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R.M.K COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
AND TECHNOLOGY

21EC501 Digital Communication

Department : ECE
Batch/Year : 2021-2025 / III year
Created : Dr.N.Gangatharan,
Professor & Head/ECE,
RMKCET
Dr.Chettiyar Vani V,
ASP/ECE, RMKCET
Ms.Samuda Prathima
AP/ECE, RMKCET

Date : 16.09.2023
 Table of Contents
Page
S. No Contents
Number

1 Course Objectives 7

2 Pre Requisites 8

3 Syllabus 9

4 Course outcomes 11

5 CO- PO/PSO Mapping 12

6 Unit IV – Digital Modulation Schemes 13

6.1 Lecture plan 14

6.2 Activity based learning 16

6.3 Lecture Notes 22

➢ Video Lecture Links 23

➢ Unit 1V Learning Material 24

❖ Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization 25

❖ Geometric Representation of Signals 27

❖ Coherent Binary PSK 31

❖ Coherent Binary FSK 36

❖ Quadrature Phase Shift Keying 42

❖ Quadrature Amplitude Modulation 50

❖ Carrier Synchronization,Timing
53
Synchronization
❖ Structure of Non – Coherent Receivers 56
 Table of Contents
S.No Contents Page
Number

❖ Principle of DPSK 57

6.4 Assignments 60

6.5 Part A Questions & Answers 63

6.6 Part B Questions 67

6.7 Supportive Online Certification Courses 69

6.8 Real Time Applications in day to day life
71
and to Industry
6.9 Content beyond the Syllabus 76
7 Assessment Schedule 80
8 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 82
9 Mini Project suggestions 86
 1. COURSE OBJECTIVES

The student should be made :

•To study the limits set by information theory
● To familiarize with the various waveform coding schemes
● To learn the functional behavior of various baseband
transmission schemes
● To compare the performance metrics of various bandpass
signaling schemes
● To illustrate the error correction and detection capabilities
of various channel coding techniques.
 2. PRE REQUISITES

Subject Name :Signals and Systems

Subject Code : 20EC301
Semester :3
Reason : Students should be familiar with classification of signals and Fourier
Transform

Subject Name :Communication Systems

Subject Code : 20EC401
Semester :4
Reason : Students should be familiar with fundamentals of communication,
Modulation types,Sampling,Quantization and Pulse Code Modulation

Subject Name : Probability and Random Processes

Subject Code : 20MA401

Semester :4
Reason : Students should be familiar with Proabiliy and random processes
 3. Syllabus
20EC501 DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

OBJECTIVES:
•To study the limits set by information theory
•To familiarize with the various waveform coding schemes
•To learn the functional behavior of various baseband transmission
schemes
•To compare the performance metrics of various bandpass signaling
schemes
• To illustrate the error correction and detection capabilities of various
channel coding techniques

UNIT I INFORMATION THEORY 9

Discrete Memory less source, Information, Entropy, Mutual Information – Discrete
Memory less channels – Binary Symmetric Channel, Channel Capacity - Hartley –
Shannon law – Source coding theorem - Shannon - Fano & Huffman codes.

UNIT II WAVEFORM CODING & REPRESENTATION 9

Prediction filtering and DPCM - Delta Modulation - ADPCM & ADM principles-Linear
Predictive Coding- Properties of Line codes- Power Spectral Density of Unipolar /
Polar RZ & NRZ – Bipolar NRZ - Manchester

UNIT III BASEBAND TRANSMISSION & RECEPTION 9

ISI – Nyquist criterion for distortion less transmission – Pulse shaping – Correlative
coding – Eye pattern – Receiving Filters- Matched Filter, Correlation receiver,
Adaptive Equalization

UNIT IV DIGITAL MODULATION SCHEME 9

Geometric Representation of signals - Generation, detection, PSD & BER of Coherent
BPSK, BFSK & QPSK - QAM – Carrier Synchronization -Timing Synchronization
Structure of Non-coherent Receivers – Principle of DPSK.
 3. Syllabus (cont’d.)
UNIT V ERROR CONTROL CODING
Channel coding theorem - Linear Block codes - Hamming codes - Cyclic codes –

Convolutional codes - Viterbi Decoder.

TOTAL:45 PERIODS

TEXT BOOK:
1. S. Haykin, ―Digital Communications, John Wiley, 2005 (Unit I –V)
2. Sklar B, Digital Communication Fundamentals and Applications, Pearson
Education, 2nd Edition, 2009.

REFERENCES
1. J.G Proakis, Digital Communication, 4th Edition, Tata Mc Graw Hill Company, 2001.
2. B.P.Lathi, Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems, 3rd Edition, Oxford
University Press 2007.
3. H P Hsu, Schaum, Outline Series -Analog and Digital Communications, TMH 2006.
4. Roody D, Coolen J, Electronic Communications, PHI, 4th Edition, 2006.
5. Wayne Tomasi - Electronic Communication Systems, Pearson Education India, 2008

NPTEL LINK:
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/102/108102120/
 4. COURSE OUTCOMES

Level in
Course
After successful completion Description
of the course, the Bloom’s
Outcomesstudents should be able to Taxonomy
Describe the concepts of information theory and
C301.1 K2
coding

C301.2 Compare the various waveform coding techniques K2

Describe the baseband transmission and reception

C301.3 K2
schemes
COURSE OUTCOMES
Illustrate the different digital modulation schemes
C301.4 K2
and equalization techniques
Determine PSD and BER of various digital
C301.5 K3
modulation schemes

C301.6 Construct different error control codes K3

 5. CO – PO/PSO MAPPING

Program
-
- Specific
- Program Outcomes Outcomes
-
-
Course
- Level
Out K3
- of CO K3 K4 K4 K5 K5 A3 A2 A3 A3 A3 A3 A2
Comes K6 K6 K5 K6

PSO PSO PSO

PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO 1 1 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
CO – PO/PSO MAPPING
C301.1 K2 2 1 - - - - - - - 2 - - - 1 2
C301.2 K2 2 1 - - - - - - - 2 - - - - 2
C301.3 K2 2 1 - - - - - - - 2 - - - 1 2
C301.4 K2 2 1 - - - - - - - 2 - - - - 2
C301.5 K3 3 2 2 2 - - - - - - - - - - 3
C301.6 K3 3 2 2 2 - - - - - 3 - - - - 3
 UNIT – IV
DIGITAL MODULATION
SCHEMES
LECTURE PLAN
UNIT IV
 Course Delivery Plan

UNIT IV DIGITAL MODULATION SCHEME

Sl Proposed Topic Actual COs Highest Mode

No Period Period Cognitiv of
e Level Delivery
4.10.23 Geometric
1 Representation of CO4 K3 MD2
signals
5.10.23 BPSK Generation
2 CO4 K3 MD2
and Detection
6.10.23 PSD and BER of
3 CO4 K2 MD2
BPSK
7.10.23 BPSK Generation
4 CO4 K2 MD2
and Detection
9.10.23 PSD and BER of
5 CO4 K2 MD2
BPSK
10.10.23 QPSK Generation,
6 Detection, PSD CO4 K2 MD2
and BER
11.10.23 QAM Generation,
7 Detection, PSD CO4 K2 MD2
and BER
12.10.23 Carrier
8 Synchronization, CO4 K2 MD2
Non- Coherent
Detection
9 13.10.23 Principle of DPSK CO4 K2 MD2
6.2 Activity
Based
Learning
 ACTIVITIES

Sl.
No Activity Topic

1 Quiz Different Modulation Techniques

2. Group Discussion 5G Communication Techniques

Quiz Questions:
1. The bandwidth of BFSK is than BPSK.
a) Lower
b) Same
c) Higher
d) Not predictable
Answer C) Higher

2. In Binary FSK, mark and space respectively represent

a) 1 and 0
b) 0 and 1
c) 11 and 00
d)00 and 11
Answer: b) 0 and 1

3. The frequency shifts in the BFSK usually lies in the range

a) 50 to 1000 Hz
b) 100 to 2000 Hz
c) 200 to 500 Hz
d)500 to 10 K Hz
Answer: a) 50 to 1000 Hz

4. The spectrum of BFSK may be viewed as the sum of

a) Two ASK spectra
b) Two PSK spectra
c) Two FSK spectra
d) None of the above
Answer: a) Two ASK spectra

