 05/11/02

ALARMS 000 P.ALM 11:25:44
FIRE
AC Healthy
Paper print out
registered. The 'pre-alarm' LED will illuminate, a 'monitor fault' and the 'common fault' LEDs will
warning buzzer sounds, the LCD displays (as illuminate.
shown in Figure 17.6) and the printer will deliver
a printout. The cause of the 'pre-alarm', which N.B. The term 'monitor' may be superseded by
could be only a contaminated atmosphere, should 'device' or 'sensor'. The fault buzzer will sound
be investigated by the person responsible. and the LCD will display the location and a print-
out will be received. For any fault on the remain-
(iii) Fire level der of the system only the 'common' fault LED
will illuminate plus the sounder operating and the
If a sensor returns a level of '55' then the control LCD printout. In all cases a fire signal will over-
unit will decide that there is a fire condition (see ride a fault signal.
Figure 17.7). The fire LED and particular area
LED will illuminate, alarm sounders will operate (v) Maintenance
to whatever level the system has programmed
according to the location of the fire, LCDs will The event store memory of the processor keeps a
display and the printout will record the event. permanent record of all events and the printout will
Other auxiliary systems will be activated, e.g. sig- produce this record on request. This enables an
nal to an ARC. If a break glass unit has been oper- engineer to pinpoint potential trouble areas and, by
ated the 'Manual Alarm' LED is also illuminated. use of the keypad of the unit, to call up and test a
device as necessary. It can also isolate a device
(iv) Fault condition without affecting the remainder of the loop and this
will be indicated by an LED, stored in the memory
There are two types of fault condition on the con- and every five minutes a sounder will operate to
trol unit. Where there is a fault on a sensor both the remind the engineer that the device is isolated.

Figure 17.7 Indicator
board registering a fire
ADDRESS LOOP EVENT LOCATION MESSAGE
signal.
108 04 CANTEEN 05/11/02
ALARMS 001 FIRE 13 40 16
FIRE
Area 2
Manual
Alarm
A C Healthy
(vi) Additional facilities  The rate of false alarms exceeds one per 20
detector heads

The control unit can also register, indicate, take More than two false alarms are initiated by a
appropriate action and record, multiple fire or the single manual call point or automatic
spread of fire. It can indicate the need for evacua- detector.
tion whether it be for a real necessity or a drill and
will operate alarms, auxiliary outputs, etc. as nec- In systems with 40 or fewer or heads, the investi-
essary. If, following an evacuation, the alarms are gation should be held if more than two false alarms
silenced it will continuously remind the person occur within a 12 month period.
responsible that the alarms are inoperative until the
system is reset. 17.14 Alarm Receiving Centres
(vii) False alarms 17.14.1 General
Mention has been made in previous chapters
False or unwanted alarms from automatic fire (and see Fire Service Manual Volume 1, Fire
detection equipment arc a problem. False alarms Service Technology, Equipment and Media, -
disrupt the routine of workplaces and other build- Communications and Mobilising, Chapter 6) to fire
ings and place an unnecessary burden on fire alarm systems (FAS) being connected to Alarm
brigades, particularly in areas served by retained Receiving Centres (ARC) or to local authority fire
personnel. Whilst addressable systems, where brigade control rooms. BS 5839: Part 1 gives
detectors are able to distinguish between smoke advice on methods for contacting the fire brigade,
and other pollutants, have considerably reduced either direct from the building or via an ARC.
the potential for false alarms, it is virtually impos-
sible to completely eliminate all causes of false The advantage of passing fire alarm signals
alarm. through an ARC is that the centre can filter out
potential false alarms before they are passed to the
BS 5839: Part 1, recommends that new systems brigade. Upon receipt of a signal, the ARC would
should be designed to limit the potential for false delay informing the brigade for a predetermined
alarms by careful choice of system and the posi- period. This would give time for a responsible per-
tioning of detectors. son in the protected building to confirm whether
the services of the brigade were required or not. If
The British Standard further recommends that no confirmation was received within the time
where false alarms occur in a system of more than allowed, the brigade is automatically alerted.
40 heads, a competent person should investigate
the cause if, within 12 months:

There are, in a few areas, facilities for FAS to be 17.14.4 Methods of transmission -
connected directly to the fire brigade control protected premises to ARC
rooms. Some brigades have facilities in their con-
trol set up to receive signals from FAS in premises (i) Private wire
within a 48 km radius of its control room.
A dedicated and continuously monitored path via a
Other brigades collect FAS signals from data telephone exchange, not necessarily a unique pair
transmitters direct into their command and control of wires but more usually part of a multiplex cir-
computer which can then display the PDA to the cuit which, over long distances, could be transmit-
premises on the operators screen. ted by microwave. Economically often limited to
10-15 km radius.
17.14.2 Connections from premises (FAS)
to ARCs (ii) Omnibus circuits
There are four distinct means of connection In this system a number of premises share a com-
between protected premises and ARCs. These are: munications path. Each premises has a dedicated
spur connection to a telephone exchange from
(i) Private wires - most ARCs offer this facility; where there is a single circuit to the ARC. Due to
line losses the number of premises on any one line
(ii) Omnibus circuits - fairly frequent option are limited but it is economical over relatively long
offered; distances. Each premises is scanned together with
the others but the code transmitted by the ARC
(iii) Connection to ARC satellites - from here only elicits an answer from one e.g. current state
signals are multiplexed to the ARC. A num- 'normal', 'fault' or 'fire'.
ber of major companies offer this.
(iii) ARC satellites
(iv) Digital communications - widespread
facility; A satellite is a form of data concentrator to which
premises can be connected either by private wire
17.14.3 Connections from ARC to fire of omnibus circuit. It is virtually an unstaffed ARC
brigade controls into which a large number of signals can be
received and re-transmitted to an ARC, collecting
The means by which ARCs pass calls to fire data from a number of satellites. There is an added
brigade controls are: advantage that, if communications break down
between a satellite and the ARC, an operator can
(i) Private wires; attend the satellite although the multiplex systems
are usually backed up by a duplication or by
(ii) 999 facilities - either with or outside the switching to the PSTN using modems.
ARC area;
(iv) Digital communications (DC)
(iii) Ex-directory numbers of fire brigade control
rooms; This is a signalling device that is connected to an
exchange telephone line. In the event of a fire sig-
The permutations of both 17.14.2 and 17.14.3 are nal operating at the premises the DC dials up the
shown in Figure 17.8. ARC using the PSTN. A receiver at the ARC
answers and a series of coded tones is sent by the
DC, decoded by the ARC receiver and displayed
on the operators VDU for action. The advantage of
this system is that there is no limit to distance of
transmission and it is economic. The disadvantage

Figure 17.8 The various means by which ARCs can transmit calls to fire brigade controls.
is that, any congestion on the PSTN, and the signal (iii) Ex-directory number
may not go through however many times the DC is
programmed to dial. A number of brigades provide an ARC with an ex-
directory telephone number that permits access via
17.14.5 Methods of transmission the PSTN, to their control room and there the call
is recognised as an emergency call. However, any
(i) Private wire
use of the PSTN leaves a line susceptible to faults
Here the ARC resets a private circuit from a public or even congestion and can cause delays in trans-
telecommunications operator, e.g. British Telecom mission.
(BT) and this terminates in a brigade control. This
makes a highly reliable connection but even this is (iv) Administrative telephone number
usually backed up by a secondary method in case of
failure. This method is probably the most unacceptable
although it is not unknown. There can be very
(ii) 999 facilities
significant delays in answering such calls, which
If the ARC and protected premises happen to be have a low priority in any brigade control. It
located in the same area, BT will usually connect a may even have to pass through a separate
999 call from the ARC to the fire brigade control administrative switchboard before reaching the
covering that area. Arrangements can be made to control; the line itself might be engaged; there may
use the 999 system via an 'out-of-area' exchange be a fault on the line or the PSTN may be
line if the protected premises is in a different area congested.
to the ARC.
The disadvantage of using the 999 system is the

human link, i.e. the BT operator, which could slow
down the transmission of the call.

18
Chapter 18 - Choice of detector and
detector positioning
18.1 General (i) Loss Prevention Council (LPC)
'Recommendations for the protection of
It is essential when choosing a fire detection sys- computer installations against fire'.
tem that the designer selects a system best suited to (ii) DHSS Technical Memorandum 'Fire safety
the needs of the building. The final choice will in health care premises. Detection and alarm
depend on: systems'.
(i) The speed of response required to satisfy the BS 5839: Part 1 gives advice on the suitability of
fire safety objective, which might be life particular systems in each case. Generally, heat
safety or property protection or both. detectors are less sensitive to fires in their early
(ii) The need to minimise false alarms from the stages but are suitable in areas where smoke or
system. fumes could create false alarms. However, they are
(iii) The nature of the fire hazard. not suitable for protecting areas where a warning
of smoke is crucial, e.g. escape routes.
(iv) The form of evacuation strategy to be
employed in a building, e.g. single or staged.
Ionisation chamber smoke detectors are particular-
As pointed out in the introduction to this part of ly sensitive to small particles found in clean burn-
the Manual, a great deal of thought is required ing fires but may be less sensitive to larger
when designing an AFD system. particles such as those generated by a smouldering
fire.
Reference must be made both to British and
European Standards. The relevant ones are listed Conversely, optical detectors are better at detect-
below: ing large particles but less sensitive to clean burn-
ing fires producing little visible smoke. Within the
 BS EN 54-11 for single acting manual call optical range of detectors, those operating on the
points. light scatter principle are more sensitive than those
 BS EN 54-5 for point heat detectors. using smoke obscuration. It should be noted that
 BS 5839: Part 5 for line detectors. the differences in sensitivity in the examples dis-
BS EN 54-7 for point smoke detectors. cussed are small and most smoke detectors are


efficient across a broad spectrum of fire types.
BS 5839: Part 5 for optical beam detectors.
 BS EN 54-10 for flame detectors.
Where improved sensitivity is required for various
 BS EN 54-2 and BS EN 54-4 for power sup- fire types, multi-sensor detectors may be suitable.
ply, control and indicating equipment. These incorporate more than one sensor, which
 BS EN 54-3 for audible fire alarm devices. may be different smoke-sensing technologies or a
 BS EN 54-13 for the assembled installation. combination of smoke and heat detector.
 BS 6266 for protection of electronic equip-
ment installations. Beam detectors are both economical and efficient
in large undivided areas, such as cathedrals or
Two other publications have a bearing on the large concert halls. However, they must be mount-
subject: ed onto a rigid structure that is unlikely to distort

