Chapter-5

DATA ACQUISITION,
PROCESSING, TRANSMISSION
AND RECORDING
 COMPUTER BASED DATA ACQUISITION

Sampling:
The data is acquired by an ADC using a process called sampling. Sampling
an analog signal occurs at discrete time intervals. The rate at which the
signal is sampled is known as the sampling frequency. The process of
sampling generates values of the signal as a function of time as shown in
following figure
 COMPUTER BASED DATA ACQUISITION
Sampling:
Converting the continuous time signal to discrete time signal is called sampling.

The analog signal cannot be stored in computer directly, if it needs to be stored,

we have to discretize first and save.

Example: Sound waves will be in the form of compressions and rarefactions.

Horizontal axis represents time and vertical axis represents the wave forms
 COMPUTER BASED DATA ACQUISITION

Sampling:
 Signal conditioning instruments
INTRODUCTION TO SIGNAL CONDITIONING:

The “first stage” of the instrumentation or measurement system which

detects the measurand (which is basically a physical quantity) is termed as
detector-transducer stage. In this stage, in most of the cases, the quantity is
detected and is transduced into an electrical form.

The output from the first stage needs certain modifications before it
becomes compatible with the data presentation stage. The necessary modification
is carried out in the “intermediate stage”, more commonly referred to as the
signal conditioning stage.

The “last stage” of the measurement system may consist of indicating,

recording, displaying, data processing elements or may consist of control
elements.
 Signal conditioning instruments
SIGNAL CONDITIONING INSTRUMENTS:

The signal conditioning equipment may be required to

perform the following functions on the transduced signal:
1.Amplification
2.Modification or modulation
3.Impedance matching
4.Data processing
5.Data transmission
 Signal conditioning instruments
1. Amplification: It means enhancement of the signal level which is often in the low
level range. The amplification system must bring the level of transducer signal to a
value adequate enough to make it useful for conversion, processing, indicating and
recording.

2. Modification or modulation: It means to change the form of signal. The signal

may be smoothened, linearized, filtered or converted into digital form.

3. Impedance matching: The signal conditioning equipment arranges the input and
output impedances of the matching device so as to prevent loading of the transducer
and to maintain a high signal level at the recorder.

4. Data processing: To carry out mathematical operations (e.g., addition, subtraction,

differentiation, integration etc.) before indication or recording of data.

5. Data transmission: To transmit signal from one location to another without

changing the contents of the information.
 Signal conditioning instruments
1. Passive Transducers
2. Active Transducers
In case of “passive transducers” (e.g., strain gauges, potentiometer resistance
thermometers inductive and capacitive transducers) excitation is needed because these
transducers do not generate their own voltage or current; the excitation is provided
from external sources.

The “active transducers” (e.g., technogenerators, thermocouples, inductive

pick-up and piezoelectric crystals) do not require excitation from an external source
since they produce their own electrical output. However. These signals have a low
voltage level and as such they need to be amplified.
The excitation sources may be:
• D.C. voltage source
• A.C. voltage source
 Signal conditioning instruments
• D.C. signal conditioning system:

The resistance transducers like strain gauges

constitute one or more than one arm of a
Wheatstone bridge which is excited by an
isolated D.C. source. The bridge can be
balanced by a potentiometer and can also be
calibrated for unbalanced conditions.
Characteristics of a D.C. amplifier:
• It should have extremely good thermal and
long term stability
• It may require balanced differential inputs
giving high mode rejection ratio (CMRR);
CMRR is a measure of ratio of desired signal
to undesired signal, this value should be as
high as possible
D.C. signal conditioning system
 Signal conditioning instruments
• D.C. signal conditioning system:

Advantage:

1. D.C. amplifier is easy to calibrate at low frequencies

2. It is able to recover from an overload condition unlike its. A.C. counterpart.

Disadvantages:

1. The major disadvantages of D.C. amplifier are that it suffers from the problem of
drift. As a result, the low frequency spurious signals come out as data information.
This problem is overcome by the use of the drift amplifiers
 Signal conditioning instruments
• A.C. signal conditioning system:
The problems which are encountered in D.C. systems are overcome through
carrier type A.C. signal conditioning system.