5. The maximum bandwidth is occupied by

a) ASK
b) BPSK
c) FSK
d) None of the above
Answer: c) FSK
6. QPSK is a modulation scheme where each symbol consists of
a) 4 bits
b) 2 bits
c) 1 bit
d)M number of bits, depending upon the requirement
Answer: b) 2 bits
7. The data rate of QPSK is of BPSK.
a) Thrice
b) Four times
c) Twice
d) same
Answer: c) Twice
8. QPSK system uses a phase shift of
a) Π
b) Π/2
c) Π/4
d) 2Π
Answer: b) Π/2
9. Minimum shift keying is similar to
a) Continuous phase frequency shift keying
b) Binary phase shift keying
c) Binary frequency shift keying
d) QPSK
Answer: a) Continuous phase frequency shift keying
10. In MSK, the difference between the higher and lower
frequency is
a) Same as the bit rate
b) Half of the bit rate
c) Twice of the bit rate
d) Four time the bit rate
Answer: b) Half of the bit rate
11. The technique that may be used to reduce the side band
power is
a) MSK
b) BPSK
c) Gaussian minimum shift keying
d) BFSK
Answer: c) Gaussian minimum shift keying
12. In DPSK technique, the technique used to encode bits is
a) AMI
b) Differential code
c) Uni polar RZ format
d) Manchester format
Answer: b) Differential code
13. Synchronization of signals is done using
a) Pilot clock
b) Extracting timing information from the received signal
c) Transmitter and receiver connected to master timing source
d) All of the above
Answer: d) All of the above

14. In coherent detection of signals,

a) Local carrier is generated
b) Carrier of frequency and phase as same as transmitted carrier is generated
c) The carrier is in synchronization with modulated carrier
d) All of the above
Answer: d) All of the above

15. QAM uses as the dimensions.

a) In phase
b) Quadrature
c) In phase & Quadrature
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: c) In phase & Quadrature

16.If we correlate the received signal with any one of the two orthogonal function,
the obtained inner product will be
a) In phase
b) Quadrature
c) Zero
d) Cannot be determined
Answer: c) Zero
17. Every frequency has orthogonal functions.
a) One
b) Two
c) Four
d) Six
Answer: b) Two
18. Which FSK has no phase discontinuity?
a) Continuous FSK
b) Discrete FSK
c) Uniform FSK
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: a) Continuous FSK
19. Average energy per bit is given by
a) average energy symbol/log2 M
b) average energy symbol * log2 M
c) log2 M/ Average energy symbol
d) none of the mentioned
Answer: c) log2 M/ Average energy symbol

20. Which has same probability of error?

a) BPSK and QPSK
b) BPSK and ASK
c) BPSK and PAM
d) BPSK and QAM
Answer: c) BPSK and PAM

21FSK reception uses

a) Correlation receiver
b) PLL
c) Correlation receiver & PLL
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: c) Correlation receiver & PLL

22. In non coherent reception is measured.

a) Phase
b) Energy
c) Power
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: b) Energy

23. Which system uses QAM?

a) Digital microwave relay
b) Dial up modem
c) Digital microwave relay & Dial up modem
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: c) Digital microwave relay & Dial up modem
6.3 Lecture Notes
 Video Lecture Links

Unit IV- Digital Modulation Schemes

1. Passband Digital Modulation

Link: https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/102/108102096/

2. BPSK
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sbo5JLBv_3k

3. BFSK
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k7UvtvW8uck

4. QPSK
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L0KIHbUXF_Y

5. QAM
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IbUflaeJcU8

6. Carrier Recovery
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MHDWiK04QN0
 Organization of Topics

4. Digital Modulation Schemes

1. Gram – Schmidt Orthogonalization

2. Geometric Representation of Signals
3. Coherent Binary PSK
1. Generation
2. Generation
3. Probability of Error
4. Power Spectrum
4. Coherent Binary FSK
1. Principle
2. Decision Rule
3. Detection
4. Probability of Error
5. Power Spectrum
5. Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
1. Decision Rule
2. Generation
3. Detection
4. Probability of Error _

6. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation L

1. Probability of Error
2. Generation
3. Detection
7. Carrier Synchrinization
1. Costas Loop
8. Structure of Non – Coherent Receivers
9. Principle of DPSK
1. Generation and detection
 UNIT –IV

DIGITAL MODULATION SCHEME

Geometric Representation of signals-`Generation & Detection PSD and BER of
BPSK, BFSK,QPSK,QAM- Carrier synchronization- Structure of Non – Coherent Receivers
Principles of DPSK.

4.1 Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization Procedure:

Fig: 4.1 Model of Digital Communication System

According to the above fig, the task of transforming an incoming message mi

,i=1,2,…M into a modulated ware Si(t) may be divided into separate discrete – time and
continuous time operations .

Gram Schmidth orthogonalization procedure allows the represention of any set of M

energy signals Si(t) as linear combination of N orthonormal basis function where 𝑁 ≤

𝑀.

Si(t)== ∑_(𝐽 = 1)^𝑁▒𝑆𝑖𝑗 ∅𝑗 (t) 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇

where the co-efficient of the expansion are,

𝑇
𝑖 = 1,2, … 𝑀
𝑆𝑖𝑗 = ∫ 𝑆𝑖 (𝑡)∅𝑗 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 {
0
𝑗 = 1,2, … . 𝑁
 The Real- Valued basis functions ∅1(𝑡), ∅2(𝑡) … . ∅𝑛(𝑡)are erthoneral, and it is
given by

𝑇
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 = 𝑗
∫ ∅𝑖 (𝑡)∅𝑗 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = { 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 ≠
0
𝑗
First condition proves that each basis function is normalized to have unit energy

Second condition proves that all basis functions are orthogonal to each other.

Fig: 4.2 Generation of Signal Fig: 4.3 Generation of Coefficients

To generate the signal 𝑆𝑖 (𝑡), (𝑖 = 1,2 … 𝑀) a bank of N multiplers are used. In

each multiplier, the co- efficient𝑆𝑖𝑗 and basis function ∅𝑗 are multiplied. The output of
all multipliers is added by using a summer. This scheme is similar to a modulator in the
digital communication system.

Conversely, to generate the co- efficient at the receiver, a bank of product –

integrators or correlator with a common input of 𝑆𝑖 (t) and its own basis function this
structure is similar to the detector in the digital communication system.
4.2 Geometric Representation of signals:

As in Gram Schmidt orthogonalization, a signal set{𝑆𝑖 (𝑡)}

𝑆𝑖 (t)=∑𝑁 𝑆 ∅ (𝑡) 0≤𝑡≤𝑇

𝑗 =1 𝑖𝑗 𝑗 𝑗 = 1,2, … . 𝑁 (4.1)

The Co- efficient of the expansion,

𝑖 = 1,2, … 𝑀
𝑆𝑖𝑗 =𝑆𝑖 ∅ 𝑗 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 (4.2)
𝑗 = 1,2, … . 𝑁

Each signal in the set {𝑆𝑖(𝑡)} is determined by the vector co- efficient

𝑆𝑖1
Si=[𝑆𝑖2 ] i=1,2,3…M (4.3)
𝑆𝑖𝑁
The vector 𝑆𝑖 is called the signal vector. We can visualize the set of signal
vectors {𝑆𝑖 }, as set of M points in an N- demendional Euclidean space. This N-
dimensional Euclidean space is called the signal space.

Fig 4.4 Shows a two – dimensional signal space with three signals that is
N=2 and M=3
 In the Euclidean space, lengths of vectors and angles between vectors are
defined. Length or norm of vector is denoted by|𝑆𝑖. |
1) The squared- length of any signal vector Si is equal to the inner product of the
vector with itself

" 𝑆𝑖 " 2=(𝑆𝑖 , 𝑆𝑖 )

=∑𝑁𝐽 =1 𝑆𝑖𝑗2 (4.4)

Where 𝑆𝑖𝑗 are the elements of 𝑆𝑖

2) The cosine of the angle between two vectors is equal to the inner product of the
two vectors divided by the product of their individual norms.
that is cosine of angle between
Vectors 𝑆𝑖 and 𝑆𝑗 =(Si,Sj)/" 𝑆𝑖 " ǁ 𝑆𝑗 ǁ

3) The energy content of a signal is related to its vector representation,

𝑇
𝐸 = ∫ 𝑆i2(t) dt
𝑖 0
𝑇
𝐸 =∫ [∑𝑛 𝑆 ∅ ] [∑𝑁 𝑆 ∅ (𝑡)]𝑑𝑡
𝑖 0 𝑗 =1 𝑖𝑗 𝑗 𝑘 =1 𝑖𝑗 𝑘

1 since ∅(𝑡) is orthonerous basis function

𝑇
=∑𝑗𝑀=1 ∑𝑘=1
𝑁 𝑆𝑖𝑗 𝑆𝑖𝑘 ∫0 𝑆𝑖 (𝑡) ∅𝑘 (t)dt

𝐸𝑖=∑𝑁𝑗=1 𝑆 ij2 (4.5)