or flex with environmental changes such as wind Table 18.1 summarises the points discussed.
load or temperature.
In the relevant British Standards, depending on
Infra-red and ultra-violet detection is suitable location and general type of detector used, certain
where flaming fires can be expected. However, thedistances and operational areas are stipulated.
inability of ultra-violet detectors to penetrate Building configurations are taken into considera-
smoke should be noted. tion and Table 18.2 gives a general summary of
point detector positioning, requirement, and
Aspirating systems are useful where: advice. Most systems use zones and this must be
borne in mind because there are limitations on the
 Highly sensitive equipment, such as comput- areas which can be covered by any one zone (see
ers, are housed in enclosed cabinets. Section 17.2).
 Aesthetics preclude the use of point detec- In areas with flat ceilings, the horizontal distance
tors but where holes for small diameter cap- between any point and a detector should not
illary tubes are acceptable. exceed:
 Areas where the environment is unsuitable  7.5m for smoke detectors

for point detectors, e.g. cold rooms and  5.3m for heat detectors.
where sampling tubes can be connected to
monitors outside of the cold area. In corridors not exceeding 2m in width, detectors
should be sited at not more than 15m (smoke) or
Carbon monoxide detectors may be immune to 10.6m (heat).
influences such as tobacco, dust or steam that
could result in false alarms if conventional smoke In the case of sloping ceilings, detectors should be
detectors are used They react faster than if heat placed at the apex unless:
detectors were used as an alternative to smoke in
those circumstances. (i) The difference in height is less than 600mm
for smoke detection.
Table 18.1 A general division of types of detector for the type of risk covered
Detector Use Smoke Heat and Sensitivity
type flame
Smoke All, except Very good Good High
optical (both specialist
types) fire
Smoke All, except Good Very good High
ionisation specialist
fires
Heat All, but for Unsuitable Good Low except
detection of for rapid
smoke growth fires
Beam All, Good Good High
smoke especially
large areas
Carbon All, except Very good Poor High
monoxide specialist
Aspirating Specialist Very good Very good Very high
Flame Specialist Unsuitable Very good Very fast

Table 18.2 A general summary of point detector height of the detector above the source of smoke.
positioning and requirements This has to be considered against the configuration
Point Detector Positioning of the compartment protected, possible obstruc-
tions, types of contents involved, requirements of
Smoke Heat
legislation, etc.
Max detector distance from
any point 7.5m 5.3m
18.2.2 Area
Distance between detectors
in corridors 15m 10.6m
The maximum distance from any point in the pro-
Ceiling height (general) 10.5m 9m tected area to a detector should not exceed 7.5m,
Distance from wall or giving a detector spacing of 15m. In corridors, the
obstruction greater than maximum distance from any point can be
250mm in depth 500mm 500mm increased to 15m.
Obstruction less than Detectors no closer
than 250mm in depth than twice the depth 18.2.3 Heat inversion
of the obstruction
Storage racks within Treat as wall and fit Another problem, especially in single storey build-
300mm of ceiling additional detectors ings, is the tendency for a layer of warm air to
as necessary accumulate near, or at, ceiling level, known as
'stratification'. This can delay smoke rising to the
detector and consideration is sometimes given to
suspending detector heads below the likely level of
(ii) The difference is less than 150mm for heat this warm layer. Where this is done, ceiling mount-
detection. ed detectors should also be provided.
Much stricter requirements are applied to areas of
high value risk, e.g. in the case of electronic equip- 18.2.4 Air movement
ment installations, individual detector coverage is
limited to between 15 20m2. Detectors should be placed in the path of the nor-
mal air flow. This includes artificial ventilation
Due regard must be given to the capability of the because smoke can originate from outside the area.
detector selected and its ability to detect the class Figures 18.1 and 18.2 show examples of position-
of fire most likely in the building protected. ing. Care must be taken, however, not to place
Change of use of a building could lead to late detectors too close to a fresh air flow as the
alarms being given and an early deterioration of additional air could dilute the smoke and delay
the efficiency of the system. an alarm being given, e.g. an intake down
through a perforated ceiling can make it difficult to
A major consideration, which must be taken into protect, as smoke would tend to be pushed down-
account in the choice of detectors and the system wards. However, an additional detector near the
design, is the minimising of false alarms. The outlet would cover that point.
credibility of AFD has been cast into doubt by the
propensity of some systems to give repeated false Constant air movement by, for instance, artificial
alarms of fire. Systems designed to modern stan- ventilation can prevent smoke reaching a detector
dards using sophisticated equipment should do and it can also affect the sensitivity of ionisation
much to reduce the incidence of false alarm with- type detectors. Usually the solution is to compen-
out affecting the reliability of the installation. sate either by reducing the area each detector mon-
itors or increasing their sensitivity.
18.2 Smoke detectors
18.2.1 General
18.2.5 Voids
The ability of a point smoke detector to detect The increasing designed use of voids, both ceiling
smoke particles depends on air movement and the and underfloor, poses another problem. If they are

Figure 18.1 Examples
a Site detector in front of positioning of
of used air grill
detectors where flow
of air is out of the
building or
compartment.
b Site detector in areas of

turbulence between
outlets
c For perforated ceilings,

place detector as
normal
Figure 18.2 Examples

1.5m of detector positioning
where flow of air is into
the building or
compartment.
1m
(a) (b) (c)
Place detector Place symmetrically Blank off 1m detector mounted
at least 1.5m between air inlets on perforated ceilings
from air inlet
less than 800mm in height they need not be pro- ed from ceilings. Tests have shown that any con-
tected unless: struction of this kind, made of small squares or
parallels with small gaps, has a significant effect
(i) The spread of fire of smoke between rooms of on smoke travel. Detectors sited above perforated
compartments can take place before detection. ceilings may be used for the protection of the
space below the false ceiling if:
(ii) A fire risk assessment determines that the
fire risk in the void demands protection.  The perforations make up more than 40% of
any square metre of the ceiling
The sensing elements of detectors sited in voids  The minimum dimension of each perforation
should be sited within the top 10% of the void or in any direction is 10mm
the top 125mm, whichever is greater. In shallow  The thickness of the ceiling is less than three
voids, the detector should be hung downwards to times the minimum dimension of each perfo-
avoid dust and dirt accumulating on it. Any use of ration.
voids by ventilation systems would create fast air
flows and the type of detection should be as for If the area above a suspended ceiling does not con-
ducts (see Section 18.2.9). form to these criteria, it should be treated as a void.
In such cases, detectors protecting the space
Another construction which gives rise to what are, should be fitted below the false ceiling. If it is nec-
technically, voids although not in the strictly essary to protect the void above the false ceiling,
closed sense, is the common use of grids suspend- further detectors should be installed in the void.

Figure 18.3 Detector
positioning on a
staircase.
Smoke barrier
lower floor/
upper floor
18.2.6 Walls, beams and galleries additional to detectors protecting the spaces served
by the ventilation system.
Positioning detectors within certain distances of
walls or beams could put them into 'dead' air space BS 5839: Part 1 recommends that only smoke
where there may be little or no air flow. Beams detectors are used in ducts which may be probes
150mm deep or less can be ignored but any beam from an aspirating system. The detectors or probes
more than 150mm or more than 10% of the height should be installed in straight stretches of duct
of the compartment should be treated as a separat- work. To avoid air turbulence or smoke dilution by
ing wall for smoke travel purposes. air from another source, the distance from any
bend, corner or junction should not be less than
18.2.7 Corridors three times the width of the duct.
In a corridor, or a small room with a width of 2m
or less, detectors can be spaced at 15m intervals.
18.2.10 Electronic equipment
installations
18.2.8 Staircases, shafts, etc.
Fires in major electronic installations can have
In a staircase or shaft at least one detector should serious consequences. BS 6266 sets out the design
be placed on the top floor ceiling and on each main criteria for the fire protection of electronic equip-
landing. In L1, L2, L3 and P1 systems (see Section ment installations and calls for a risk assessment.
11.2), if any lift shaft, hoist, escalator or enclosed The latter should include an assessment of the con-
chute penetrates one or more ceilings, a detector sequences of a fire in terms of actual loss and tem-
should be placed at the head of each shaft and on porary loss of facility (downtime).
each level within 1.5m of the penetration (see
Figure 18.3). Most fire alarm and detection systems protecting
electronic installations use highly sensitive smoke
18.2.9 Ducts detection such as multi-sensor detectors or aspirat-
ing systems. In critical installations the aim is to
Smoke detectors in ventilation ducts are intended accurately detect incipient fire situations such as
to assist with the prevention of the spread of the early detection of an overheated cable.
smoke by shutting off the re-circulation system.
Detectors in ducts should be connected to the fire The fire alarm and detection system is interfaced
alarm system but, as they would be ineffective with the electronic installation to allow for a pro-
when the system was shut down, they should be grammed shut down of the system, closing down

the air conditioning or ventilation system serving The exceptions are:
the installation and the priming or release of any
fixed fire suppression system. (i) Height
The choice of detection system for electronic Heat intensity decreases rapidly as distance
installations must ensure a high degree of reliabil- increases, which means that the height limits are
ity with the virtual elimination of the potential for lower than those for smoke detectors. In each
false alarms. grade of detector (see 18.3.1 above) there is a max-
imum general limit height. Generally this is 9m for
18.3 Heat detectors normal ambient temperature detectors (Classes A1
and A2) and 7.5m for other classes. However, for
18.3.1 General Category P systems, where the fire brigade or pri-
vate firefighting service minimum attendance time
Heat detectors are usually much slower in their is not more than five minutes, the detector heights
reaction than smoke detectors but they are very can be increased to 13.5m in the case of Class Al
reliable, require the minimum of maintenance and and A2 and 12m in all other cases.
rarely give false alarms. Point heat detectors
should conform to the requirements of BS EN Where ceiling heights are not consistent, detectors
54-5, which defines eight classes of heat detector. can be sited in the higher portions of the ceiling,
Two relate to detectors suitable for installation in providing the total area of those higher portions
areas of normal ambient temperature, i.e. Classes does not exceed 10% of the total ceiling area in
Al or A2. The remaining Classes, B to G are any protected zone and the detector height does
intended for six different ranges of high ambient not exceed 10.5m for all classes of heat detector.
temperature.
In contrast to smoke detectors, heat detectors
The classification of heat detectors ensures that should be sited so that the sensing element is not
high ambient temperatures will not cause lower more than 50mm below the ceiling - which will
limit detectors to cause false alarms whilst ensur- determine whether heat detectors can be used.
ing that detectors classed for use in high ambient
temperature conditions have an adequate speed of (ii) Area
response.
The maximum distance allowed from any point to
This classification replaces the grading of heat the nearest detector is 5.3m, giving a detector sep-
detectors found in BS 5445 although detectors aration of 10.6m. In corridors, the maximum dis-
conforming to those grades are still in use. The tance to the nearest detector can be increased to
grades are: 10.6m.
GRADE COLOUR (iii) Sloping ceilings

Grade 1 Green
Grade 2 Yellow The detector should be sited in the apex of the
Grade 3 Red roof.
18.3.2 Positioning (iv) Beams and similar construction
With a few exceptions, the considerations for posi- The detector should be mounted on the ceiling
tioning heat detectors are the same as for smoke only in the inter-beam area.
detectors.