The transducer parameter variations amplitude modulates the carrier frequencies

at the bridge output and the waveform is amplified and demodulated. The demodulation
is phase sensitive so that polarity of D.C. output indicates the direction of the parameter
change in the bridge output.

In carrier systems, it is very easy to obtain very high rejection of mains frequency pick-
up.
• Active filters can be used to reject this frequency and prevent overloading of A.C.
amplifier.
• The carrier frequency components of the data signal are filtered out by the phase-
sensitive demodulators.
 Signal conditioning instruments
• A.C. signal conditioning system:
Uses: A.C. systems are used for variable reactance
transducers and for systems where signals have to be
transmitted long via cables to connect the transducers
to the signal conditioning equipment.
• The physical quantities like pressure, temperature,
acceleration, strain etc, after being transduced into
their analogous electrical form and amplified to
sufficient current or voltage levels (say 1 to 10V)
are further processed by electronic circuits.
• The signal is some applications, does not need any
further processing and the amplified signal may be
directly applied to indicating or recording or
control instruments.
• Several applications, however, involve further
A.C. signal conditioning system
processing of signals.
 Signal conditioning instruments
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE:

A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an

unknown electrical resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one
leg of which includes the unknown component. The primary benefit of a
wheatstone bridge is its ability to provide extremely accurate measurements
(in contrast with something like a simple voltage divider). Its operation is
similar to the original potentiometer.

The Wheatstone bridge was invented by Samuel Hunter Christie in 1833 and
improved and popularized by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1843. One of the
Wheatstone bridge's initial uses was for the purpose of soils analysis and
comparison.
 Signal conditioning instruments
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE:
Operation:
In the figure, Rx is the unknown resistance to be
measured; R1, R2 and R3 are resistors of known resistance
and the resistance of R2 is adjustable. If the ratio of the
two resistances in the known leg (R2/R1) is equal to the
ratio of the two in the unknown leg (Rx/R3), then the
voltage between the two midpoints (B and D) will be zero
and no current will flow through the galvanometer (Vg). If
the bridge is unbalanced, the direction of the current
indicates whether R2 is too high or too low. R2 is varied
until there is no current through the galvanometer, which
then reads zero.

Detecting zero current with a galvanometer can be done to extremely high

precision. Therefore, if R1, R2 and R3 are known to high precision, then Rx can be
measured to high precision. Very small changes in Rx disrupt the balance and are
readily detected.
 Signal conditioning instruments
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE:

At the point of balance, the ratio of

Alternatively, if R1, R2 and R3 are known, but R2 is not adjustable, the voltage
difference across or current flow through the meter can be used to calculate the
value of Rx, using Kirchhoff's circuit laws. This setup is frequently used in
strain gauge and resistance thermometer measurements, as it is usually faster to
read a voltage level off a meter than to adjust a resistance to zero the voltage.
 AMPLIFIERS
An amplifier is a device which is used to increase or augment the weak
signal. It may operate on mechanical (levers, gears etc.) optical, pneumatic and
hydraulic or electrical and electronic principles.

The ratio of output signal (Io) to input signal (Ii) for an amplifier is termed as gain,
amplification or magnification. The gain or amplification (G) is expressed as:

Since [Io/Ii] is in the same units, the gain G is a dimensionless quantity.

Invariably, in order to get greater magnification, two or more amplifiers are

arranged in series/cascades. The overall gain of the arrangement (assuming that no
loading occurs) is given by the product of individual gains of the amplifying units.
 AMPLIFIERS
Types of amplifiers:
The amplifiers on the basis of principle of working, may be
categorized as follows:
1. Mechanical amplifiers 2. Fluid amplifiers
3. Optical amplifiers 4. Electrical and electronic amplifiers

. Mechanical Amplifiers:
1
The mechanical amplifiers may be further classified as follows:

(i) Simple and compound levers:

The compound lever has two or more levers linked together so that output from one
lever provides the input to the other.