Thus from equation 4 and 5

Ei =" 𝑆𝑖 " 2

Therefore energy of a signal Si(t) is equal the squared- length of the signal
vector Si
 In the case of a pair of signals 𝑆𝑖 (t) and 𝑆𝑘 (t),
"𝑆𝑖 − 𝑆𝑘 " 2 =∑ 𝑁
𝑗 =1 (𝑆𝑖𝑗 − 𝑆𝑘𝑗 )
2

Where"𝑆𝑖 − 𝑆𝑘 " is the Euclidean distance

Digital Modulation Techniques:

Modulation is defined as the process by which some characteristic of a carrier is
varied in accordance with a modulating wave.
In digital modulation the modulating wave consists of a binary data or encoded
version of it[Line coding]
The carrier is a high frequency sinusoidal wave
The various digital modulation techniques are
1) Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
2) Frequency shift keying(FSK)
3) Phase shift keying (PSK)

Fig: 4.5 ASK, FSK, PSK Signals

ASK-> Amplitudes of carrier is changed in accordance with the binary data.
FSK-> Frequency of carrier is changed in accordance with the binary data.
PSK-> Phase of carrier is changed in accordance with the binary data.

To perform demodulation at the receiver, two types of detection are available,

Coherent detection- Receiver has exact knowledge of the carrier wave’s phase
reference ie) receiver is phase- locked to the transmitter.

Non- Coherent detection- Knowledge of carrier wave’s phase is not required less
complex.
Thus many modulation/ detection schemes are available. The choice of scheme
is based on the following criteria,

 Maximum data rate

 Minimum probability of symbol error
 Minimum transmitted power
 Minimum channel BW
 Minimum circuit complexity
 Minimum resistance to interfering signals.
4.3 Coherent Binary PSK : (BPSK)

Principle:

In a coherent binary psk system, binary 1 and 0 are represented by 𝑆1(t) and
𝑆2 (t) respectively,

2𝐸𝑏
𝑆1 (t) =√ 𝑇𝑏
cos(2𝜋𝑓 𝑐𝑡)

𝐸
𝑆2 (t)= √2 𝑇𝑏 cos(2𝜋𝑓 𝑐𝑡 + 𝜋)
𝑏

𝐸
𝑆2(𝑡) = - √ 2 𝑇𝑏 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t)
𝑏

Where 0≤ t≤ 𝑇𝑏
𝑛𝑐
𝐸𝑏 → Energy per bit, 𝑓𝑐 = ; 𝑛𝑐 = fixed integer
𝑇𝑏

A pair of sinusoidal waves that differ only in relative phase-shift of 180• are referred
as antipodal signals

From 1 and 2 it is clear that there is only one basis function,

2
∅1(𝑡) = √ cos (2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t) 0≤ t < 𝑇𝑏 (4.6)
𝑇 𝑏

1 =>𝑆1 (𝑡) = √𝐸𝑏 ∅1(𝑡) 0 ≤ t < 𝑇𝑏 (4.7)

2=> 𝑆2 (t) = -√𝐸𝑏 ∅1(𝑡) 0 ≤ t < 𝑇𝑏 (4.8)

From 4 and 5 we get the co-efficient of expansion,

𝑆11 =∫𝑇𝑏 𝑆1 (t)∅1(𝑡)𝑑𝑡

0

𝑆11 =+√𝐸𝑏
𝑇
𝑠21=∫0 𝑏 𝑆2(t) ∅2(t)dt

𝑆21=−√𝐸𝑏
Thus a BPSK system has a signal space that is one dimensional (N=1) and with two
message points (M=2). The two message points are given by 𝑆11 and 𝑆21 . Message
point corresponding to 𝑠2(t) is located at 𝑠11 =+√𝐸𝑏 and message point corresponding

to 𝑆2 (t) is 𝑆21 =-√𝐸𝑏 .

Fig: 4.6 Signal Space Diagram for Coherent BPSK

Signal space of BPSK is divided into two regions,

• Set of points closet to the message point at +√𝐸𝑏

• Set of points closet to the message point at -√𝐸𝑏

The first region is marked as z1 and second is marked as z2.

At the receiver, the decision rule is to guess a binary 1 if the received signal point
falls in region z1 and guess binary o if the received signal point falls in region z2.

4.3.1 Generation:

Fig: 4.7 BPSK Generation

 To generate a psk wave, the i/p binary data is represented in polar form
{𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 1 → +√𝐸𝑏 |&}

Binary 0 →-√𝐸𝑏

This binary wave and a sinusoidal carrier ∅1 (t) are applied to a product modulator
whose o/p is a PSK wave.

4.3.2 Detection :

Fig: 4.8 BPSK Detector

To detect the original binary sequence, the noisy psk wave x(t) is applied to a
correlator. Another i/p to correlator is a coherent reference signal ∅1 (t). The correlator
o/p 𝑥1 is given to a decision device. J6 𝑥1<0, the receiver decides in favour of binary 1
and if 𝑥1<0, it decides in favour of binary 0.

4.3.3 Probability of error:

Two error conditions:

1) Signal 𝑆2 (t) is transmitted [binary 1] but the noise in the channel makes the

received signal point to fall inside region𝑧1 and so the receiver decides 𝑠1(t) (ie)
binary o.
2) Signal 𝑆1 (t) is transmitted [binary 0] but the noise in the channel makes the
received signal point to fall inside region 𝑍2 and so receives decides 𝑆2 (t)(ie)
binary 1.
To calculate probability of error of first condition,
𝑍1= 0 <𝑥1<1
Where 𝑥1 is the observation scalar.
𝑥 = ∫𝑇 𝑏 𝑥( 𝑡)∅ (t)dt
1 0 1

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥(𝑡) → 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙

Probability density function,

exp[- (𝑥1 -𝑠21 ) 2

1
𝑓𝑥 1( 𝑥1 ) = 1
0 √𝜋 𝑁𝑂
𝑁0

1
𝑓𝑥 1 (𝑥1/0 ) = exp −(𝑥1 + √𝐸𝑏 ) 2 ]
√𝜋𝑁 𝑂

Probability of error,

∞
𝑃𝑒 (0)= ∫0 𝑓𝑥 1 (𝑥1 /0)d𝑥1

𝖺 1
1
= ∫0 𝑒𝑥𝑝[- 𝑁 (𝑥1 + √𝐸 𝑏 )2d𝑥 1
√𝜋 𝑁𝑂 𝑂

Take Z= (𝑥1 +√ 𝐸𝑏 )2

1
𝑃𝑒 (0) = ∫𝐸 (−𝑧2)dz
exp⁡
√𝜋 √ 𝑏
𝑁0

1 𝐸
𝑃𝑒 (0)= erfc( √ 𝑏 )
2 𝑁 0

erfc→complementay error function

simillarly,

1 𝐸
𝑃𝑒 (1) = erfc( √ 𝑏 )
2 𝑁 0

Average Probability of error,

1 𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑒 = erfc(√ )
2 𝑁𝑜
4.3.4 Power Spectrum:

From the generation of BPSK, it is clear that BPSK has only one in-phase
component which is 𝑡𝑔 (t) or –g(t).

2𝐸𝑏
; 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑏
g(t) = √ 𝑇𝑏
0 ; 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒

g(t) → symbol shaping function,

Fig: 4.9 Power Spectra of BPSK Signal

The baseband power spectral density of bpsk wave is

𝑆𝐵 (f) = 2𝐸𝑏 sin𝑐 2 (f𝑇𝑏 )

4. Coherent Binary FSK:

1. Principle:

In binary FSK system, symbols 1 and 0 are represented by two sinusoidal waves that
differ in frequency. It is given as below,

2𝐸𝑏
𝑆 (t) = √ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓1 𝑡 𝑜≤𝑡≤
𝑖 𝑇𝑏 𝑇𝑏
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

i=1,2

𝐸𝑏 → Energy per bit

𝑓𝑖=𝑛 𝑐 +𝑖 𝑛𝑐 →fixed integer

𝑇𝑏

Symbol 1 is represented by 𝑆1 (t) and symbol o by 𝑆2 (t)

2𝐸𝑏
(ie) 𝑆1 (t) = {√ 𝑇𝑏 cos2𝜋𝑓1 t 0 ≤ t≤ 𝑇𝑏
0

2𝐸
𝑏
𝑆2 (t) ={ √ 𝑇𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓1 𝑡 𝑜≤𝑡≤𝑏
𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒

From 1 and 2 we can write the orthonormal basis function,

2
∅𝑗 (t) = √ 𝑇𝑏 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑏
𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒

Where j=1,2

The Co- efficient Sij is given by Sij

𝑇𝑏
𝑆𝑖𝑗 = ∫ 𝑆𝑖 (𝑡)∅𝑖 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
0
 𝑇𝑏 2𝐸𝑏 2
= ∫0 √ 𝐶𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑖 𝑡) √
𝑇𝑏
𝐶𝑜𝑠 (2𝜋𝑓𝑗 𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑏

𝑖=𝑗
Sij = { √𝐸𝑏 (4.9)
0 𝑖≠𝑗

According to equation 4

S11=√𝐸𝑏 S21=0

S12=0 S22=√𝐸𝑏

√0
S1=[ √ 𝐸𝑏 ] S2=[ ] (4.10)
0 √𝐸𝑏

Where S1 and S2 are signal vectors.