19
Chapter 19 - Manually-operated fire
alarms
The point has been made that a fire alarm can be manually, operate as part of an electrical circuit.
raised automatically by a detection system or man- Manual call points, as they are known, can be
ually by a person in the affected building. This installed as the only means of activating the sys-
chapter examines the latter method. Such an alarm tem or can be incorporated with automatic detec-
will generally be either wholly manual or manu- tors to form a comprehensive fire alarm system
al/electric, not forgetting that an alarm can always which allows for automatic and/or manual raising
be activated vocally. of an alarm.
19.1 Manual systems The call points in a manual/electric system are

usually small wall mounted boxes as shown in
The Fire Precautions (Workplace) Regulations, Figure 19.1. They are designed to operate either:
1998 (as amended), require that each workplace is
provided with the means of giving warning in case (i) Automatically, when the glass front is bro-
of fire. In smaller workplaces this can be word of ken, or
mouth or a simple manually-operated device, such
as: (ii) When the glass front is broken AND the but-
ton pressed in.
(i) Rotary gongs which are sounded by simply
turning a handle. (The majority of available models are designed to
operate immediately the glass front is broken.)
(ii) Hand strikers e.g. iron triangles suspended
from a wall accompanied by a metal bar
which is used to strike the triangle.
(iii) Handbells,
(iv) Whistles.
These devices should be sited in readily available

locations such as corridors, entrance halls and
staircase landings but where a person using them
can do so without being put at risk by the fire.
They are relatively cheap but can only give an

alarm over a limited area. As a person is required
to operate them, a continuous alarm cannot be
guaranteed for as long as may be necessary.
Figure 19.1 Manual fire alarm showing a micro-
19.2 Manual/electric systems processor which can he fitted to include the alarm into
an analogue svstem.
These are systems which, although set in motion (Photo: Apollo Fire Detectors Ltd.)

transparent polycarbonate covers over the call
Contact (2) point which have to be raised in order to operate
the device. The act of raising the cover causes a
battery-operated audible alarm installed within the
Spring-
cover assembly to sound. In schools and other
loaded places where the number of malicious false alarms
button
Contact (1) became unacceptable, the use of these covers has
virtually eliminated the problem.
Glass
front
In cases such as mental health units or other places
where vandalism is a problem, a modified call
point is often fitted, operated by a key. When the
key is inserted and turned the electric circuit is
completed and an alarm is raised. The key will
normally be in the possession of or accessible to,
Figure 19.2 An illustration of a fire-alarm call point.
authorised personnel only.
Recommendations on the installation of manual

In the call point illustrated in Figure 19.2, the con- call points are given in BS 5839: Part 1.
tact (1) is connected to one side of the electrical
circuit, and contact (2) to the other. The movement All fire alarm systems should incorporate manual
of contact (1) is governed by the spring loaded but- call points. These should be distributed throughout
ton which is maintained in the depressed position the building sited on escape routes near to exit
by the glass front. Normally, therefore, contact (1) doors or doors leading to enclosed stairways. Any
is held off contact (2), but once the glass is broken, persons escaping from a building by a designated
the spring forces the button outwards, allowing exit route should pass at least one manual call
contact (1) to engage with contact (2) thus com- point.
pleting an electrical circuit and raising the alarm.
All call points in a building should have similar
As an alternative, this type of call point can be fit- methods of operation and be sited so that no per-
ted so that the electrical circuit is normally com- son has to travel more than 45m to a call point. In
plete, a relay being incorporated to hold off the areas where the fire growth potential is high, the
alarm. On breaking the glass the circuit is broken, distance to a call point should be shortened. Where
the relay de-energises and the alarm sounds. the location of call points is not obvious or where
people who may be expected to use them may not
In either case, accidental breaking of the glass will, be familiar with their location, suitable notices
of course, raise a false alarm. To avoid this, some should be used at or near each call point.
users specify call points in which the button has to
be manually pressed in to raise the alarm after the 19.3 Miscellaneous
glass has been broken. When the button is released
the alarm will continue to sound. Fire alarm and detection systems will not of them-
selves attack a fire. Consequently, there is a need
To help with the breaking of glass in call points for the brigade and where appropriate a firefight-
most manufacturers will provide a small metal ing team to be called. Fire alarm and detection sys-
hammer for attaching by chain to the box. Where a tems can be automatically programmed to call the
hammer is not available, a blow with a covered brigade either directly or through an ARC. Where
elbow, a shoe heel or other sharp object should these facilities are not installed, arrangements
enable the glass to be broken safely. should be made in the building for the brigade to
be called via the 999 telephone system. In most
To give added security against the malicious oper- cases, the fire alarm should be activated either
ation of manual call points, some users fit hinged automatically or by using a manual call point.

Systems which rely on dedicated numbers on (i) Ionising chamber.
internal telephone systems should be avoided.
(ii) Optical, using either light obscuration or
The telephone system could be disabled by the fire light scatter principles.
or other faults could delay the call being made.
Similarly, arrangements which rely on a person Power sources are either battery or mains electric-
intervening between the alarm system being acti- ity. Smoke alarms can operate independently or
vated and the alarm being given could lead to can be electrically interlinked to form a basic sys-
unacceptable delays. tem. Where alarms are interlinked, the activation
of one alarm will trigger the audible devices in
19.4 Restricted alarms others.
In order to avoid unnecessary disturbance in hos- Within the definition of smoke alarms a range of
pitals and other larger installations, it may be products are available. These include:
desirable to restrict an initial alarm to the locality
in which it arises, or to a small number of restrict-  Ionisation battery alarm
ed personnel. A general alarm would then be
sounded only if a 'duty officer' considered it desir-  Optical battery alarm
able to do so.
 Ionisation and optical alarm with mains
Signal light systems, which are often installed for power and /or battery.
summoning staff for various purposes, can be used
for restricted alarms; operation of the call point Some manufacturers produce smoke alarms with
produces a certain light code signal. additional facilities such as emergency lights
which come on when the device is activated, hush
These lights may be installed at hospital ward or silencing buttons, strobe lights and vibrating
entrances, passage intersections and other places pads to help those with sight or hearing difficul-
where they are conspicuous to staff. ties.
Restricted alarm systems must have a control In some battery-powered alarms, the battery is
point, which is under continuous and competent designed to power the device for periods up to 10
watch during the whole time the premises are years. In most other cases, the battery has a limit-
occupied. An overriding switch should also be pro- ed life and should normally be changed annually.
vided to enable the 'duty officer' or other respon-
sible person to raise a general alarm for complete Because smoke alarms are both detector and audi-
evacuation. In all cases it is essential to ensure that ble alarm, they need to be sited so that they will
the fire brigade have been called. Firefighters both detect fire in its early stages and alert every-
should make themselves aware of the various one in the home, particularly at night. Where more
types of systems in their area. than one alarm unit is provided, these should be
electrically interlinked for best results.
19.5 Smoke alarms
To be effective, all smoke alarms have to have a
Smoke alarms are produced primarily for use in high degree of sensitivity and this can make them
the home, although they may have a limited appli- susceptible to false alarms such as smoke from
cation in other circumstances. A smoke alarm is a cooking or steam from bathrooms. Ionisation
combined smoke detector and audible alarm. detectors are more prone to these effects than opti-
Emerging evidence shows that lives are being cal detectors. Careful siting of the detector will
saved in homes fitted with these devices. help prevent unwanted alarms as will keeping the
detector clean.
Smoke alarms should conform to BS 5446: Part 1,
and are of two basic types. They are:

Whilst there is no legislation demanding that occu- Further advice on the types of smoke alarms avail-
piers fit smoke alarms, Approved Document B of able and the types of installation recommended for
the Building Regulations 2000 requires all new a range of domestic premises can be found in BS
houses to be fitted with a mains-powered smoke 5839: Part 6.
alarm at each floor level and where more than one
is provided for these to be interlinked.
Fire brigade personnel should take every opportuni-

ty to encourage householders to fit at least one
smoke alarm in their home and to check it regularly.

