Chapter.

1 Matrices and Systems of Equations

1.2 Row Echelon Form

1. Row Echelon Form 8. Application.1: Traffic Flow

2. Basic and free variables 9. Application.2: Electrical Networks
3. Solution Method.1: Gaussian 10. Homogeneous Systems
Elimination 11. Application.3: Chemical Equations
4. Overdetermined Systems 12. Application.4: Economic Models for Exchange of
5. Underdetermined Systems Goods
6. Reduced Row Echelon Form 13. Conclusion
7. Solution Method.2: Gauss–Jordan
Elimination

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 1. Row Echelon Form
Background
As we learned a method for reducing an n × n linear system to strict triangular form. However,
this method will fail if, at any stage of the reduction process, all the possible choices for a pivot
element in a given column are 0.
Consider the following example.

after solving, we get =>

which is not in triangular form,

therefore we need to use row echelon form
2
 1. Row Echelon Form
Definition
A matrix is said to be in row echelon form if
1. The first nonzero (leading) entry in each nonzero row is 1.
2. All entries below the non-zero (leading) entry of the previous row are zero.
3. All zero rows are below the nonzero rows.
4. In any two consecutive non-zero rows, the leading entry in the upper row occur to the left side
of the leading entry in the lower row.
Examples:
The following matrices are in row echelon form: The following matrices are not in row echelon form:
1 4 2 1 2 3 1 3 1 0 2 4 6
0 0 0 0 1
A= 0 1 3 , B= 0 0 1 , C= 0 0 1 3 D= 0 3 5 , E= , F=
0 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4
3
 2. Basic and free variables
Basic variable:
A variables corresponds to a pivot column is called basic variable. Consider the following linear system.

1 −1 1 −3 0
The Augmented matrix= 0 1 −1 2 0
0 0 1 −1 0
The shaded numbers are pivot elements and that columns are called pivot columns, which is corresponds
to �1 , �2 , �3 , therefore �1 , �2 , �3 are basic variables.
Free variable:
A variable which is not corresponds to a pivot column is called free variable.
In the above augmented matrix, 4th column is not pivot column, therefore �4 is a free variable.
Note:
In order to determine which variables are basic and which are free, it is necessary to reduce the augmented
matrix to row echelon form.
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 3. Solution Method.1: Gaussian Elimination
Definition
The process of using elementary row operations to transform a linear system into one whose
augmented matrix is in row echelon form is called Gaussian elimination.

The following steps can be used to solve any linear system using Gaussian elimination method.

Step.1: Convert the augmented matrix into row echelon form.

Step.2: Use back substitutions to find the values of the unknows/variables.

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 3. Solution Method.1: Gaussian Elimination
Example:
Use Gaussian Elimination to solve the following system.
−�1 + �2 − �3 + 3�4 = 0
3 �1 + �2 − �3 − �4 = 0
2 �1 − �2 − 2�3 − �4 = 0
Solution
−1 1 −1 3 0
The augmented matrix =M= 3 1 −1 −1 0
2 −1 −2 −1 0
Step.1: Transform the first non-zero entry of the first row into 1, using suitable row operation.

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 3. Solution Method.1: Gaussian Elimination
Examples (Continued):
1 −1 1 −3 0
~(-1*�1 ) 3 1 −1 −1 0
2 −1 −2 −1 0
Step.2: Use suitable row operation to make all entries below the leading entry/pivot element of
the first row become zero.
1 −1 1 −3 0
~�2 − 3�1
0 4 −4 8 0
~�3 − 2�1
0 1 −4 5 0
Step.3: Transform the first non-zero entry of the second row into 1, using suitable row operation.
1 1 −1 1 −3 0
~ �2 0 1 −1 2 0
4
0 1 −4 5 0
7
 3. Solution Method.1: Gaussian Elimination
Examples (Continued):
Step.4: Use suitable row operation to make all entries below the leading entry of the second row
as zero.
1 −1 1 −3 0
~�3 − �2 0 1 −1 2 0
0 0 −3 3 0

Step.4: Transform the first non-zero entry of the third row into 1, using suitable row operation.

1 1 −1 1 −3 0
~ − �3 0 1 −1 2 0 which is in row echelon form
3
0 0 1 −1 0

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 3. Solution Method.1: Gaussian Elimination
Examples (Continued):
Step.4: Using back substitutions, we get.
�1 − �2 + �3 − 3�4 = 0 ---(i)
�2 − �3 + 2�4 = 0 ---(ii)
�3 − �4 = 0 ---(iii)

If we set �4 = � (any real number), then

(i)=> �3 − � = 0 ⇒ �3 = �
(ii)=> �2 − �3 + 2�4 = 0 ⇒ �2 =− �
(iii)=> �1 − �2 + �3 − 3�4 = � ⇒ �1 = �
Thus, all ordered 4-tuples of the form (�, −�, �, �) are solutions of the system.