Thus a coherent BFSK system has a two dimensional (N=2) Signal space with
two message points (M=2).The message points are defined by signal vectors. The
signal space digram has two regions Z1 and Z2 as in fig

Fig: 4.10 Signal space diagram for coherent BFSK

The observation vector x has two elements

x1 and x2

x1 =∫𝑇 𝑏 𝑥(𝑡)∅ (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 and

0 1

𝑇
x2 =∫0 𝑏 𝑥(𝑡)∅2(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 (4.11)

x(t)->received signal

4.4.2 Decision Rule:

The receiver deceids in favor of symbol 1 if the vector x falls in region Z1 and
the receiver decides ie) x1>x2

in favor of symbol 0 if the vector x falls in region Z2. ie) x1<x2.

At the decision boundary x1=x2

Fig:4.11 BFSK Signal Generator

To generate a binary FSK signal, the input binary sequence m(t) is represented
in on- off form. Symbol is represented by √𝐸𝑏 and symbol 0 by zero volts. An eveter is
used to generate 𝑚(𝑡). Now m(t) is s multiplied by ∅1 (t) and 𝑚(𝑡) is multiplied by ∅2 (t)
ie)
` For symbol 1, the frequency f1 is transmitted to the summer and for symbol 0,
frequency fz is transmitted to the summer,

Now the output of summer is a binary FSK wave. The frequency of modulated wave is
shifted with a continuous phase, So FSK is called as continuous phase frequency shift
keying (CP-FSK)

4.4.3 Detection:

Fig: 4.12 BFSK Detector

The received noisy signal s(t) is given as a common input to two correlators,
Another input to the correlators are the coherent reference signals ∅1 (t) and ∅2 (t). The
correlator outputs are then subtracted to get the value of l.

If l>0, the receiver decides in favor of

ie)x1>x2 1. If l<0 (ie) x1<x2 the receiver decides in favor of binary 0

4.4.4 Probability of error:

Consider a Gaussiaan variable L Whose sample value is l,

l= x1-x2 (4.12)

The mean value of L depends on the binary symbol transmitted,

When symbol 1 was transmitted x1=√𝐸𝑏 , x2=0

E[L/1] = E[X1/1]-[X2/1]

= √𝐸𝑏 -0

=√𝐸𝑏

When symbol 0 was transmitted x1=0, x2=√𝐸𝑏

E[L/0] = E[X1/0]-[X2/0]

=0-√𝐸𝑏

=-√𝐸𝑏

Variance, Var(L) = Var(X1)+ Var(X2)

= 𝑁20 +𝑁20 =N0

Consider symbol 0 was transmitted, the probability density function of random

variable L,

1 −1
FL (l/0)=
√2𝜋𝑁0
exp[2𝑁 (l+√𝐸𝑏 )2]
0

Probability of error when 0 is transmitted,

 𝐷
Pe(0)=∫0 𝑓𝐿(l/0)dl

2
1
= √2𝜋𝑁 ∫∞ 𝑒𝑥𝑝[-(𝑙+√ 𝐸𝑏 ) ]dl
0 0 2𝑁0

(𝑙+√𝐸𝑏 )
Take Z=- 2𝑁0

∞
= 1 ∫ 𝐸𝑏 𝑒𝑥𝑝[−𝑍2]𝑑𝑧
√𝜋 √
2𝑁 0

Pe(0)=1 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 ( √ 𝐸𝑏 )
2 2𝑁0

similarly

Pe(1)=1 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 ( √ 𝐸𝑏 )
2 2𝑁0

Average probability of error,

1 𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑒= 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 ( √ )
2 2𝑁0

4.4.5 Power Spectrum:

A binary FSK signal has two components, an is- phase component and a quadrature
component.

Power spectral density of BFSK is

2
𝐸𝑏 1 1 8𝐸𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜋𝑓 𝑇 𝑏 )
Sb(f)= [𝜕 (𝑓 − ) + 𝜕 (𝑓 + )] + 2
2𝑇 𝑏 2𝑇 𝑏 2𝑇 𝑏 (𝜋 2 4𝑇𝑏2 𝑓 2 −1)
 Fig: 4.13 Power Spectra of BFSK

4.5 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying(QPSK):

𝜋
In QPSK the phase of the carrier takes any one of the four values such as 4

3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋
, and .This is achieved by grouping the input binary sequence into dibits. Each
4 4 4

angle corresponds to a dibit combination.

√ 2𝐸 𝜋 0≤𝑡≤𝑇
Thus 𝑆𝑖 (𝑡) = { 𝑇 𝐶𝑜𝑠 [2𝜋𝑓𝑐 + (2𝑖 + 1) 4 ]
0 elsewhere

(4.13)

where i=1,2,3&4

E→ Energy per bit

𝑛𝑐
𝑓𝑐= 𝑇

nc→ Fixed integer

Eqn1 can be written as

2𝐸 2𝐸
√ [𝑐𝑜𝑠 [(2𝑖 − 1) ] 𝐶𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)] −√
𝜋 𝜋
𝑆𝑖 (𝑡) = { 𝑇 𝑇 [𝑆𝑖𝑛 [(2𝑖 − 1) ] 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 for 0<t<T
4 4
𝑡)]

0 elsewhere

(4..14)

From eqn 2 we write the following observations,

1) There are only orthonormal basis function ie) j=2

2
∅1 (𝑡) = √ 𝐶𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡) 0≤𝑡≤𝑇
𝑇

2
∅2 (𝑡) = √ 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡) 0≤𝑡≤𝑇
𝑇

(4.15)

There are four message points

i==1,2,3,4

j=1,2

𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆31 𝑆32

Sij has the following element ( | )
𝑆21 𝑆22 𝑆41 𝑆42

𝜋
√𝐸 𝐶𝑜𝑠 [(2𝑖 − 1) ]
Signal vector, Si=[ 4
] (4.16)
𝜋
−√𝐸 𝐷𝑖𝑛 [(2𝑖 − 1) 4 ]

Where, i=1,2,3,4..
 Phase of QPSK Co-ordinates of Message points
Input Dibit
signal Si1 Si2

10 𝜋/ +√𝐸/2 −√𝐸/2
4

00 3𝜋/ −√𝐸/2 −√𝐸/2

4

01 5𝜋/ −√𝐸/2 +√𝐸/2

4

11 7𝜋/ +√𝐸/2 +√𝐸/2

4

Table: 4.1 QPSK Input data bits and coordinates

The QPSK signal has a two dimensisonan (N=2)

Signal space with four message points

Fig: 4.14 Signal space diagram for QPSK

`
To realize the decision rule, the signal space is divided into four regions,

1. The set of points closest to the messange point associated with signal vector
S1→ Z1

2. The set of points closest to the message point associated with S2→ Z2
3. The set of points closest to the message point associated with S3→ Z3
4. The set of points closest to the message point associated with S4→ Z4
The received signal x(E) is difened by,
X(t)=s w(t) 0≤ t ≤ T
i=1,2,3,4
w(f)→ White Gaussian noise. The observation vector x of QPSK receive has to
elements x1 and x2
the observation vector x of QPSK receiver has two elements x1 and x2
𝑇
x1 =∫ 𝑥(𝑡)∅ (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 x2= ∫𝑇 𝑥(𝑡)∅ (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
0 1 0 2

4.5.1 Decision rule :

1. Guess S1 (t) was transmitted if vector x falls inside Z1

2. Guess S2 (t) was transmitted if vector x falls inside Z2 and so on:

Fig: 4.15 QPSK Signal
4.5.2 Generation:

Fig: 4.16 QPSK Generation

The input binary wave in represented in polar form. Symbol 1→+√𝐸𝑏 & symbol

0→-√𝐸𝑏 . This wave is divided by means of a demultiplexer into two waves according

to odd & even numbered bits. The wave are represented by 𝑏1 (t) and 𝑏2 (t). These
waves separately modulate ∅1 (t) and ∅2 (t). The result is a pair of binary PSK waves
which are added to produce the desired QPSK wave.