Section 3 - Smoke control and fire

venting systems

Introduction
Operational fire venting is dealt with in the Fire

Service Manual, Volume 2, Fire Service
Operations - Compartment Fires and Tactical
Ventilation.
This part of 'Fire Protection of Buildings' exam-

ines smoke control and fire venting systems. These
systems may be a simple fire venting system as
found in many single storey buildings or could be
a sophisticated smoke and heat venting system
design. The latter maintains predetermined condi-
tions in buildings to assist in evacuation, protec-
tion of property, and access for fire-fighting.

is blank
20
Chapter 20 - Smoke ventilation
20.1 Purposes of ventilation in reduces the risk of flashover. Smoke venting is

single storey buildings usually achieved by individual smoke ventilators
each operated by fusible link or other heat sensi-
A smoke control system is normally provided to tive device. Occasionally, smoke detectors may be
achieve life safety, assist operational firefighters in used particularly where the ventilation is fan
their tasks, property and contents protection. assisted.
This manual explains the basic concepts of smoke 20.1.2 Prevention of spread of fire
control and smoke ventilation; it does not cover
issues such as neutral pressure plane (NPP), strati- Mushrooming (the high-level spread of heat and
fication or calculations. Where further, in depth smoke) is checked by early ventilation thus pre-
information is required, this can be found in vari- venting pre-heating of other areas by radiation so
ous technical publications, for example, BR 38 restricting the spread of fire. Ventilation also
Design Methodologies for smoke and heat exhaust reduces the area of damage away from a fire by
ventilation, Cibse E Fire Engineering, BS 7346 limiting the sideways spread of flame beneath the
Part 4 and BS 7974. roof or ceiling.
20.1.1 Prevention of smoke logging Damage is obviously greater over the immediate
fire area but proportionally less at a distance from
Venting allows smoke and other products of com- the fire. Reducing the temperature at roof or ceil-
bustion to leave the building so creating a relative- ing level helps to prevent, or delay, weakening of
ly cool clear atmosphere beyond the immediate the structure of the building which could lead to
fire area (Figure 20.1). early collapse of unprotected steel or other metal
structural components.
The increased visibility helps firefighters to locate
the seat of the fire whilst the release of heat
Figure 20.1 Adequate
venting allows
combustion products
to leave the building.
The effect: (1) with no
venting (2) with venting
and screens.
NO VENTING WITH VENTING AND SCREENS

Can be smoke logged within Remains clear of smoke
minutes of outbreak until extinguished
Previous page
is blank
20.1.3 Vent construction (iv) They may also be adapted to signal to a local
control, e.g. a gatehouse or an ARC.
Most vents are designed with opening doors
or pivoted louvres. Steel or anodised aluminium (a) Heat detectors
are used for the doors whilst louvres are generally
of aluminium or polycarbonate. Some vents are The simplest and most common method of opera-
merely closed by a polythene-based plastic sheet tion is by means of a fusible link. The reaction
which has a relatively low melting point. When time depends on the link's size, shape, material
softened by the heat of a fire, the sheet of plastic and position. The link is usually shielded from
falls from its mounting leaving the vent open. sprinkler discharge so that the cooling effect of the
water does not delay its action (Figure 20.2).
20.1.4 Vent operation
(b) Smoke detectors
Smoke vents are normally operated individually
by a heat sensitive or smoke sensitive device. These are sometimes used as a back-up to fusible
Automatic operation of smoke vents is favoured links in very high buildings. Hot air rising to a great
because: height may cool so that fusing temperatures are not
reached but, when smoke has collected in the roof,
(i) The protected building may be unoccupied at smoke detectors will operate the vents instead.
the time of a fire.
20.1.5 Vent position
(ii) There may be problems in reaching manual
controls in fire conditions. Vent efficiency is largely dependent on position.
Vents should ideally be at the highest point in each
(iii) Smoke vents provide for the possibility of protected area, usually the apex of the roof. They
earlier detection by a passer-by when the are sited so that the suction effect produced by the
building is unoccupied. wind aids the flow of hot gases.
Figure 20.2 Part of a

roof ventilator (louvre
type) showing heat
detector.
Fusible link inside conical-shield

Figure 20.3 Louvred ventilators fitted to a flat roof.
(Photo: Colt International Ltd.)
Sometimes the pressure on windward slopes with combustion. For the ventilation system to be effec-
steep pitches tends to force cold air into the build- tive, the hot contaminated air expelled through the
ing producing smoke logging. For these difficult ventilators must be replaced by air entering the
positions, roof ventilators have been designed with building. Cold air generally flows into a building
electrically driven fans to overcome the wind pres- by natural means - leaks round doors, windows
sure (see Figure 20.3). Wiring, switchgear and and other apertures. These inlets must be general-
motors have to be specially designed to withstand ly below the expected level of hot air and, ideally,
high temperatures. as near the floor as possible.
It is generally advantageous to have a number of If the inlets are not low enough cold air may
small ventilators distributed evenly over the roof entrain hot gases and result in smoke logging at
rather than one large one. (Figure 20.4). The expo- ground level. An exception to this general rule,
sure hazard to other buildings is thereby decreased however, is the situation shown in Figure 20.5 and
since the height of any flames that might emerge described in Section 20.2 below.
from the vents is smaller.
In simple smoke venting systems, the area of air
20.1.6 Area of venting inlets should at least equal the total area of roof
vents. A higher ratio is normally desirable for
The area of ventilation and thus the number of premises containing material which causes smoky
ventilators depend on the following interconnected fires without reaching high temperatures.
factors:
2 0.2 Other factors
(i) The assumed design size of the fire.
In reality it is impossible to consider ventilation in
(ii) The calculated depth of the layer of hot gases isolation. There are several factors which influence
or the minimum height for the layer of cool air. the effectiveness of a venting system. The most
important ones are:
(iii) The sub-division of the roof space.
 The sub-division of the roof space with
 The sub-division of the floor area with
(iv) The general intentions as regards keeping the
 The position of sprinklers.
temperature of hot gases below approximate-
ly 200°C.
20.1.7 Air inlets 20.2.1 Screens

So far in this chapter ventilation has mostly been Sub-dividing the roof space with screens is known
considered as the exhaustion of the products of to increase considerably the efficiency of vents,

Louvres in open position.
Roof covering
Gravity Framing
opening
louvres >
Pulley
Louvre
opening Fusible link
spring
Stainless steel torsion spring
to keep louvres closed when
Louvre not in use
linking
Hand control bar
Pulley
Figure 20.5 A
Area A Area B Area C warehouse with limited
door openings -
ventilation being
improved bv the opening
of vents in a cool area.
Warehouse building with limited door opening

When fire vents over Area C are opened, System maintains safe conditions
cool air falls to the floor, drifts towards for firefighting and avoids
the fire and allows the hot area to unnecessary damage by smoke
exhaust at full capacity. and the blind use of water.

Figure 20.6 A diagrammatic example of screens
dividing a roof space.
and was mentioned as one of the factors affecting that the roof vents in a non-smoke logged part of
the area of ventilators required. the building can be opened manually to allow the
air to flow (Figure 20.5).
(a) Screen construction When used in conjunction with sprinklers, screens
restrict water damage by preventing or reducing
Screens are constructed of materials, which are as the activation of sprinkler heads away from the
resistant to the effects of fire as the roof (not nec- source of the fire.
essarily non-combustible). They need to be rea-
sonably gas-tight although small leaks where pipes 20.2.2 Smoke and fire curtains
pass through are not of great importance particu-
larly when low down. (a) Smoke curtains
Screens are generally placed at right angles to a These are very similar to screens but usually reach
pitched roof (Figure 20.6), dividing the roof into the floor to make a completely enveloped area.
compartments about 45-60m apart. This varies Some are semi-permanently fixed like light parti-
according to the factory or storage layout, since tion walls, others are designed to unroll into posi-
screens positioned over spaces between goods, tion automatically on the operation of AFDs or fire
tend to reduce fire spread. alarms. They restrict spread of hot smoke and gases
and tend to complement the smoke-venting system.
It is the depth of the screens, which governs the
time before hot air spills into adjacent compart- (b) Fire curtains
ments. Screens should, ideally, reach as near the
floor as possible to prevent fire spread by radia- Fire curtains are designed to contain fire and have
tion. In practice they often only reach down as far been tested to over a two-hour rating. Fire Service
as truss tie level as shown in Figure 20.6. Manual, Volume 3, Fire Safety - Basic Principles
of Building Construction, Chapter 7 refers to their
Some screens are constructed so that in normal requirement to be fitted between stage and audito-
conditions they are retracted near the roof and, rium in a conventional theatre. They used to be
under fire conditions, they fall on operation of made of asbestos cloth, but are now mainly fibre-
fusible links. glass with stainless steel wire reinforcing.
(b) Screen effect

20.2.3 Sprinklers
If a roof is divided into compartments by screens
the area above the fire fills with hot gases first. The Where both a sprinkler system and a venting sys-
local temperature is increased and this significant- tem are included as part of a building design, they
ly improves the response time of automatic roof should be designed and installed so that they func-
vents. The lateral flow of smoke is restricted so tion at their optimum operating conditions.
Fire Protection oj Buildings 137

20.2.4 Additional controls
Under certain circumstances at a fire it may be

necessary to open vents before the operating tem-
perature of the automatic system is reached. Many
installations have a 'Firefighters override control',
which can be manually operated to open all vents
it is connected to, overriding any other control.
The engineer or local fire authority can also use
this 'override' for test purposes. In a fire situation
it would, obviously, be wise to have firefighting
equipment laid out ready before operating the
override.

21
Chapter 21 - Smoke and heat exhaust
ventilation systems (SHEVS)
21.1 Purposes of venting in complex efficiently. The air removed either by natural or
buildings powered systems is replaced by air entering
through inlets which automatically opened when
The development of modern building designs the system is activated. Normal entrance doors are
sometimes exceed the limits of fire safety set out often used for this purpose. In natural ventilation
in prescriptive building codes and standards. The systems, replacement air is sometimes supplied by
distance people may have to travel to escape from fans. Total powered systems, sometimes referred
a building or the use of temperature sensitive to as "push-pull systems", where both the inlet
building materials make it necessary to restrict the air and smoke exhaust are fan assisted are
fire growth potential and ensure that escape routes rarely used.
are free from hot smoke and gases.
21.2.2 Performance of system
Properly designed smoke and heat exhaust ventila-
tion systems (SHEVS) provide a smoke free layer Powered ventilation systems work on a principle
above a floor by removing smoke, so creating con- of a fixed rate of exhaust although that can be
ditions for safe escape or access for firefighting. influenced by the factors below. The capacity of
Smoke and heat exhaust ventilation systems are natural ventilation systems depends on a number
expressly tailored for the building to which they of factors, including:
are being applied using mathematical formulae
developed specifically for that purpose. (i) The temperature of the smoke.
21.2 Types of smoke and heat ii) The aerodynamic free area of the ven-
exhaust ventilation systems tilators.
There are two main types of SHEVS (iii) The area of the inlet air openings,
 Natural ventilation; (iv) Wind influence.