(ii) Simple and compound gears:

The simple and compound gear trains are used quite frequently to provide mechanical
amplification of either angular displacement or rotary speed.
A “compound gear train” gives greater modification with the additional advantage of
no change in the direction of input signal.
 AMPLIFIERS
2. Fluid Amplifiers:
Fluid amplifiers may be classified as follows:
(i) Hydraulic amplifier:

When a small displacement is applied to a piston operating inside a cylinder

containing some liquid, there occurs a large displacement of the liquid in the output tube
which has a small diameter.

Example: This principle is employed in the mercury-in-glass thermometer and the single-
column manometers.

(ii) Pneumatic amplifier:

Pneumatic methods are extensively used and can be applied to any type of
measurement.
 AMPLIFIERS
3. Optical Amplifiers:

In optical amplification, a ray of light strikes a mirror with an angle of

incidence ‘i’ and gets reflected with angle of reflection equal to the angle of
incidence. When the mirror rotates through an angles , the angle of incidence
change to (i + ). Before rotation of the minor, the angle between the incident ray
and reflected ray is 2i and after rotation it is 2(i+). Obviously there is angular
magnification of 2 between the incident and reflected rays. In order to get a greater
magnification, more number of mirrors surface may be used.

Example: This principle to amplify the input signals is used in the following cases:

• Optical levers
• U.V galvanometers
• Mechanical – pointer galvanometers
 AMPLIFIERS
4. Electrical and Electronic amplifiers:

The electrical amplifiers are used to increase the magnitude of weak

voltage or current signals resulting from electromechanical transducers.

(i) Desirable Characteristics of Electronic Amplifiers:

The following are the desirable characteristics of electronic amplifiers

➢ High input impedance so that its loading effect on the transducer in minimum
➢ Low output impedance so that the amplifier is not unduly loaded by the display
or recording device
➢ Frequency response should be as good as that of the transducer.
 AMPLIFIERS
Electronic Amplification or Gain:

The following are the several generalities that can be listed for the ideal
(but non-existent) electronic amplifier:
➢ Infinite gain (lower gain can be obtained by adding attenuation circuits)
➢ Infinite input impedance; no input current, hence no load on the previous
stage or device.
➢ Zero output impedance (low noise)
➢ Instant response (wide frequency bandwidth)
➢ Zero output for zero input
➢ Ability to ignore or reject extraneous inputs.
Of course, none of these aims can be completely realized, it is often
possible to approach them and their assumption simplifies circuit analysis.
 AMPLIFIERS
• (ii) In an electronic amplifier, separate power is provided so
that the output power may exceed the input if that is required.
Here,
If vi = Input voltage, vo = Output voltage
ii = Input current, io = Output current
Then
 AMPLIFIERS

(iii) A.C. and D.C. Amplifiers:

The instrumentation systems usually employ

the following two types of electronic amplifiers.
1.A.C. coupled amplifiers
2.D.C. coupled amplifiers
 ATTENUATORS:
ATTENUATORS:

An attenuator is a two – part resistive network and is used to reduce

the signal level by a given amount.
In a number of applications, it is necessary to introduce a specified
loss between the source and a matched load without altering the
impedance relationship. Attenuators may be used for this purpose.
Attenuator may be symmetrical or asymmetrical and can be either
fixed or variable. A fixed attenuator with constant attenuation is called a
pad.
- Variable attenuators are used as control volumes in radio broadcasting
sections.
- Attenuators are also used in laboratory to obtain small value of voltage
or current for testing circuits.
 ATTENUATORS:
The attenuation is expressed in decibels (dB) or, in ‘naper’. The
attenuation offered by a network in decibels is given by:
 FILTERS
FILTERS:

Filtering is the process of attenuating unwanted components of a

measurement while permitting the desired component to pass.
The filter is an electronic circuit which can pass or stop a particular band of
frequencies through it. The filters were first designed by G.A. Campbell and D.Z.
Zobel at Bell laboratories.
The band of frequencies which will pass through filter is called the pass band
and the band of all remaining frequencies is called attenuation band.
 FILTERS
Classification of filters:
On the basis of passing and attenuating of frequencies:
1. Low pass filters:
✓ These are those filters which pass only low frequencies through them and
which reject all high frequencies above the cut – off frequencies.
✓ A low pass filter is also called “lag network” because it causes a phase lag in
the output signal.
✓ This type of filter is also called “integrating network”.

2. High pass filters:

✓ These are those filters which pass only high frequencies through them and
which reject all high frequencies below the cut – off frequency.
✓ The high pass filter is a differentiating network and is also called as “lead
network” because it will cause a phase lead in the output signal.
 FILTERS
Classification of filters:
On the basis of passing and attenuating of frequencies:
3. Band pass filters:
These are those filters which pass a band of frequencies through them
and which reject all other frequencies to pass through them.

4. Band stop filters:

These filters, which are also known as “band elimination filters” are those
which reject a band of frequencies to pass through them and which allow
the other frequencies to pass through them.
On the basis of relation between series and shunt impedances

1. Constant filters (or prototype filters)

2. m – derived filters:
 COMPUTER BASED DATA ACQUISITION
Analog to Digital Conversions (ADC):
Once the signal has been sampled, the analog signal is converted into a digital
code. This process is called analog to digital conversion. This is shown in
Figure:

Analog to Digital Conversion for a 3-bit ADC

Commercially available boards allow for different ranges of sampling
frequencies. The DAQ modules in the Systems Undergraduate Lab have a 12
bit ADC with sampling rate up to 1.2 KHz.
Most boards also have a multiplexer that acts a like a switch to feed different
channels to the ADC. Therefore with 1 ADC, it is possible to have a multi-
channel input DAQ board. All boards in the Systems Undergraduate Lab are 8
channel analog input boards. This makes it possible to acquire up to 8 analog
signals in parallel
 COMPUTER BASED DATA ACQUISITION

Traditionally, measurements are done on standalone instruments of various

types oscilloscopes, multimeters, counters etc. However, the need to record the
measurements and process the collected data for visualization has become
increasingly important.
There are several ways in which the data can be exchanged between
instruments and a computer. Many instruments have a serial port which can
exchange data to and from a computer or another instrument.
Another way to measure signals and transfer the data into a computer is
by using a Data Acquisition board. A typical commercial DAQ card or module
allows input of analog signals through an ADC and output of analog signals
through a DAQ. In addition a DAQ card may facilitate input and output of digital
signals.
In the following overview we will attempt to explain various aspects of a
DAQ system used in the Systems Design Engineering Undergraduate Teaching
Lab.
 COMPUTER BASED DATA ACQUISITION
DATA ACQUISITION:

Data acquisition is the process of sampling signals that measure real world
physical conditions and converting the resulting samples into digital numeric
values that can be manipulated by a computer. Data acquisition systems,
abbreviated by the acronyms DAS or DAQ, typically convert analog waveforms
into digital values for processing. The components of data acquisition systems
include:
• Sensors, to convert physical parameters to electrical signals.
• Signal conditioning circuitry, to convert sensor signals into a form that can
be converted to digital values.
• Analog-to-digital converters, to convert conditioned sensor signals to digital
values.
COMPUTER BASED DATA ACQUISITION
 COMPUTER BASED DATA ACQUISITION

INTRODUCTION TO DISPLAY AND RECORDING:

The main purpose of any measurement system is to provide information concerning
the state and condition of the physical phenomenon being investigated. The measuring
systems may be activated either directly from the measuring means (e.g. bellows, pressure
spiral etc., to which indicating pointer is attached directly through lever and leverage system)
or by means of a servo – operated system (null – balance system which incorporates a
feedback circuit in a closed loop). The last stage of a measurement system is the data
presentation stage; if the results of the system are meaningful, they must be displayed for
instant observation by a display device or for storage for observation at a later stage by a
recorder. (The data presentation devices may be called as “output devices”).
 COMPUTER BASED DATA ACQUISITION

DISPLAY AND RECORIDNG INSTRUMENTS

Electrical Indicating Instruments:

Qualitative the electrical indicating instruments are widely used for measurement of current,
voltage, resistance and power. These instruments can be classified as follows:
✓ Analog instruments
✓ Digital instruments

Analog type of meters uses scale and needle (pointer) type arrangement to display the value of the
measured parameter. The measured parameter is converted into electrical signal which further actuates
some electro-mechanical device to move the pointer continuously as the parameter changes.

Digital type meters indicate the reading in exact numerals.

 COMPUTER BASED DATA ACQUISITION

DISPLAY AND RECORIDNG INSTRUMENTS

Electrical Indicating Instruments:

Qualitative the electrical indicating instruments are widely used for measurement of current,
voltage, resistance and power. These instruments can be classified as follows:
✓ Analog instruments
✓ Digital instruments

Analog type of meters uses scale and needle (pointer) type arrangement to display the value of the
measured parameter. The measured parameter is converted into electrical signal which further actuates
some electro-mechanical device to move the pointer continuously as the parameter changes.

Digital type meters indicate the reading in exact numerals.

 COMPUTER BASED DATA ACQUISITION

ANALOG INSTRUMENTS:

Moving – iron Instruments (Ammeters and Voltmeters):

Moving – iron instruments are commonly used in laboratories and switch boards at commercial
frequencies because they are very cheap and can be manufactured with required accuracy.

Moving – iron instruments can be divided into two types:

1) Attraction type – in which a sheet of soft iron is attracted towards a solenoid

2) Repulsion type – in which two parallel rods or strips of soft iron, magnetized inside a solenoid are
regarded as repelling each other.
 COMPUTER BASED DATA ACQUISITION
ANALOG INSTRUMENTS:
1. Moving – iron Instruments (Ammeters and Voltmeters):
Figure shows the sectional front and an end elevation of the attracted – iron type instrument. It
consists of a solenoid (or coil) C and oval shaped soft – iron disc D in such a way that it can move in or
out of the solenoid. To this iron a pointer P is attached so that it may deflect along with the moving iron
over a graduated scale. The soft – iron disc is made of sheet metal specially shaped to give a scale as
nearly uniform as possible.

When the current to be measured (or a definite fraction of the current to be measured or proportional to the
voltage to a measured) is passed through the solenoid, a magnetic field is set up inside the solenoid, which in
turn magnetizes the iron. Thus the soft – iron disc is attracted into the solenoid/coil, causing the spindle and
the pointer to rotate. Damping is provided by vane V attached to the spindle and moving in an air chamber
and control is by hair spring.
ANALOG INSTRUMENTS:
Repulsion type:

Repulsion – type moving – iron instrument is shown in

figure. Here there are two irons, one – fixed (A) and the other
mounted on a short arm (B) fixed to the instrument spindle. The two
irons lie in the magnetic field due to a solenoid/coil C. When there is
no current in the coil the two iron pieces (moving one and fixed one)
are almost touching each other and the pointer rests on zero position.
When the current to be measured (or a definite fraction of it or
proportional to the voltage to be measured) is passed through the
solenoid, a magnetic field is set up inside the solenoid and the two
iron pieces are magnetized in the same direction. This sets up a
repulsive force so moving iron piece, is repelled by fixed iron piece
and thereby results in the motion of the moving iron piece, carrying
the pointer. The pointer comes to rest in a deflected position when
equilibrium is attained between the repulsive forces of the working
elements and the controlling force.
ANALOG INSTRUMENTS:
Permanent – magnet moving – coil type (PMMC) instruments:
A permanent – magnet moving coil – type instrument works on the principle that
“when a current – carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it is acted upon by a force
which tends to move it to one side and out of the field”.