The duration Tb of QPSK wave =2𝑇𝑏

Similarly E=2𝐸𝑏 .

QPSK wave carries twice as many bits of information compared to bpsk

wave.
4.5.3 Detection:

Fig: 4.17 QPSK Detector

The QPSK receiver has a pair of correlators with a common input

and supplied with a pair of coherent signals ∅1 (𝑡)and ∅2 (𝑡). The correlator o/p 𝑥1 and

𝑥2 are given to decision device.

𝑗6 𝑥1 >0, it is a binary 1

𝑗6 𝑥1 <0, it is a binary 0.

Finally the two binary sequences at the in – phase and quadrature o/p are
multiplexed to produce the binary wave.

4.5.4 Probability of Error:

Consider signal S4(t) is transmitted. An error decision will be made if the

received signal vector lies outside Z4 [ie] it may lie in Z1, Z2or Z3. So we calculate the
probability of correct decision.

(ie) probability of x1 and x2 to be positive is given by,

`
 2
𝐸 𝐸
𝖺 1 −(𝑥1−√ )) 𝖺 1 (𝑥2−√ ) 2
2
d 𝑥2
2
𝑝𝑐 = ∫0 √𝜋
exp[− 𝑁0
] 𝑑𝑥1 ∫0 √𝜋𝑁 0
exp 𝑁0

𝐸 𝐸
𝑥1−√ 𝑥2−√
Take Z=
2
= 2
√𝑁0 √𝑁0

2
1 ∫
𝑝𝑐 =[ √𝜋 −√ 𝐸
exp(−𝑧 2)]
2𝑁 0

2
1 𝐸
𝑝𝑐 = [1 − 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐(√ )]
2 2𝑁0

𝐸 𝐸
𝑝𝑐 = ( 1 − erf 2 c√ ) + ¼ (erf 2 c√ )
2𝑁0 2𝑁0

Now,

𝑝𝑐 = 1-𝑝𝑐

𝐸 𝐸
= (1 − erf c√ 2𝑁 ) − ¼ (erf c√ 2𝑁 )
2 2
0 0

The coefficients of the message powl are 𝑎𝑖 √𝐸0 E0 and 𝑏𝑖 √𝐸0 where (𝑎𝑖 , 𝑏𝑖 ) is an
element of the L-by –L matrix, where L=√M => M=L2

(−𝐿 + 1, 𝐿 − 1) (−𝐿 + 3, 𝐿 − 1) … … … . (𝐿 − 1, 𝐿 − 1)
{ai,bi} = (−𝐿 + 1, 𝐿 − 3) (−𝐿 + 3, 𝐿 − 3) … … … . (𝐿 − 1, 𝐿 − 3)
(−𝐿 + 1, −𝐿 + 1) (−𝐿 + 3, −𝐿 + 1) … … (𝐿 − 1, −𝐿 + 1)
4.6 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation, QAM utilises both amplitude and phase

components to provide a form of modulation that is able to provide high levels of
spectrum usage efficiency.

For 16-QAM, M=16

L=√16 =4

00 01 11 10

{ai ,bi} = 00 (-3,3) (-1,3) (1,3) (3,3)

10 (-3,1) (-1,1) (1,1) (3,1)

11 (-3,-1) (-1,-1) (1,-1) (3,-1)

01 (-3,-3) (-1,-3) (1,-3) (3,-3)

Fig: 4.18 Constellation Diagram of 16 - QAM

1. Probability of error:

1) Since the in-phase and quadrature components are independent, the probability
of correct detection is given by,

PC = (1-𝑃𝑒1 )2
 𝑃𝑒1 = Probability of symbol error for either component

1 𝐸
1) 𝑃𝑒1 = (1 − 2) erfc ( √ 𝑁0 )
0

2) Probability of symbol error for M-ary QAM,

𝑃𝑒 = 1- 𝑃𝑐
= 1-(1-pe1)2 = 1-[1-2𝑃𝑒 +2]
𝑃𝑒 = 2𝑃1𝑒

from above

𝑃𝑒 = 2(1-1𝐿) 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 ( √ 𝐸𝑁0 )

0

1 𝐸0
𝑃𝑒 = 2(1- )𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 ( √ ) L=√𝑀
√𝑀 𝑁0

𝑃𝑒 can also be written as

1
𝑃𝑒 =2(1 − ) 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 ( √3𝐸𝑎𝑣
)
√𝑀 2(𝑀−1)𝑛0

Where Eav → Average energy

4.6.2 Generation of QAM:

Fig: 4.19 QAM Generator

 1
The serial – to- parallel converter accepts a binary sequence at a bit rate 𝑅 =
𝑏 𝑇𝑏

and produces two parallel binary sequences whose bit rates are 𝑅𝑏 /2. The 2 to L level
converters [L = √𝑀]generate polar L level signals in response to the respective in-
phase and quadrature channel inputs. The two polar L-level signals are combined to
produce QAM wave.

4.6.3 Detection:

The received signal is decoded to produce L- level signals which are then given
to decision circuit. In this circuit the L- level signals are compared with L-1 decision
thresholds.

Fig: 4.20 QAM Detector

The o/p of two decision circuits are then combined in the parallel –to-serial
converter to produce the original binary sequence.
7. Carrier Synchronization:

The coherent detection of a digitallty modulated signal the receiver be

synchronous to the transmitter. The transmitter and receiver are said to be
synchronous when the events is transmitter and corresponding events in the receiver
occur simultaneously.

The process of making a situation synchronous is called synchronization.

When coherent detection is used. Knowledge of both frequency and phase of

carrier are necessary. The estimation of carrier phase and frequency is called carrier
recovery or carrier synchronization.

*Phase- locked loop (PLL):

In this method, the binary data is modulated by a carrier in such a way that the
power spectrum of the modulated signal contains a discrete component at the carrier
frequency.

PLL is used to track this component. It consists of a VCO, loop filter and
multipller that are connected in the form of a negative feed back system.

Disadvantage:

• The discrete component at the carrier frequency does not conveys any
information. So its transmission is waste of power.

Mth Power Loop:

It is used in M-ary PSK. When M=2, it is called as squaring loop. This method
exhibits phase ambiguity problem.
 Fig: 4.21 Mth Power Loop

In case of BPSK, the squaring loop contains a squaring device at its input end.
Due to this changing the sign of i/p signal does not affects the recovered carrier. So
the squaring loop exhibits a 180• phase ambiguity.

In general squaring loop of M-ary PSK exhibits M phase ambiguities in the

interval (0,2𝜋) .
4.7.1 Costas Loop:

Costas loop includes two paths → in – phase path and quadrature path. The two
paths are coupled together via a common VCO to form a negative feedback system.
When synchronization is achieved the demodulated data appears at the o/p of in –
phase path and corresponding o/p of quadrature path is zero.

Fig: 4.22 Costas Loop

Costas loop also exhibits phase ambiguity problem. In M-ary PSK it exhibits M-
phase ambiguities in the interval (0,2𝜋).

Coherent detection of differentially encoded PSK:

To overcome phase ambiguity problem, the data sequence is differentially

encoded before modulation at the transmitter and differentially decoded after
demodulation in the receiver.

This results in a small degradation of noise performance.

Probability of error for differentially encoded PSK,

 𝐸 𝐸
𝑃𝑒 = erfc ( √ 𝑁𝑏 – ½ erf 2c 𝑁𝑏 )
0 0

So Probability of error in this PSK is equal to that of QPSK.

4.8 Structure of Non – Coherent Receivers:

Non- Coherent Binary FSK:

In binary FSK, the transmitted signal is defined by

2𝐸𝑏
𝑆1 (𝑡) ={ √ 𝑇𝑏 cos (2𝜋𝑓𝑖 𝑡) 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑏
0 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒

Where fi equals one of two possible values𝑓1 & 𝑓2. The transmission of frequency
f1 represents symbol 1 and transmission of frequency f2 represents symbol 0.

For non- coherent detection of FSK, the receiver consists of a pair of matched
filters followed by envelope detectors as in fig.