 Powered ventilation.
Natural ventilation systems rely on the natural 21.2.3 Use of smoke and heat exhaust
buoyancy of hot smoke and gases to rise and ventilation systems
escape to atmosphere through automatic ventila-
tors situated in the roof of a building. (i) SHEVS may be found in a range of build-
ings or structures, etc. including:
Powered ventilation uses temperature rated fans,
which start automatically to draw hot smoke and (a) single and multi-storey shopping malls;
gases from the building. (b) single and multi-storey industrial buildings
and sprinklered warehouse;
21.2.1 Replacement air inlets (c) atria and complex buildings;
(d) enclosed car parks;
As with smoke venting systems, without replace- (e) stairways;
ment air the ventilation system would not operate (f) tunnels.

(ii) SHEVS can be used to: the intensity of a fire is usually determined by the
amount of oxygen present.
(a) keep escape routes free from smoke;
(b) facilitate firefighting; Ventilated fires always have a plentiful supply of
(c) reduce development of fire by reducing oxygen due to the inflow of replacement air. The
potential for flashover; ability of that air to reach the fire will depend on
(d) reduce the heat effects on structures; the configuration of the burning fuel. For example,
(e) reduce smoke damage. stacked chairs will burn vigorously because the air
can get into the fire from all sides and from under
21.2.4 Design of the system the fuel. Fires against walls deny access to air on
the wall side whilst fires in the corner between two
Smoke and heat exhaust ventilation systems are walls denies access on two sides. This results in a
often arranged in zones. Each zone is separated greater flame length up the wall
from the other by walls and/or smoke barriers and
has its own smoke control system, powered or nat-
21.2.6 Operation of smoke and heat
ural. Adjacent zones having powered systems may
exhaust ventilation systems
use a common extraction fan through intercon-
necting ducts. However, each zone should have its
Buoyant smoke from a fire in a ventilated zone
own replacement air inlet arrangements.
will rise into a smoke reservoir and trigger the
smoke detection system. This will either cause the
The system is triggered by a smoke detection sys-
exhaust vents to open or start the exhaust fans in a
tem in each zone. Where zones share a common
powered system.
extract fan, smoke control dampers in the common
duct operate to ensure that only the fire zone is
At the same time, the replacement air inlets will
connected to the extract fan and that all other
open so creating an air flow in the protected area.
openings are closed.
The smoke reservoir will fill to within a predeter-
mined depth as the fire suppression system, e.g.
21.2.5 System capacity
sprinklers, maintains the fire size and the final
The system is designed to exhaust smoke and heat temperature of the smoke within design limits. The
from a predetermined fire size, known as the system is then held in equilibrium until the fire is
design fire. Calculations for design fires take into extinguished.
account the following factors:
21.2.7 Conclusion
(i) The nature of the materials present.
(ii) The quantity of materials present. Smoke and heat exhaust ventilation systems play
(iii) The position of materials to walls, partitions an important part in ensuring people can safely
and their configuration, escape from protected buildings whilst constrain-
(iv) The availability of oxygen, ing the effects of fire in the building.
(v) The effectiveness of fire suppression devices.
Further information on the design and calculation
When considering a design fire, the system design- methods for smoke and heat exhaust ventilation
er will have to consider not only the flammability systems can be found in BS 7346: Part 4. And BS
of materials likely to fuel a fire but also their abil- 7974 'Fire Safety Engineering' gives advice on the
ity to propagate smoke. For similar fuel sources, use of smoke and heat exhaust ventilation systems
in complex buildings.

22
Chapter 22 - Application of smoke and
heat control systems
22.1 Smoke control in shopping storey shopping centre is judged to cause a 100m
complexes mall to become untenable in about one minute.
22.1.1 General
22.1.2 Basic principles of control
Fires in shopping complexes and the problems of
smoke hazarding the means of escape have pro- As a general principle, air will mix into a rising
voked a great deal of thought. The malls, associat- stream of hot smoke and gases but will not mix
ed squares, common areas, etc. which make up appreciably into a horizontal flowing stream,
today's main public concourses would be the except under special conditions.
means which the public would use for escape in
the event of a fire in an adjoining shop. It follows,
therefore, that these areas must be kept as smoke- 22.1.3 Control of smoke
free as possible in such an event. It is generally
accepted that, by their very nature, the shops or In a multi-storey mall the higher hot smoke and
units opening onto the malls etc. constitute the gases rise the greater an amount of air becomes
main fire risks. In a fire the hot smoky gases will entrained and mixed, leading to a much larger vol-
pass out of the shop and rise to the mall ceiling ume of cooler smoky gases reaching the upper
mixing with fresh air as they go. Without smoke ceiling layer. The problem here is how to control
control measures, hot smoke and gases will flow and remove the hot smoke and gases before they
along a mall, as a ceiling layer, at a speed typical- cool and fall to the level of people in the upper
ly between l-2m/s. walkways of the mall (Figure 22.1).
This is probably faster than the escape speed of The design of the smoke and heat ventilation sys-
pedestrians in a crowded mall. If hot smoke and tem should also take into account the possibility of
gases reach the closed end of a mall they will drop the rising smoke plume flowing back into the
to a low level and be drawn back towards the fire. upper level as it passes upper balconies or walk-
As an example, an unsprinkled fire in a single ways being used by people escaping.
Figure 22.1 Probable

smoke travel in a
multi-storey shopping
mall.
Two-storey mall Single-storey mall Shop

22.1.4 Function and design of the be directly under a reservoir, the area of the reser-
reservoir voir should not be more than 2,000m2 for natural
ventilation systems or 2,600m2 where powered
Rising hot smoke and gases from a fire are con- systems are fitted.
tained in a reservoir from which they can be
removed. The reservoir can be either a permanent Where the hot smoke and gases from a fire in an
feature of the structure or be formed from moving adjoining shop unit have to flow into the mall
screens or curtains when automatic fire detectors before rising into the reservoir, the maximum area
actuate the system. of the reservoir should not be more than 1,000m2
where natural ventilation systems or 1,300m2 for
Examples are illustrated in Figures. 22.2, 22.3, powered systems. This should ensure that the hot
22.4, 22.5, 22.6 and 22.7. BS 7346: Part 4 recom- smoke and gases retain their buoyancy whilst
mends that in cases where a fire can be expected to being removed.
Figure 22.2 Diagram

Smoke exhaust showing a mall fitted
with smoke reservoir
Ceiling screens and ventilators.
Reservoir
screen
Fresh air flow
Figure 22.3 Diagram

Exhaust
showing how a built-in
Smoke reservoir upstand acts as a smoke
reservoir.
Upstand
Shop Mall Shop
Figure 22.4 Another

Exhaust Exhaust example of designed
upstands acting as
smoke reservoirs.
Upstand Upstand
Mall

Figure 22.5 An atrium
Exhaust
being used as a smoke
reservoir.
Ceiling
reservoir Smoke plume
Balcony
Upper level
Void
Lower level
Mall Shop
Figure 22.6 Part of a shopping mall with smoke Figure 22.7 As Figure 22.6 with curtains/dams operated.
curtains/dams retracted. (Photo: Colt International Ltd.)
Equally, the hot smoke and gases should not be so be less than would cause painful heat radiation on
hot (above 550°C) as to cause ignition of materials them. The recommended clear height above escape
outside the immediate area of the fire. routes in single storey malls or upper level walk-
ways is 3m.
22.1.5 Effects on people
22.1.6 Removal of hot smoke and gases
A reservoir should not be more than 60m long to
avoid people having to move below the smoke (a) Rate of exhaust
layer becoming concerned. To ensure that people
can escape below the hot smoke and gases the Hot smoke and gases can be removed from the
temperature of the base layer is calculated so as to reservoirs either by natural or powered ventilation.

The rate of exhaust must equal the probable rate at 5 mega watts (mW) in the case of shops fires. Fires
which hot smoke and gases will enter the reservoir greater than 5mW may produce excessive smoke
from below. Fresh air must enter the mall also at a and hot gases sufficient to overwhelm the ventila-
rate equal to the rate of extraction and low enough tion system. The effects of sprinkler discharge close
not to prematurely mix with (and cool) the hot to natural ventilators can reduce the efficiency of
smoke and gases. The siting of the exit points the ventilator. To overcome this possibility, the total
where the hot smoke and gases leave the building ventilation system is designed so that any one ven-
needs consideration to avoid creating a hazard tilator can be discounted in a fire situation.
elsewhere.
Where the ventilation system and sprinkler system
(b) Wind effects are provided for property protection only and not
life protection, it is sometimes considered advanta-
Where there is a likelihood that natural ventilation geous to allow the sprinkler system to operate
will be adversely affected by external wind forces automatically but to restrict ventilation until the
on sloping roofs of more than 30 degrees, either fire service attends and can activate the ventilation
the ventilator should be protected by wind shields manually.
or additional ventilators provided which are under
the control of a wind sensor. Sufficient of the addi- 22.1.8 Automatic fire detectors
tional ventilators should be available at any one
time to meet the needs of the system. Alternatively, It is recommended that the smoke and heat exhaust
powered ventilators should be provided (see ventilation system is operated automatically and
Figure 22.8). be activated by smoke detectors, the general fire
alarm system or the operation of the sprinkler
It is obvious that in malls of three or more storeys system within the zone served by each system.
smoke control measures will become progressively
more difficult because of the very large volumes of 22.1.9 Conclusion
relatively cool smoky gases. In such cases advice
on smoke control should probably tend more Each of these shopping developments is unique
towards that appertaining to atria (see Section 22.2). and firefighters are advised to study those in their
area. The large number of people congregated in
22.1.7 Sprinklers large shopping complexes present a very high
life risk and requires a high standard of protective
Sprinklers in buildings protected by smoke and heat planning. Advice on the design and construction
exhaust ventilations systems play an important role of shopping malls can be found in BS 5588:
in maintaining a fire at its design size, normally Part 10.
Figure 22.8 Powered heat and smoke ventilators

either manually or automatically controlled.