Construction:

The instrument consists of a permanent

magnet M and a rectangular coil C which consists of
insulated copper wire wound on light aluminium frame
fitted with polished steel pivots resting in jewel
bearings. The magnet is made of Alnico and has soft –
iron pole – pieces PP which are bored out cylindrically.
The rectangular coil C is free to move in air gaps
between the soft – iron pole pieces and a soft – iron
cylinder A (central core), supported by a brass plate.
 ANALOG INSTRUMENTS:

The functions of the central core A are:

i) To intensify the magnetic field by reducing the
length of air gap across which the magnetic flux
has to pass.

ii) To give a radial magnetic flux of uniform density, thereby enabling the scale to be
uniformly divided.

- The movement of the coil is controlled by two phosphor bronze hair spring BB (one
above and one below), which additionally serve the purpose of leading the current in
and out of the coil. The two springs are spiraled in opposite directions for
neutralizing the effects of changes in temperature.
- The aluminium frame not only provides support for the coil but also provides
damping by eddy currents induced in it.
 DIGITAL INSTUMENTS

➢ The digital instruments indicate the value of the measured in the form of “decimal
number”
➢ The digital meters work on the principal of “quantization”. The analog quantity to
be measured is first subdivided or quantized into a number of small intervals upto
many decimal places.
➢ A digital instrument can be considered as a counter which counts the pulses in a
predetermined time.
➢ Accuracy of digital instrument is dependent on the number of pulses generated by
transducer

The information in the electronic digital read-out (display) devices is presented as a

series of digits on tubes, screen or printed on a piece of paper. The relevant characters
can be generated by:

i. Light emitting diodes (LED)

ii. Liquid crystal displays (LCD)
iii. Numerical indicators tubes (NIT)
iv. Hot filament or bar tubes.
Light Emitting Diode (LED):

A P-N junction diode, which emits light when forward biased, is known as a light
emitting diode (LED). The amount of light output is directly proportional to the forward
current. Thus, higher the forward current higher is the light output.
Figure (a) shows the schematic symbol of light emitting diode. The arrows pointing
away from the diode symbol represent the light, which is being transmitted away from the
junction. Figure (b) shows the basic structure of a light emitting diode.
In a forward based P-N junction, free electron
from N-type material diffuse into P-region.
In Si or Ge diode, the energy that recombining
electrons lose is dissipated in the form of heat.
But if other semiconductor material such as
gallium arsenide and gallium phosphide are used
to form P-N diode, the energy lost by
recombining electrons is given off in the form of Figure (a) Figure (b)
light energy

Diodes made a gallium arsenide (GaAs) emit infrared radiation invisible to eyes and such
diodes are referred to as IRED – Infrared emitting diodes.
Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD
A liquid crystal is a material, usually an organic compound, which flows like a
liquid at room temperature.

When light is incident on an activated layer of a liquid crystal. It is either absorbed or

else is scattered by the disoriented molecules

A liquid crystal ‘cell’ consists of a thin layer

(about 10 m) of a liquid crystal sandwiched
between two glass sheets with transparent
electrodes deposited on their inside faces.