Fig: 4.23 Structure of Non Coherent FSK

The filter in the upper path of the receiver is matched to √2/Tb cos(2𝜋f 2𝑡) and
0≤ t≤ 𝑇𝑏
 The o/p of envelope detector are sampled at t=𝑇𝑏 and their values are
compased.

If l1>l2, the receiver decides in favour of symbol 1. If l1<l2, the receiver decides in
favour of symbol 0.

`Where l1 and l2 are outputs of envelope detector. The non-coherent binary

FSK is a special ease of non-coherent orthogonal modulation, with

T=𝑇𝑏 and E=𝐸𝑏

Therefore, The average probability of error for non-coherent BFSK is

𝑃𝑒 =1exp(−𝐸𝑏 )
2 2𝑁0

4.9 Principle of DPSK:

DPSK→ Differential phase shift keying

DPSK is non-coherent version of psk. It eliminates the need for a coherent

reference sighnal at the receiver by combining two basic operations at the transmitter.

1) Differential encoding of i/p binary wave &

2) Phase shift keying
Hence the name differential phase shift keying.

In DPSK, to transmit symbol o, the phase of current signal is changed by 180•

and to transmit symbol 1, the phase of current signal is left uncharged. The receiver is
equipped with a capability that it can measure the relative phase diference between
two waveforms during two successive bit intervals.

DPSK is a special form of non-coherent orthogonal modulation when it is

considered over two- bit intervals.
 𝐸𝑏
‫√ﻟ‬ 2 𝑇𝑏
cos(2𝜋fct) 0 ≤ t ≤ 𝑇𝑏
𝑆1 (𝑡) =
❪√ 𝐸𝑏 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡) 𝑇𝑏 ≤ t ≤ 2𝑇𝑏
2𝑇 𝑏

For symbol o, the transmitted signal is

‫ 𝑏𝐸 √ ﻟ‬cos(2𝜋fct) 0 ≤ t ≤ 𝑇𝑏
2𝑇𝑏
𝑆2 (𝑡) =
❪ 𝐸𝑏 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑡 + 𝜋) 𝑇 ≤ t ≤ 2𝑇
√ 𝑏 𝑏
𝗅 2𝑇 𝑏

Where𝑆1 (𝑡) and 𝑆2 (𝑡) are orthogonal.

In DPSK, T=2𝑇𝑏 & E =2𝐸𝑏

Therefore,

1 −𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )
2 𝑁0

4.9.1 Generation & Detection:

The differentially encoded sequence is given by,
dk=d k-1 bk+̅𝑑̅ 𝑘−1
̅𝑏̅ 𝑘

modulo –2
bk→ i/p binary digit at KTb
dk-1 → previous va;ie pf differentially encoded bit
d-k-1 & b-k →logical inversion
 Fig: 4.24 DPSK Transmitter
The transmitter of DPSK consists of a logic network and a one- bit delay
element to convert an i/p binary sequence {bk} into a differentially encoded sequence
dk according to eqn1. This sequence is amplitude level shifted and used to modulate a
carrier wave of frequency fc, and results DPSK wave.

Fig: 4.25 DPSK Receiver

At the receiver BPF is used to remove noise. The filter o/p & a delayed
version of it are applied to correlator. The o/p of correlator is proportional to the cosine
of difference between the carrier phase angles in the two correlator input J6 L> 0,

angle lies between -−𝜋

2
to 𝜋2 and receiver decides a binary 1 and if l<0, angle lies outside
−𝜋
the range 2
to 𝜋2 receiver decides a binary 0.
6.4 Assignment

Unit IV
1. Implement BPSK, BFSK in MATLAB and compute performance comparison of
BPSK and BFSK with respect to Probability of error and Bit Error Rate
Hint: Matlab program is available in net. Students can refer that and make the
comparison and tabulate it.
2. Implement QPSK, QAM u s i n g m a t l a b c o d e a n d c o m p a r e
the performance of both modulation.
 6.5 Part A
Questions & Answers
(Unit-IV)
 UNIT-IV DIGITAL MODULATION SCHEMES
PART – A (Q&A)

Bloom’s
Questions CO’S
Level

1. Define ASK.
In ASK, carrier is switched on when binary 1 is to be
K2 CO4
transmitted and it is switched off when binary D is to be
transmitted ASK is also called on-off keying.

2. What is meant by DPSK?

In DPSK, the input sequence is modified. Let input sequence be
d(t) and output sequence be b(t). Sequence b(t) changes level
at the beginning of each interval in which d(t)=1 and it does not
changes level when d(t)=0. When b(t) changes level, phase of
the carrier is changed. And as stated above, b(t) changes t=its K1 CO4
level only when d(t) =1. This means phase of the carrier is
changed only if d(t)=1. Hence the technique is called
Differential PSK.

3. Explain coherent detection?

In coherent detection, the local carrier generated at the
receiver is phase locked with the carrier at the transmitter. The
detection is done by correlating received noisy signal and locally K2 CO4
generated carrier. The coherent detection is a synchronous
detection.

4. What is the difference between PSK and FSK?

In PSK, phase of the carrier is switched according to input bit
sequence. In FSK frequency of the carrier is switched according K2 CO4
to input bit sequence. FSK needs double of the bandwidth of
PSK.

5. What is meant by coherent ASK?

In coherent ASK, correlation receiver is used to detect the
signal. Locally generated carrier is correlated with incoming ASK
signal. The locally generated carrier is in exact phase with the K1 CO4
transmitted carrier. Coherent ASK is also called as synchronous
ASK.
 Bloom’s
Questions CO’S
Level

6. What is the major advantage of coherent PSK over coherent

ASK?
ASK is on-off signalling, where as the modulated carrier is K2 CO4
continuously transmitted in PSK. Hence peak power requirement
is more ASK, whereas it is reduced in case of PSK

7. Explain the model of bandpass digital data transmission

system?
CO4
The bandpass digital data transmission system consists of K3
source, encoder and modulator in the transmitter. Similarly
receiver, decoder and destination form the transmitter.

8. What is baseband signal receiver?

A baseband signal receiver increases the signal to noise ratio at
CO4
the instant of sampling. This reduces the probability of error. K2
The baseband signal receiver is also called optimum receiver.

9. What is matched filter?

The matched filter is a baseband signal receiver, which works in
presence of white Gaussian noise. The impulse response of the
matched response of the matched filter is matched to the shape K3 CO4
of the input signal.

10. What is the value of maximum signal to noise ratio of the

matched filter?
CO4
When it becomes maximum? Maximum signal to noise ratio is K2
the ratio of energy to psd of white noise. i.e., ρmax = E/ (N0/2)
This maximum value occurs at the end of bit duration i.e. Tb
 Bloom’s
Questions CO’S
Level
11. What is correlator?
Correlator is the coherent receiver. It correlates the received
K2 CO4
noisy signal f(t) with the locally .generated replica of the
unknown signal x(t). It‟ s output is denoted as r(t).
12. On what factor, the error probability of matched filter
depends.
CO4
Error probability is given as Pe = 1/2erfc√E/No. This equation K3
shows that error probability depends only on energy but not on
shape of the signal.
13. Bring out the difference between coherent & non coherent
binary modulation scheme.

A. Coherent detection:
In this method the local carrier generated at the receiver is CO4
phase locked with the carrier at the transmitter. Hence it is K2
called synchronous detection
B. Non coherent detection:
In this method, the receiver carrier need not be phase locked
with transmitter carrier. Hence it is called envelope detection.
14. Write the expression for bit error rate for coherent binary
FSK.
CO4
Bit error rate for coherent binary FSK is given as, Pe = K3
1/2erfc√0.6E/No.

15. Highlight the major difference between a QPSK & MSK

signal.
CO4
K3
MSK signal have continuous phase in all the cases, where as
QPSK has phase shift of π/2 or π.
 Bloom’s
Questions
Level

16. What is the error probability of MSK & DPSK?

Error probability of MSK: Pe = 1/2erfc√E/No. K3 CO4

Error probability of DPSK: Pe = 1/2e -Eb/No

17. List the advantages of Pass band transmission

a. Long distance.
b. Analog channels can be used for transmission.
c.Multiplexing techniques can be used for bandwidth K2 CO4
conservation.
d. Transmission can be done by using wireless channel also.

18. List the requirements of Passband transmission.

a. Maximum data transmission rate.
b. Minimum probability of symbol error. K3 CO4
c. Minimum transmitted power.