22.2 Atria acts as a reservoir from where buoyant hot smoke
and gases are released to the atmosphere through
An atrium is a space within a building, which pass- ventilators. The ventilators can rely on the natural
es through one or more structural floors. Hot buoyancy of the hot smoke and gases or be pow-
smoke and gases from a fire either on one of the ered. Air to replace that being exhausted in the
floors linked to an atrium or in the atrium itself form of hot smoke and gases is admitted to the
could use the atrium as a chimney, becoming atrium through low level vents.
trapped under the atrium roof. From there smoke
and heat could spread into other floors putting peo- (ii) Pressure differential systems
ple and the building at risk. To ensure that an atri-
um in a building will not increase the risk to Pressure differential systems either prevent smoke
people by promoting the spread of fire, heat and from a fire on an adjacent area from entering the
smoke, a smoke control system is installed. atrium, or the system prevents smoke in an atrium
from entering adjacent areas. This is achieved by
22.2.1 Smoke control systems the following techniques:
(a) The atrium can be depressurised. This would

Smoke control in atria may be managed by one of
draw smoke from a fire in an adjacent area
the following systems:
into the atrium but prevent it from invading
adjacent areas.
 A smoke clearance system;
 A smoke control system; (b) The adjacent areas can be pressurised which
 A smoke exhaust system; will have the same effect as in (a) above.
 Pressure differential systems.
(c) The atrium can be pressurised, the air flow
A smoke clearance system is one that is designed venting through adjacent areas. This will
to remove smoke following a fire and can be used prevent smoke from a fire in an adjacent area
at the discretion of the fire service to assist with invading the atrium, the smoke being
firefighting operations. exhausted through an external vent in the
affected area.
A smoke control system is one that controls the
movement of smoke in a building to protect the (iii) Choice of system
contents, the means of escape and to assist with
firefighting operations. The choice of system depends on a number of fac-
tors including:
A smoke exhaust system is one that is designed to
remove a sufficient volume of smoke to minimise  The height of the atrium
the possibility of intercommunicating spaces  The occupancy of the building
becoming untenable due to heat and smoke.  The fire load at the atrium base
 The means of escape in case of fire
An air pressure differential system is one where  The availability of sprinklers
the air pressures between an atrium and linking  Fire resisting separation between the atrium
floors are designed to control the movement of and adjacent areas.
smoke between them.
Smoke clearance systems are the simplest form of
22.2.2 Design of systems smoke control but are not generally considered
suitable for the protection of the means of escape
(i) Smoke systems in case of fire for occupants of the building. The
other more sophisticated options depend on a risk
The design of smoke systems follows the concepts assessment taking the factors listed above into
described earlier in this chapter. The atrium roof account.

22.2.3 Conclusion
Smoke control is but one of a number of factors

that have to be taken into account when designing
adequate fire safety into building with atria. BS
5588: Part 7 'Atria in Buildings' gives further
information on the design and fire precautions
associated with atria including smoke control
methods.

23
Chapter 23 - Ventilation in multi-storey
buildings
23.1 General (i) Stale air is extracted by fans (fresh air find-
ing its way in through windows and doors) -
Automatic fire venting as described in previous known as 'exhaust' ventilation.
chapters is not generally applicable to multi-storey
buildings. Although it is possible to treat the top (ii) Fresh air is forced in by fans (stale air find-
storey as though it were a single storey and install ing its way out through windows and doors)
automatic roof vents, they would have limited known as 'plenum' ventilation.
application - perhaps to vent smoke from lift
shafts in a fire situation. In this chapter we exam- (iii) Fans are used to force in fresh air and extract
ine the effects fixed ventilation and other ductwork stale air. This is a combination of (i) and (ii)
can have on the spread of fire, heat and smoke and and is known as 'balanced' ventilation.
the methods used to restrict that potential.
23.1.3 Air conditioning systems
23.1.1 Ductwork in buildings
Air conditioning systems are balanced systems.
The use of fixed ducts for ventilation and air-con- They either heat the air through heat exchangers,
ditioning systems in multi-storey buildings is now often fed by hot water or steam from boilers or
commonplace in modern buildings. The complex- cool the air by means of a refrigeration process. In
ity of any system (see Figure 23.1) will depend on smaller systems the heat may be provided electri-
the size and layout of a building structure, number cally. To save energy, air conditioning plants incor-
of floors served, work processes being carried on porate a degree of re-circulation where
etc. Ductwork serving a ventilation or air-condi- approximately 75% of the air is returned to the air
tioning system is a potential route for the spread of conditioning plant, mixed with fresh air, re-heated
smoke and hot gases. or cooled and re-circulated.
Measures have been devised to control the poten- 23.1.4 Plant rooms
tial fire hazard of these systems. Such measures
are designed: All installations have at least one plant room, nor-
mally located on the roof or in the basement. Large
(i) To limit or prevent the spread of fire, heat buildings may have many plant rooms, located
and smoke into other parts of the building throughout the premises, sometimes supervised
and in particular escape routes. from a central control room readily accessible to
fire service personnel responding to an incident.
(ii) To facilitate firefighting.
A plant room should be separated from the remain-
(iii) To reduce damage. der of the building by floors, ceilings walls or par-
titions having a fire resistance of at least one hour,
23.1.2 Systems used depending on its location. In the case of air condi-
tioning plant, gas fired boilers, or occasionally oil
Ventilation systems may be divided into three fired boilers, may be used to warm the air, freon or
main groups; those in which: other refrigerants used to cool it. These substances

present a hazard in themselves and as a precaution tern, e.g. sprinklers inside the ducting, close to the
the BS 5588: Part 9 recommends the installation of filter. Such systems are normally activated by a
a fire-detection system which would automatically smoke detector or fusible link
close down the plant in a fire situation.
23.1.6 Ducting
23.1.5 Components of systems
(a) Ducting design
Another relevant component of ventilation sys-
tems from the fire hazard viewpoint are air filters. A system of ducting for distributing, recycling
Normally situated in the plant room, their function and/or extracting the air, links the plant room with
is to reduce the dust content of incoming air. There the rest of the building. Steel ducting is generally
are three main types of filter used: used (see Figure 23.2); if other materials are cho-
sen they should be such so as not to substantially
 Dry filter increase the risk of fire spread. The layout of ducts
 Viscous filter in a basic air-conditioning system is shown in
 Electrostatic filter. Figure 23.1. In the system illustrated the branch
ducts are fitted on a traditional horizontal basis.
(a) Dry filter Fires in ducts can be extremely difficult to reach.
For this purpose certain access panels in the sys-
Cotton wool, cloth or other fibrous material is used tem may be designated as fire-fighting access pan-
as the filtering medium in dry filters. The material els. These panels should be removable without the
should, as far as possible, be flame resistant. Any need for tools or specialist equipment.
accumulation of dust or dirt on the filter will great-
ly increase its flammability, so regular replace- (b) Shunt ducts
ment is necessary, the used filter being disposed of
safely. Some systems use a modification of this arrange-
ment, known as a shunt duct, as shown in Figure
(b) Viscous filters 23.3. Here the branch ducts rise vertically before
entering the common main duct. Structurally this
The viscous filter uses an oil-coated material to arrangement is more compact and is less likely to
trap the dust particles in the incoming air. The oil allow a carry over of smoke in the event of fire.
used should have a high flash point - not less than While smoke will rise or spread horizontally it is
177oC is recommended. As with the dry filter, reg- not so likely to descend the branch ducts. BS 5588:
ular maintenance is necessary. Some means of Part 9 recommends that shunt ducts are only used
containing any surplus oil should also be provided in buildings used as flats and maisonettes. Where
so that it is not carried into the system. in those buildings the ducts serve an area of high-
er risk, e.g. kitchens, the extract grill should be fit-
(c) Electrostatic filters ted with a non-return shutter.
The important aspect of this filter from a fire point (c) Duct construction
of view is that it operates at high voltages. It is
therefore desirable that some means is available Ductwork should be constructed of materials
(either manual or automatic) to halt its operation in designed to limit the spread of fire over or within the
the event of fire. In many instances it will cease duct. Where a duct passes through a fire resisting
operation when the plant itself is shut down. protected escape route, it should itself be fire resist-
ing. Where protected stairways are ventilated, they
Where it is considered there is a high fire risk from should have their own system and not be included in
filters, or expensive machinery needs protecting, it the system serving the building generally.
is possible to fit an automatic extinguishing sys-

a basic air-conditioning Branch ducts to individual air vents Floors
system. 10
Main 2
rising
duct
1
Main
rising
duct
Air handling plant
23.1.7 Fire spread in ducting (a) Insulating material
Fire may be spread by ductwork due to: It is common practice to insulate ductwork for
sound and thermal insulation purposes. Sound
 The ignition of combustible waste within the insulation is usually applied as an internal lining
duct by conducted heat from an external fire. whilst thermal insulation is applied externally.
 The failure of a joint or flexible connection Internal linings must not promote flame spread
due to expansion or failure of a duct support. (surface spread of flame rating 0) and either be
 Smoke, heat entering a duct through a grill or of an incombustible material or one of limited
other opening. combustibility. External insulation should have
the same basic qualities except that insulation
Fire protection measures are therefore obviously applied to ductwork in a room may have the same
necessary in these areas. surface spread of flame as the room in which it is
installed.