A liquid crystal cell

When both glass sheets are transparent, the cell is known as transmittive type
cell.
When one glass is transparent and the other has a reflective coating, the cell is
called reflective type
 3. Digclampter:

A ‘Digclampter’ is a combined meter for measurement of

Voltage, Current, Resistance and Temperature.
It can measure D.C. volts, A.C. volts, A.C. amps, Resistance,
Temperature.
It works with good accuracy and overload circuit.
Digclampter
Digital Tachometer for r.p.m. Measurements:
A digital tachometer for r.p.m. measurements is shown in figure. It is a
precision instrument. It measures the r.p.m. of rotating objects.
Working:
Apply a deflective marker to the object being measured.
➢ Place the tachometer “Power Switch” in “ON” position.
➢ Press the “Measure” button and align the visible light beam (Distance 5 to
15 cm) with the applied target. Verify the Monitor lamp lights each time
the target passes through the light beam. Release the “Measure Switch”
when the reading stabilizes.
Digital tachometer
 RECORDERS:
A recorder records electrical and non-electrical quantities as a function of
time. The record may show how one variable varies with respect to another, or how
the input signal varies with time.
The record serves the following objectives:
1. It preserves the details of measurement at a particular time
2. It provides at a glance the overall picture of the performance of unit
3. It provides immediate reflection on the action taken by the operator.

Types of Recorders

1. Analog Recording system

2. Digital Recording system

While dealing with a wholly analog system, the analog recording techniques
should be used. On the other hand, if the system has a digital output, digital recording
devices are employed.
 RECORDERS:
A recorder records electrical and non-electrical quantities as a function of
time. The record may show how one variable varies with respect to another, or how
the input signal varies with time.
The record serves the following objectives:
1. It preserves the details of measurement at a particular time
2. It provides at a glance the overall picture of the performance of unit
3. It provides immediate reflection on the action taken by the operator.

Types of Recorders

1. Analog Recording system

2. Digital Recording system

While dealing with a wholly analog system, the analog recording techniques
should be used. On the other hand, if the system has a digital output, digital recording
devices are employed.
 RECORDERS:
Types of Recorders

1. Analog Recording system

- Strip chart recorders

- X-Y Recorders
- Ultraviolet (U.V) Recorders
- Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

2. Digital Recording system

 RECORDERS:

Strip Chart Recorders:

A strip chart consists of the
following:
• A long wall of graph paper
moving vertically
• A system for driving the
paper at some selected
speed
• A stylus for marking paper on the moving graph paper (Most recorders use a
pointer attached to the stylus, which (pointer) moves over a calibrated scale thus
showing instantaneous value of the quantity being measured).

• A stylus driving system which moves the stylus in nearby exact replica or
analog of the quantity being measured (A spring wound mechanism may be used
but in most of the recorders a synchronous motor is used for driving the paper).
 RECORDERS:

X-Y Recorders:
A X-Y recorder is an instrument which gives a graphic record of the relationship between two variables.
This system has a pen which can be positioned along the two axes with the writing paper remaining
stationary. There are two amplifier units; one amplifier actuates the pen in the Y-direction as the input signal
is applied, while the second amplifier actuates the pen in X-direction. The movement of the pen in X and Y
directions are automatically controlled by means of a motor, pulleys and a linear potentiometer.

A few examples in which use of X-Y recorders is made are as under:

✓ Plotting of stress-strain curves, hysteresis curves and vibrations amplitude against swept frequency.
✓ Pressure – volume diagrams for I.C. engines
✓ Pressure – flow studies for lungs.
✓ Lift drag wind tunnel tests
✓ Speed – torque characteristics of motors
Ultraviolet (U.V) Recorders
These recorders are basically electro-mechanical oscillographic recorders
An ultraviolet recorder consists of a number of galvanometer (moving coil)
elements mounted in a single magnet block as shown in figure. A paper sensitive to
ultraviolet light is used for producing a trace for the purpose of recording. The U.V.
light is projected on the paper with the help of mirrors attached to the moving coils.
Working: When a current is passed through the moving (galvanometer) coil, it deflects
under the influence of the magnetic field of the permanent magnet.
The ultraviolet light falling on the
mirrors is deflected and projected on
to the U.V. light sensitive paper
through a lens and mirror system. The
paper is driven past the moving high
spot and thus a trace of variation of
current with respect to time is
produced.
Thank you