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 4. Overdetermined Systems
Definition
A system of linear equations is said to be overdetermined if there are more equations than
unknowns/variables, (ie. � > �). An overdetermined system is almost (but not always)
inconsistent (no solution) when constructed with random coefficients. If the equations are
independent, then overdetermined systems are always inconsistent.
However, an overdetermined system will have solutions in some cases, for example, if some
equation occurs several times in the system, or if some equations are linear combinations of the
others.
Note: � means number of linear equations, while � means number of unknown/variables.
Example: �1 �1 + �2 �2 = �1
�1 �1 + �2 �2 = �2 here � > �
�1 �1 + �2 �2 = �2
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 4. Overdetermined Systems
Examples

11
 4. Overdetermined Systems
Examples

Using Gaussian
Elimination

Inconsistent system
12
 4. Overdetermined Systems
Examples

Using Gaussian
Elimination

13
 4. Overdetermined Systems
Examples

Using Gaussian
Elimination

14
 5. Underdetermined Systems
Definition
A system of linear equations is said to be underdetermined if there are less equations than
unknowns/variables (ie. � < �). An underdetermined linear system has either no solution or
infinitely many solutions. It has no unique solution.
Note: � means number of linear equations, while � means number of unknown/variables.
Example:
�1 �1 + �2 �2 + �3 �3 = �1
�1 �1 + �2 �2 + �2 �3 = �2

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 5. Underdetermined Systems
Example:

Using Gaussian
Elimination

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 5. Underdetermined Systems
Example:

Using Gaussian
Elimination

17
 5. Underdetermined Systems
Example:
(Continued)

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 6. Reduced Row Echelon Form
Definition
A matrix is said to be in reduced row echelon form if
1. The matrix is in row echelon form.
2. The first nonzero entry in each row is the only nonzero entry in its column, it means all other
entries below and above the first nonzero entry (which is 1) in each column must be zero .

Examples: The following matrices are in reduced row echelon form

1 0 0 3 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1
1 0
A= , B= 0 1 0 2, C= 0 0 0 1, D= 0 0 1 3
0 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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 7. Solution Method.2: Gauss–Jordan Elimination
Definition
The process of using elementary row operations to transform a linear system into one whose
augmented matrix is in reduced row echelon form is called Gauss–Jordan Elimination.
Examples: Use gauss-Jordan elimination/reduction to solve the following system.
−�1 + �2 − �3 + 3�4 = 0
3 �1 + �2 − �3 − �4 = 0
2 �1 − �2 − 2�3 − �4 = 0
Solution:
−1 1 −1 3 0
The augmented matrix =M= 3 1 −1 −1 0
2 −1 −2 −1 0
Step.1: Transform the first non-zero entry of the first row into 1, using suitable row operation.
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 7. Solution Method.2: Gauss–Jordan Elimination
Examples (Continued):
1 −1 1 −3 0
~(-1*�1 ) 3 1 −1 −1 0
2 −1 −2 −1 0
Step.2: Use suitable row operation to make all entries below the leading entry of the first row
become zero.
1 −1 1 −3 0
~�2 − 3�1
0 4 −4 8 0
~�3 − 2�1
0 1 −4 5 0
Step.3: Transform the first non-zero entry of the second row into 1, using suitable row operation.
1 1 −1 1 −3 0
~ �2 0 1 −1 2 0
4
0 1 −4 5 0
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 7. Solution Method.2: Gauss–Jordan Elimination
Examples (Continued):
Step.4: Use suitable row operation to make all entries below the leading entry of the second row
as zero.
1 −1 1 −3 0
~�3 − �2 0 1 −1 2 0
0 0 −3 3 0

Step.4: Transform the first non-zero entry of the third row into 1, using suitable row operation.
1 1 −1 1 −3 0
~ − �3 0 1 −1 2 0 which is in row echelon form
3
0 0 1 −1 0

For reduced row echelon form these entries must be zero 22

 7. Solution Method.2: Gauss–Jordan Elimination
Examples (Continued):
Step.4: Use suitable row operation to make all entries below and above the leading entry of the
each row (�1 , �2 ) as zero.

~�1 + �2 1 0 0 −1 0
~�2 + �3 0 1 0 1 0 which is in the form of reduced echelon form
0 0 1 −1 0
If we set �4 = � (any real number), then �1 = �, �2 =− � , and �3 = �. Thus, all ordered 4-
tuples of the form (�, −�, �, �) are solutions of the system.

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 8. Application.1: Traffic Flow
Example: In the downtown section of a certain city, two sets of one-way streets intersect as
shown in Figure below. The average hourly volume of traffic entering and leaving this section
during rush hour is given in the diagram. Determine the amount of traffic between each of the
four intersections.
Solution:
At each intersection the number of automobiles
entering must be the same as the number leaving. For
example, at intersection A, the number of automobiles
entering is �1 + 450 and the number leaving is
�2 + 610. Thus
�1 + 450 = �2 + 610 (intersection A)
�2 + 520 = �3 + 480 (intersection B)
�3 + 390 = �4 + 600 (intersection C)
�4 + 640 = �1 + 310 (intersection D) 24
 8. Application.1: Traffic Flow
Example (Continued): The system is consistent, and since there is a
free variable, there are many possible solutions.
The augmented matrix for the system is
The traffic flow diagram does not give enough
information to determine �1 , �2 , �3 , and �4
uniquely. If the amount of traffic were known
between any pair of intersections, the traffic on
the remaining arteries could easily be
calculated. For example, if the amount of
Use suitable row operation, traffic between intersections C and D averages
the reduced row echelon form for this matrix is 200 automobiles per hour, then �4 = 200. Using
this value, we can then solve for �1 , �2 , and �3 :