Figure 23.2 Typical metal ducting being fitted into a shopping mall.
(Photo: Capital and Counties Ltd.)
Figure 23.3 A ducting

system known as a
'shunt' duct.
Branch
ducts Main
-rising
duct

Figure 23.4 Illustration
of a flexible joint.
Flexible joints
Plant
Main duct
(b) Flexible joints and connections (ii) Flexible connections
Because of the rigid nature of ducting, flexible As shown in Figure 23.5 these are used to connect
joints and connections are used at certain points in ductwork to air intake or ventilation grilles and
its construction. generally to facilitate the site erection of fans,
intake filters, etc. Because of their situation at
A feature of fires involving ventilation systems has entry or exit points to the system, flexible connec-
been the collapse and destruction of these flexible tions do not present quite the same potential haz-
joints and connections. ard as flexible joints. Should a fire occur in the
area of a flexible connection it could enter the sys-
tem via plant (ventilation grille, fans, etc.) irre-
(i) Flexible Joints spective of whether the connections collapsed or
not.
As a general rule these are used in the main duct(s)
to allow for the contraction and expansion of the Nevertheless, there are certain recommendations
metal due to normal temperature changes. They on the use of flexible connections. These are:
can also prevent vibrations from plant e.g. (Figure
23.4) being transmitted through the complete sys-  They should not exceed 3.7m in length.
tem. The collapse of a flexible joint is potentially  They should not pass through fire-resisting
very dangerous because this would allow fire to walls, floors or cavity barriers.
penetrate the main ductwork and spread through-  They should either be constructed from non-
out the building. To overcome this potential hazard combustible materials or those which will
there are three main recommendations in relation not support flame propagation, and not be
to installing flexible joints: sited within 1m of a fire damper.
 As far as practicable they should be avoided. 23.1.8 Exterior risks

 They should not exceed 250mm in length.
 They should consist of, or be protected by, If the measures already described are implemented
materials so as to have a fire penetration time they will go a long way towards reducing the fire
of at least 15 minutes in accordance with BS hazard of ventilation and air conditioning ducts.
476: Part 20.

of a flexible connection.
Air inlet
or outlet
Flexible Main
connection duct
There are three ways in which this problem can be

dealt with:
 Proper siting of air intakes

 Use of fire dampers in the ducts
 Fire stopping of shafts carrying ducts.
23.1.9 Air intakes
In modern systems, air in drawn into the system by

fans sited in fan rooms. It is important that fan
rooms are kept clear of combustible materials and
that heating devices using live flame are separated
from the fan room by fire resisting construction.
Air drawn from the fan room is replaced by air
entering by external grills. As these grills draw air
from outside the building (Figure 23.6) their posi-
tion in relation to possible exterior risks needs to
be considered at the installation stage.
Figure 23.6 Illustration of an air intake. In particular, the position of the air intakes and the
system exhaust points should be such that any
smoke exhausted by the system is not drawn back
into the system. The design of the air intake should
Nevertheless, the possibility of smoke, heat or allow for the possibility that the products of a fire
flame spread through the building (via the ducting) in an adjacent building could be drawn into the
still remains. Combustion products may not only system; siting should therefore aim for a minimum
enter the system from within the building but, if air risk position.
intakes are not thoughtfully sited on exterior walls,
smoke, heat or flame may also be drawn in from Further protection can be obtained by fitting auto-
outside the building. matic smoke detection in the fan room to close

Figure 23.7 Diagram
of the use of fire
dampers (in unencased
ductwork). Plant room -
Fire resisting
wall
Mechanical
fire dampers
Making good
or non-
combustible
filling
Not a fire
compartment
floor
down the fan and smoke dampers at the intake. (a) Mechanical
Regular cleaning of any wire mesh grilles covering
air intakes is a necessary precaution to avoid the A typical mechanical damper (Figure 23.8) con-
accumulation of combustible material such as litter sists of a hinged steel plate set in a steel frame. The
and dust at the system's entry point. metal used needs to be sufficiently heavy to pre-
vent possible distortion due to heat. It should also
23.1.10 Fire dampers be suitably treated to prevent corrosion in the envi-
ronment in which it is to be used. Mechanical
If air conditioning and ventilation ducts pierce a dampers can be held in the open position by:
fire-resisting compartment or protected escape
routes, the resistance of the compartment or route (i) A fusible link, or
is obviously compromised - smoke and fire have a (ii) An electro-magnetic device (a solenoid).
ready means of access. Where it is necessary or
desirable to maintain the integrity of a compart- The fusible link is usually set to operate at about
ment, fire dampers can be fitted in the ducting 74°C. It is important that it is exposed to the air
(Figure 23.7). Dampers can be: stream and is not shielded in any way by the
damper blade.
 Mechanical; or
Several types of fusible link can be fitted including
 Intumescent some operated by smoke detectors. One such link

Figure 23.8 Illustration of a
Landing strips mechanical damper.
Air flow
Fusible link Damper
Figure 23.9 (1) Sliding

mechanical damper.
(2) Shutter type
mechanical damper.
Fusible link Damper blade Damper blade
Fusible link
Air flow Duct Air flow Duct
uses an electrical impulse from a detector to initi- operate either all the dampers in a system or
ate chemical heating of the link which should sep- just a particular damper (or dampers). It is
arate approximately seven seconds after the important where smoke detectors are used that
detector operates. they are installed in positions in which they
are likely to give the quickest response. In many
Another has the facility of resetting the damper instances this may mean installing them in a room
after the heat of the fire has operated it. A helical or other part of the building rather than in the
coil compression spring starts to expand at 40°C ducting itself.
and becomes open coiled at 72°C closing the
damper fully. When the temperature decreases the On operation of the detector, or fusible link, the
spring recoils opening the damper again. This type damper closes automatically either by gravity or
of damper is now quite rare. with spring assistance. When closed, the damper
blade should fit closely against its landing strip or
An electro-magnetic device is also normally oper- seating, allowing sufficient clearance for possible
ated by a smoke detector, which can be arranged to expansion.

Figure 23.10
Intumescent-coated
honeycomb dampers.
Cleaning
port
Wood-framed damper
(loose)
Wood-framed damper
(fixed in duct)
Damper for fitting in

metal envelope
Other types of mechanical damper which work on Intumescent honeycomb dampers are more likely
the basic principle described above are shown in to be used in duct sections where the air velocity is
Figures 23.9(1) and (2). low (e.g. at the outlet of ventilation ducts to rooms
or compartments).
Fusible links are only sensitive to heat. Thus
dampers which are operated only by fusible links There are two reasons for this:
are not suitable as smoke dampers.
(i) The lower the velocity of the air in the vicini-
ty of the damper, the smaller the loss of head
(b) Intumescent
in the air flow. It should be remembered that
the intumescent damper is permanently in the
Another development is the intumescent coated
air flow - in the normal state, metal dampers
honeycomb damper. These are fixed into the duct-
are not in the flow to any appreciable extent.
ing (Figure 23.10). When the system is in a normal
condition the damper allows free passage of air (ii) If placed in the path of high velocity air the
through the duct. On heating, however, the intumes- melting paint may be sucked towards the
cent paint will expand to approximately 100 times unexposed face of the damper due to the
its original volume and form a solid mass thus pre- pressure difference on either side. This can
venting the passage of smoke through the duct. obviously reduce its effectiveness.
The intumescence of the paint is not affected by Additional support for the honeycomb is needed if
fluff or oil spray. It should however be kept free it is fixed in a horizontal position (Figure 23.11).
from greasy dirt and condensation or wetness This is to prevent sagging of the honeycomb when
which will interfere with its effectiveness. the paint begins to melt in a fire condition.

Figure 23.11
A honeycomb damper
fitted in the horizontal
position.
Intumescent
honeycomb
damper
Asbestos
wood
support
Figure 23.12 Diagram

of duct showing an
Fire damper Fusible Inspection inspection door adjacent
(shutter type) link door to the fire damper.
Intumescent dampers will provide 40 minutes to (c) Inspection and maintenance

one hour fire resistance depending on their thick-
ness. Single metal dampers will normally provide Regular inspection of dampers is necessary.
up to two hours fire resistance. For higher standards, Particularly so with the mechanical kind. They
double dampers can be used if a single damper of may remain inactive for many years and the pivots,
the required standard is not available. Intumescent landing strips, etc., can accumulate dust or dirt
dampers are not suitable as smoke dampers, due to which would prevent, or delay, operation of the
the fact that they will only respond to heat, not damper.
smoke. However, they can be used in combination
with a lightweight smoke damper which cannot Inspection doors (Figure 23.12) must therefore be
withstand higher temperatures. As the temperature provided in the duct adjacent to each damper. This
within the duct increases, the intumescent damper allows not only for inspection of dampers but also
will take over the smoke damping function. for replacement of fusible links or intumescent

Figure 23.13
(1) A duct shaft with
non-combustible fillings. Permanent vent
(2) A duct shaft with a
roof vent.
Plant To
room plant
room
Solid
non-
combustible
filling
Not a fire-
resisting
wall
10m Not a fire-

maxi- resisting
mum
wall
dampers after they have operated. These inspec- detector system. Here again all dampers etc., can
tion doors should be fitted with locks and general- be zoned, individual units are 'addressable' and
ly have a fire resistance similar to the shaft monitored, the control will indicate visually and
enclosure. audibly any faults or actuations, inform an ARC if
necessary, and either individual units or zones can
Some dampers will have an indication that it has be operated or tested.
operated, e.g. an illuminated LED or mechanical
flag. 23.1.11 Fire stopping of shafts
(encased ducting)
(d) Multiple controls
Where ducts are encased in shafts the possibility
In some premises there may be a large number of exists of smoke, heat or flame spreading through
dampers, vents, operating louvres, etc., and the the shaft itself. To avoid this, the space between
whole system may be controlled by a central con- the duct and a breeched fire-resisting wall, floor or
trol and indicator panel in a similar manner to a ceiling should be fire stopped by infilling any gaps

with fire resisting materials for the full thickness Alternatively, smoke detection is installed in the
of the wall, floor or ceiling. If, however the duct is rooms served by the system. In the event of appre-
enclosed in a shaft with fire resisting walls, a cav- ciable quantities of smoke being detected, the re-
ity barrier need only be provided at about every circulation of air will cease, the return air being
10m (Figure 23.13(1)). Sometimes, the provision discharged outside the building or the plant shut
of a permanent vent at the top of the shaft can be down automatically.
used as an alternative to fitting cavity barriers
(Figure 23.13(2). Some systems may include the alternative of
smoke extract fans in addition to the normal fans
(In unencased ducting, fire stopping and the provi- as part of a smoke control arrangement.
sion of dampers is necessary where the duct breach-
es each fire compartment floor, see Figure 23.8.) 23.1.13 Firefighting control
Fire stopping is also needed where any pipe pass- In large and complex installations, control of
es through a fire-resisting duct-shaft. Pipes with mechanical ventilation systems may be exercised
small diameters are recommended for this situa- by engineers from a system control room. In
tion; should they perish in a fire the minimum gap less complex cases, systems are fitted with over-
is thereby left for the passage of smoke, heat and ride controls for fire service use. These will be
flame. positioned by agreement with the local fire
brigade.
23.1.12 Re-circulation systems
Controls are normally located near to the fire
In these systems a given supply of air (up to 75% alarm panel and clearly indicate 'Fire service ven-
in some situations) is constantly recycled through tilation control'. Three stages of control will be
the system. It can be appreciated therefore that indicated:
smoke entering such a system can be quickly  'Automatic'
spread throughout a building, possibly jeopardis-  'Off'
ing means of escape and hindering firefighting  'Extracts only'.
operations.
Firefighters will be able to use these controls to
Except in small plants or small buildings, there- prevent the circulation of smoke and to assist with
fore, smoke detection is installed in the extract the removal of smoke during and after firefighting
ducting before the point where the air is separated. operations.