19. Draw the Signal Space diagram for BFSK

K3 CO4

20. Draw the Signal Space diagram for QPSK

K3 CO4
6.6 Part B
Questions
(Unit - IV)
 UNIT-IV Digital Modulation Schemes
PART – B (Questions)

Bloom’s
Questions CO’S
Level

1. Describe with diagrams the generation and detection of

coherent BFSK. Explain the probability of error for this K3 CO4
scheme.

2. Explain non coherent detection methods of binary frequency

K3 CO4
shift keying scheme.

3. Explain the generation and detection of binary PSK. Also

K3 CO4
derive the probability of error for PSK.

4. Compare the performance of various coherent and non-

K2 CO4
coherent digital detection systems.

5. Discuss about coherent detection of QPSK and derive its

power spectral density. K2 CO4

6. With constellation diagram, explain the QAM transmitter. Also

K3 CO4
derive its power spectral density.

7. A set of binary data is sent at the rate of Rb = 100 Kbps over

a channel with 60 dB transmission loss and power spectral
density = 10-12 W/Hz at the receiver. Determine the transmitted
power for a bit error probability Pe = 10-3 for the following K3 CO4
modulation schemes.
(i) FSK (ii) PSK
(iii) DPSK (iv) 16 QAM

8. Explain the carrier synchronization methods with block

K2 CO4
diagrams.

9. Briefly discuss about the Non-coherent detection of PSK and

K2 CO4
QPSK

10. Briefly discuss about the principle of DPSK system.

K2 CO4
 6.7 Supportive online
Certification Courses
 NPTEL REFERENCE VIDEO LINKS
(For Extended Learning)

1. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/117/101/117101051/
Topics covered:
1. Introduction to Digital Communication
2. Sampling
3. Quantization
4. Encoding
5. PCM and Delta Modulation
6. Channels and Models
7. Information Theory
8. Digital Modulation Techniques
9. Source Coding
10. Equalizers
11. Channel Coding

2. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/102/108102096/
Topics covered:
All the topics of Unit I to V

3. https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/electrical-engineering-and-computer-science/6-450-
principles-of-digital-communications-i-fall-2006/video-lectures/
Topics covered:
All the topics of Unit I to V

4. http://www.infocobuild.com/education/audio-video-courses/electronics/modern-
digital-communication-iit-kharagpur.html
Topics covered:
All the topics of Unit I to V
 6.8 Real time
Applications in Day to
Day life and to
Industry
A. Implementation of High Order QAM Modulation on SDR

` Nowadays, SDR (software-defined radio) has increasingly occupied a place

in scientific research and teaching with its powerful signal processing capability
and custom ability. XSRP is a development platform which uses an SDR
architecture. In this paper, we develop a wireless real-time audio transmission
system with high order modulation (64QAM) based on XSRP platform. We use
LabVIEW and MATLAB to write the program’s overall framework and functions.
We also analyse the performance of different modulation modes by comparing
the constellations and waveforms of the transmitter and receiver under the real
situation. The results show that high order QAM modulation achieves a good
balance between efficiency and quality..

With the development of communication technologies, the diversification

of service types and the rapid increase in the number of users, the limitation of
bandwidth is becoming more and more obvious. Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation (QAM) is a typical representation solution to improve spectrum
utilization and achieve higher transmission rate [. QAM is a combination of
amplitude and phase keying which increases the frequency spectrum's using
efficiency effectively . So, it is meaningful for us to do detailed research about
it. Software-defined radio (SDR) has increasingly occupied a place in scientific
research and teaching with its powerful signal processing capability and custom
ability. SDR employs definable hardware that we can use different programs to
realize different systems. XSRP is a development platform which uses an SDR
architecture. We use LabVIEW and MATLAB to build the transmission system
and analyse the performance of the high order QAM modulation based on XSRP
platform.
 High-order modulation utilizes the feature of higher bandwidth utilization
by improving the signal-to-noise ratio. In a good environment, by extending the
constellation point density of the modulation constellation, each modulation
symbol can transmit more information bits. For example, in QPSK modulation,
each constellation point can represent 2 bits of information. However, in a
channel with better conditions, the transmission efficiency of QPSK obviously
cannot meet our requirements. When extended to 16QAM modulation, each
sample represents 4 bits of information and then extended to 64QAM
modulation, each sample represents 6 bits of information. The constellation
diagrams of these modulations.

XSRP——Software Defined Radio(SDR) XSRP is a development platform

using an SDR architecture that provides a powerful signal processing platform
and friendly graphical programming. XSRP seamlessly connects the development
software such as MATLAB and LabVIEW to the hardware platform through the
high-speed Ethernet interface, and the simulation data can be sent to the
hardware platform for algorithm verification in real time.

Abundant hardware interface and modular design method for software

enhance the function expansibility and field adaptability of the system. Detailed
parameters of XSRP is shown in “Table 1”. From the application direction, XSRP
can achieve different application directions by replacing different interface
modules. In our implementation, the interface unit uses the RF interface module,
coupled with the corresponding driver and algorithm/protocol package. XSRP can
be programmed to implement various standard wireless transmission
implementations.

Link: https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/1302/2/022095/pdf
 B. QPSK in TTL upconverters

Link: https://nardamiteq.com/docs/SEC03C32.PDF

MITEQ’s high-isolation biphase modulators are useful in quadrature

coupled matched pairs for “Direct On-Carrier” QPSK and QAM applications. The
QPSK modulator is, traditionally, used to apply more information on the RF carrier
because each component (I or Q) biphase modulator acts in quadrature to keep
its information separated while using the same common RF bandwidth. Greater
amounts of information or (bits/symbol) are possible if each quadrature channel
has more than two amplitude states (±1). For example, 16 QAM employs four
amplitude states (±1, ±0.5) in each quadrature channel. However, QAM
modulators and some QPSK modulators (with bandwidth restriction filters) require
a linear amplitude response to insure that each modulation level or “constellation”
remain undistorted. Linear I and Q modulators require that the modulation
envelope be transferred to the RF without distortion or spectral spreading. In
order to accomplish this, an RF or carrier driven QPSK modulator is required with
I and Q inputs of 0 dBm typical and RF +10 dBm.

The higher carrier power level of this operating mode makes carrier to
output (LO-to-RF) isolation especially important so that QPSK phase and
amplitude accuracy is maintained. The model SMC0206LI1CD QPSK modulator is
an example of high-isolation (50 dB LO to RF) mixers driven by the carrier at +16
dBm which achieves ±4°, ±0.4 dB phase and amplitude accuracy with +10 dBm
I/Q inputs.. In many cases, the hardware is identical; but the catalog test data
describes and guarantees either QPSK amplitude/phase accuracy for the
modulation driven units or sideband suppression for the carrier driven units.
Optional data is available in both modes. Many of the QPSK/QAM modulators in
this section of the catalog are wide RF bandwidth units intended for test and

military applications. However, various specialized narrow bandwidth

communication modulators have been supplied in lower cost “drop-in”
configurations including high-isolation even-harmonic (1/2 LO) units such as the
model SML0711M8CDQ with externally combined RF outputs to allow highly
balanced quadrature phase/amplitude accuracy.
Additional Content
(Unit IV)
OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing)

Link: https://www.cablefree.net/wirelesstechnology/ofdm-introduction/

OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) is a form of signal waveform or modulation

that provides some significant advantages for data links.

Accordingly, OFDM, Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing is used for many of the latest wide
bandwidth and high data rate wireless systems including Wi-Fi, cellular telecommunications and
many more.

The fact that OFDM uses a large number of carriers, each carrying low bit rate data,
means that it is very resilient to selective fading, interference, and multipath effects, as well
providing a high degree of spectral efficiency.

`Early systems using OFDM found the processing required for the signal format was
relatively high, but with advances in technology, OFDM presents few problems in terms of the
processing required.

Development of OFDM

The use of OFDM and multicarrier modulation in general has come to the fore in recent
years as it provides an ideal platform for wireless data communications transmissions.

However the concept of OFDM technology was first investigated in the 1960s and 1970s
during research into methods for reducing interference between closely spaced channels. IN
addition to this other requirements needed to achieve error free data transmission in the presence
of interference and selective propagation conditions.

Initially the use of OFDM required large levels of processing and accordingly it was not viable for
general use.
Some of the first systems to adopt OFDM were digital broadcasting - here OFDM was able
to provide a highly reliable form of data transport over a variety of signal path conditions. Once
example was DAB digital radio that was introduced in Europe and other countries. It was
Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation NRK that launched the first service on 1st June 1995. OFDM
was also used for digital television.