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 9. Application.2: Electrical Networks
Kirchhoff’s Laws
1. At every node the sum of the incoming currents equals the sum of the outgoing currents.
2. Around every closed loop, the algebraic sum of the voltage gains must equal the algebraic
sum of the voltage drops.
The current in the electric network
�1 − �2 + �3 = 0 (node A)
−�1 + �2 − �3 = 0 (node B)

By the second law

4�1 + 2�2 = 8 (top loop)

2�2 + 5�3 = 9 (bottom loop)
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 9. Application.2: Electrical Networks
Kirchhoff’s Laws: (continued)
The network can be represented by the augmented matrix

This matrix is easily reduced to the row echelon form

Solving by back substitution, we see that �1 = 1, �2 = 2, and �3 = 1.

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 10. Homogeneous Systems
Trivial Solution:
Homogeneous systems of linear equations are always consistent because all such systems have
zero solution (�1 = 0, �1 = 0, …, �� = 0). This solution is called the Trivial Solution.

Nontrivial solutions:
Any solution in which at least one variable has a nonzero value is called a nontrivial solution.

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 10. Homogeneous Systems
Definition:
A system of linear equations is said to be homogeneous if the constants on the righthand side are
all zero. Homogeneous systems are always consistent. It is a trivial matter to find a solution; just
set all the variables equal to zero. Thus, if an � × � homogeneous system has a unique solution,
it must be the trivial solution (0, 0, ... , 0).
In the case that m < �, there will always be free variables and, consequently, additional
nontrivial solutions.

Note:
As homogeneous systems are always consistent, therefore, there are two possibilities.
1. The system has only the trivial solution.
2. Infinitely many solutions in addition to the trivial solution.
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 10. Homogeneous Systems
Theorem:
An � × � homogeneous system of linear equations has a nontrivial solution if m < �.

Proof:
A homogeneous system is always consistent. The row echelon form of the matrix can have at
most � nonzero rows. Thus there are at most � lead variables. Since there are � variables
altogether and � < �, there must be some free variables. The free variables can be assigned
arbitrary values (�. �, �, ���.). For each assignment of values to the free variables, there is a
solution of the system.

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 11. Application.3: Chemical Equations
In the process of photosynthesis, plants use radiant energy from sunlight to convert carbon
dioxide (��2 ) and water (�2 �) into glucose (�6 �12 �6 ) and oxygen (�2 ). The chemical
equation of the reaction is of the form
�1 ��2 + �2 �2 � → �3 �2 + �4 �6 �12 �6
To balance the equation, we must choose �1 , �2 . �3 , and �4 so that the numbers of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen atoms are the same on each side of the equation.
Since carbon dioxide contains one carbon atom and glucose contains six, to balance the carbon
atoms we require that. We get the following homogenous equation
�1 = 6�4 linear system
Similarly, to balance the oxygen, we need �1 + 0�2 + 0�3 − 6�4 =0
2�1 + �2 = 2�3 + 6�4 2�1 + �2 − 2�3 − 6�4 = 0
And finally, to balance the hydrogen, we need 0 �1 + 2�2 + 0�3 − 12�4 = 0
2�2 = 12�4 By Theorem in section 10 (page.30), the system
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has nontrivial solutions.
 11. Application.3: Chemical Equations
(Continued)
To balance the equation, we must find solutions (�1 , �2 , �3 , �4 ) whose entries are nonnegative
integers. If we solve the system in the usual way, we see that �4 is a free variable and
�1 = �2 = �3 = 6�4
In particular, if we take �4 = 1, then �1 = �2 = �3 = 6 and the equation takes the form
6��2 + 6�2 � → 6�2 + �6 �12 �6

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 12. Application.4: Economic Models for Exchange of
Goods
For detail, see application.4, page number 37 in book

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 13. Conclusion
1. Row Echelon Form: (a) First non-zero entry must be 1, (b) below that 1 all entries must be
zero, (c) all zero rows must below the non-zero rows, (d) In any two consecutive non-zero
rows, the leading entry in the upper row occur to the left side of the leading entry in the
lower row.
2. Reduced Row Echelon Form: (a) Echelon form, (b) All entries below and above the pivot
element must be zero.
3. Basic variables: That corresponds to pivot columns.
4. Free variables: That corresponds to other than pivot columns.
5. Gaussian Elimination Method: Row echelon form.
6. Gauss–Jordan Elimination Method: Reduced row echelon form.
7. Overdetermined Systems: More equations than unknowns/variables, (ie. � > �).
8. Underdetermined Systems: Less equations than unknowns/variables (ie. � < �).
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