24
Chapter 24 - Pressurisation
24.1 General being at a temperature different to that of the

air outside. When there are openings, top and
In multi-storey buildings, staircases and lobbies bottom, this will promote natural air flow
are a very important part of the means of escape. through the buildings; upward when the
Once inside a 'protected route', people in a build- building air is warmer than the outside air;
ing should be able to make their way to a final exit downward when it is cooler.
and safety in the open air. Usually it is not flame
but smoke and toxic gases which will, at first, (b) The wind, because all buildings have some
inhibit this movement. Therefore, the exclusion of air leaks and wind action contributes to air
smoke and gases from 'protected routes' is very movement through these leaks;
important.
(c) Any mechanical ventilation system installed
Natural ventilation relies a great deal on wind in the building.
speed and direction and the ideal conditions will
not necessarily be present when a fire starts. 24.1.3 Pressurisation
Mechanical extraction systems on staircases could
rapidly clear any smoke or gases but would lower Pressurisation provides a pressure difference
the pressure in the staircase thus inducing a more which opposes, and overcomes, those generated by
rapid build-up of smoke from the interior of the the factors which cause the movement of smoke.
building. The use of pressurisation as a means of smoke
control in atria has been discussed in Chapter 22.
24.1.1 Smoke movement
Pressurisation can also be used to keep essential
There are two main factors that determine the escape routes and firefighting access routes clear
movement of smoke arising from a fire in a build- of smoke for extended periods. Pressurisation sys-
ing: tems designed for that purpose inject air into the
protected escape routes, i.e. staircases, lobbies or
(i) The greater mobility of the smoke because it corridors, which raises the pressure slightly above
consists of heated gases less dense than the that of adjacent parts of the building. This prevents
surrounding air. smoke and toxic gases from finding their way into
the protected routes. A pressurisation system can
(ii) The normal air movement that can carry be single or two-stage and used:
smoke, slowly or quickly, to all parts of the
building. (a) Only in the event of a fire (either on auto-
matic or manual operation).
24.1.2 Air movement
(b) On full operation whenever the building is
occupied.
Air movement is itself governed by:
(c) At reduced capacity at normal times when
(a) The 'stack effect', i.e. the pressure differen- the building is occupied with automatic
tial caused by the air inside the building boost to full operation in the event of fire.

The nature of the building and its occupancy and also need to be fire resistant which should ensure a
economics will dictate the system chosen. door that is close fitting to the frame.
24.1.4 Requirements of a pressurisation In a fire situation, of course, people will have to exit
system through such doors. The momentary opening of
doors does not seriously affect the pressurisation
The two basic considerations when designing a system and any pressure loss is quickly recovered
pressurisation system are: when the doors close again. However, where the
protected route is being used by people escaping or
The pressure required in the staircase, lobby or for firefighting access, it is likely that the final exit
corridor; and the leakage paths. door will be open continuously. In these circum-
stances the pressurisation system should be capable
(a) Pressure required of maintaining a pressure of not less than 10 Pa.
A pressurisation system, to be effective, must A pressure of 50 Pa will mean that a little extra
achieve a higher pressure than those developed by pressure will be required to open a door leading to
weather and fire conditions. The recommended the pressurised area. This is sufficiently small to
level of pressurisation is about 45-50 Pa (Pascal) allow most people to open such doors and in all
with all doors closed. This represents approxi- cases should not exceed 100N (Newton). However,
mately 10 times the pressure normally developed any recommendation for the design of a pressurisa-
in a fire and is four times the maximum pressure tion system should bear this fact in mind where
likely to be caused by adverse weather conditions. children or the disabled are liable to be present.
The air flow required to achieve this pressure is (ii) Final leakage path
independent of the volume of space to be pres-
surised. In deciding on the air flow required it is As illustrated in Figure 24.1 this is usually through
necessary to take the leakage paths into account. gaps in openable windows and through external
doors and there will, generally, be sufficient leak-
(b) Leakage paths age through these for the system to work. Where
windows systems are sealed, as often happens in
Leakage paths are, generally, those minor gaps modern buildings, alternative leakage paths are
around doors and windows which allow air to usually necessary. These can be in the form of one
escape and they are a necessary part of a pressuri- or more of the following:
sation scheme. Unless air is able to escape, the
whole building will become pressurised and the  Vents in external walls which open only on
necessary pressure differential (i.e. between the fire the operation of the pressurisation system.
area and the protected route) will cease to exist.  Natural ventilation using a vertical shaft with
Leakage paths can be discussed in two stages: openings from each floor and an opening at
the top. These are opened on the operation of
 Initial leakage path the pressurisation system.
 Final leakage path.  Mechanical extraction systems. These have
to be very carefully designed so as not to nul-
(i) Initial leakage path lify the pressurisation system.
In most cases this will be past gaps around doors 24.1.5 Firefighting
leading to individual rooms off the pressurised
area or through lift doors (Figure 24.1). It is obvi- A pressurised staircase obviously holds many
ous that badly fitting doors will create too large a advantages from a firefighting point of view,
leakage path and can unbalance a system; the max- enabling firefighters to approach the area on fire
imum recommended gap is 3mm. However, in through relatively clear air. It must be borne in
general, doors enclosing a pressurised space will mind however that:

of leakage parts.
Lobby
Air Initial Final

movement leakage path leakage path
 The route will be used by people escaping becoming smoked-logged because of doors
from the building and their movement must being held open should be taken into account
not be impeded. when assessing the necessity for Breathing
 In order to attack the fire, hose will have to Apparatus (BA).
be passed through doors which will, there-  Where to position BA controls would proba-
fore, be held open. The extent to which this bly need some pre-planning
is necessary will depend on the type and  Pre-knowledge of the building and how
height of the building. If, of course, a dry or the pressurisation system works will
wet riser is fitted the outlet will probably be enable the Incident Commander to for-
in the lobby approach from the staircase. mulate a flexible approach to the problem.
This will enable firefighting to take place
without smoke-logging the staircase. In 24.1.6 Advice and further information
other cases, the Incident Commander may
have to decide to ensure evacuation of the BS 5588: Part 4 'Code of Practice for smoke con-
occupants down the protected staircase trol in protected escape routes using pressurisa-
before commencing firefighting. tion', gives a great deal of detail about
 Although firefighters will, initially, approach pressurisation systems, including the 5 class sys-
the fire area in relatively clear air the tems and recommendations for designers who
possibilities of the staircase subsequently intend using these systems in buildings.

Acknowledgements
HM Fire Service Inspectorate is indebted to all who helped with the provision of information and
expertise to assist the production of this Manual, in particular:
Professor SD Christian PhD MPhil

FireSERT
University of Ulster
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Fire Service Manual

Fire Protection of Buildings

HM Fire Service Inspectorate Publications Section

Mail,Telephone, Fax & E-mail

TSO Accredited Agents

and through good booksellers

© Crown Copyright 2003

Applications for reproduction should be made in writing to

Cover and part-title page photographs: Colt International Ltd

Printed in the United Kingdom for The Stationery Office

The revision recognises the significant impact of

The objective of harmonisation of building control

Fire Protection of Buildings iii

Section 1 - Fire extinguishing systems 1

Chapter 2 - Automatic sprinklers - water supplies 11

Chapter 3 - Automatic sprinklers - protection systems 17

Chapter 4 - Automatic sprinklers - controls, gauges and alarms 27

Chapter 5 - Automatic sprinklers - sprinkler heads 33

vi Fire Service Manual

Chapter 7 - Protection of special risks 45

Chapter 8 - Domestic sprinkler installations 49

Chapter 9 - Other installations using water 51

Fire Protection of Buildings vii

Chapter 10 - Extinguishing systems not using water 67

Section 2 - Fire warning and Detection systems 73

viii Fire Service Manual

11.3 Definition of a detector 78

Chapter 12 - Detectors which respond to smoke 83

Chapter 13 - Flame detectors 91

Chapter 14 - Heat detectors 95

Fire Protection of Buildings ix

Chapter 15 - Automatic fire detectors - radio-based systems 101

Chapter 16 - Automatic fire detection - detector circuits 103

Chapter 17 - Fire alarm operation and control 107

x Fire Service Manual

Chapter 18 - Choice of detector and detector positioning 119

Fire Protection of Buildings xi

Section 3 - Smoke control and fire venting systems 129

Chapter 21 - Smoke and heat exhaust ventilation systems (SHEVS) 139

Chapter 22 - Application of smoke and heat control systems 141

xii Fire Service Manual

Chapter 23 - Ventilation in multi-storey buildings 147

Fire Protection of Buildings xiii

xiv Fire Service Manual

Section 1 - Fire extinguishing systems

Fire Protection of Buildings 1

Figure 1.1 Layout of a

Previous page Fire Protection of Buildings 5

(i) British Standard 5306: Part 2 (1990). High Hazard HH

6 Fire Service Manual

Group Examples 1.6 Design density and assumed

Fire Protection of Buildings 7

Classification of fire hazards in the current 1.7.2 Requirements

8 Fire Safety Manual

In theatres and similar buildings, where a fire

Fire Protection of Buildings 9

Previous page Fire Protection of Buildings 11

2.3.1 Town mains In the event of a fracture or partial breakdown of

Table 2.1 Combinations suitable for duplicate supplies

12 Fire Service Manual