Later processing power increased as a result of rising integration levels enabling OFDM to
be considered for the 4G mobile communications systems which started to be deployed from
around 2009. Also OFDM was adopted for Wi-Fi and a variety of other wireless data systems.

What is OFDM?

OFDM is a form of multicarrier modulation. An OFDM signal consists of a number of

closely spaced modulated carriers. When modulation of any form - voice, data, etc. is applied to a
carrier, then sidebands spread out either side. It is necessary for a receiver to be able to receive
the whole signal to be able to successfully demodulate the data. As a result when signals are
transmitted close to one another they must be spaced so
 that the receiver can separate them using a filter and there must be a guard
band between them. This is not the case with OFDM. Although the sidebands from each
carrier overlap, they can still be received without the interference that might be expected
because they are orthogonal to each another. This is achieved by having the carrier
spacing equal to the reciprocal of the symbol period.

Fig: Overview of OFDM

To see how OFDM works, it is necessary to look at the receiver. This acts as a bank of
demodulators, translating each carrier down to DC. The resulting signal is integrated over
the symbol period to regenerate the data from that carrier. The same demodulator also
demodulates the other carriers. As the carrier spacing equal to the reciprocal of the
symbol period means that they will have a whole number of cycles in the symbol period
and their contribution will sum to zero - in other words there is no interference
contribution.

One requirement of the OFDM transmitting and receiving systems is that they must be
linear. Any non-linearity will cause interference between the carriers as a result of inter-
modulation distortion. This will introduce unwanted signals that would cause interference
and impair the orthogonality of the transmission.

In terms of the equipment to be used the high peak to average ratio of multi-carrier
systems such as OFDM requires the RF final amplifier on the output of the transmitter to
be able to handle the peaks whilst the average power is much lower and this leads to
inefficiency. In some systems the peaks are limited. Although this introduces distortion
that results in a higher level of data errors, the system can rely on the error correction to
remove them.
 that the receiver can separate them using a filter and there must be a
guard band between them. This is not the case with OFDM. Although the
sidebands from each carrier overlap, they can still be received without the
interference that might be expected because they are orthogonal to each another.
This is achieved by having the carrier spacing equal to the reciprocal of the
symbol period.

Fig: Overview of OFDM

To see how OFDM works, it is necessary to look at the receiver. This acts
as a bank of demodulators, translating each carrier down to DC. The resulting
signal is integrated over the symbol period to regenerate the data from that
carrier. The same demodulator also demodulates the other carriers. As the carrier
spacing equal to the reciprocal of the symbol period means that they will have a
whole number of cycles in the symbol period and their contribution will sum to
zero - in other words there is no interference contribution.
One requirement of the OFDM transmitting and receiving systems is that
they must be linear. Any non-linearity will cause interference between the carriers
as a result of inter-modulation distortion. This will introduce unwanted signals that
would cause interference and impair the orthogonality of the transmission.
In terms of the equipment to be used the high peak to average ratio of
multi-carrier systems such as OFDM requires the RF final amplifier on the output
of the transmitter to be able to handle the peaks whilst the average power is
much lower and this leads to inefficiency. In some systems the peaks are limited.
Although this introduces distortion that results in a higher level of data errors, the
system can rely on the error correction to remove them.
Key features of OFDM
The OFDM scheme differs from traditional FDM in the following interrelated ways:
Multiple carriers (called subcarriers) carry the information stream

The subcarriers are orthogonal to each other.

A guard interval is added to each symbol to minimize the channel delay spread
and intersymbol interference.
OFDM advantages & disadvantages

OFDM advantages
OFDM has been used in many high data rate wireless systems because of the
many advantages it provides.
Immunity to selective fading: One of the main advantages of OFDM is that
is more resistant to frequency selective fading than single carrier systems because
it divides the overall channel into multiple narrowband signals that are affected
individually as flat fading sub-channels.
Resilience to interference: Interference appearing on a channel may be
bandwidth limited and in this way will not affect all the sub-channels. This means
that not all the data is lost.
Spectrum efficiency: Using close-spaced overlapping sub-carriers, a
significant OFDM advantage is that it makes efficient use of the available
spectrum.
Resilient to ISI: Another advantage of OFDM is that it is very resilient to inter-
symbol and inter-frame interference. This results from the low data rate on each
of the sub-channels.
Resilient to narrow-band effects: Using adequate channel coding and
interleaving it is possible to recover symbols lost due to the frequency selectivity
of the channel and narrow band interference. Not all the data is lost.
Simpler channel equalisation: One of the issues with CDMA systems was the
complexity of the channel equalisation which had to be applied across the whole
channel. An advantage of OFDM is that using multiple sub-channels, the channel
equalization becomes much simpler.
OFDM disadvantages
Whilst OFDM has been widely used, there are still a few disadvantages to its use
which need to be addressed when considering its use.
High peak to average power ratio: An OFDM signal has a noise like
amplitude variation and has a relatively high large dynamic range, or peak to
average power ratio. This impacts the RF amplifier efficiency as the amplifiers
need to be linear and accommodate the large amplitude variations and these
factors mean the amplifier cannot operate with a high efficiency level.
7. ASSESSMENT SCHEDULE
 TEST SCHEDULE
Internal Assessment Test I : 9.09.2023 TO 15.09.2023

Internal Assessment Test II : 26.10.2023 TO 1.11.2023

Model Examination : 15.11.2023 TO 25.11.2023

8. Prescribed Text
Books and Reference
Books
TEXT BOOK:
1. S. Haykin, ―Digital Communications, John Wiley, 2005 (Unit I –V)
2. Sklar B, Digital Communication Fundamentals and Applications,
Pearson Education, 2nd Edition, 2009.
REFERENCES
1. J.G Proakis, Digital Communication, 4th Edition, Tata Mc Graw Hill
Company, 2001.
2. B.P.Lathi, Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems, 3rd
Edition, Oxford University Press 2007.
3. H P Hsu, Schaum, Outline Series -Analog and Digital Communications,
TMH 2006.
4. Roody D, Coolen J, Electronic Communications, PHI, 4th Edition,
2006.
5. 5. Wayne Tomasi - Electronic Communication Systems, Pearson
Education India, 2008

ADDITIONAL REFERENCES
1. Herbert Taub & Donald L Schilling, “Principles of Communication
Systems”, 3rd Edition, Tata McGraw Hill, 2008
2. Bruce Carlson, ”Communication Systems”, 3rd Edition, Tata Mc Graw
Hill.
3. R.P Singh and S.D.Sapre, “Communication Systems – Analog and
Digital”,Tata McGraw Hill, 2nd Edition, 2007.
4. J.G.Proakis, M.Salehi, “Fundamentals of Communication Systems”,
Pearson Education 2006.
5. Couch.L., “Modern Communication Systems”, Pearson, 2001.
6. S. Haykin, “Communication Systems”, John Willy & Sons.
7. A.B. Carlson, “Communication Systems”, Mc-Graw-HW.
8. P Chakrabarti Dhanpat Rai, “Analog Communication Systems”.
9. Taub, Herbert & Schilling, Donald L. “Communication Systems” Tata
McGraw-Hill
10. Carlson, A. Bruce, Crilly, Paul B. & Rutledge, Janet C, “Communication Systems an
Introduction to Signals & Noise in Electrical Communication” , Tata McGraw-Hill.
11. Kennedy, George & Davis, Bernard “Electronic Communication Systems”, 4th
Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill.
12. Singh, R.P. & Sapre, S.D. “Communication Systems: Analog Digital” Tata McGraw-
Hill.
13. Sanjay Sharma, “Communication Systems (Analog and Digital)”, Reprint 2013
Edition , S.K. Kataria & Sons, 2013.
9. MINI PROJECT
 Mini Project List
1. Hand Gesture Controlled Robot using Arduino
https://www.electronicshub.org/hand-gesture-controlled-robot/

2. Wireless AC Power Detector

https://nevonprojects.com/wireless-ac-power-detector-project/

3. MATLAB Code for BPSK Modulation and Demodulation

https://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/80431-binary-phase-
shift-keying-bpsk-modulation-and-demodulation

4. Implementation of GMSK modem using matlab

https://www.mathworks.com/help/comm/ref/comm.gmskmodulator-system-
object.html

5. Implementation of OFDM using Matlab

https://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/25599-ofdm-
trasnmitter-and-receiver-matlab-code

6. Digital Communication Project on 32-QAM

https://www.electronicshub.org/matlab-projects-for-engineering-students/

7. Implementation of Carrier Synchrinization using PLL

https://www.edn.com/using-plls-to-obtain-carrier-synchronization-part-2/
 Thank you

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