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ISTCE 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 982 (2022) 012017 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/982/1/012017

Geopolymer Aggregate Concrete: A review from

fundamentals to developments

K Krishna Bhavani Siram1,2, Dhanya Sathyan3*

1
Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Amrita School of Engineering,
Coimbatore. Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, India, 641112
2
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Mahatma Gandhi Institute of
Technology, Hyderabad, Telangana, India 500075
3
Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Amrita School of Engineering
Coimbatore. Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, India, 641112

*corresponding author, email: [email protected]

Abstract: Aggregates hold almost three-fourths volume of concrete. The tremendous increase
in the growth rate of constructions has further accelerated the demand of aggregates. The
utilization of aggregates to satisfy the demand has led to the inadequacy of aggregates. A
unique method of developing non-conventional aggregates as a substitute of conventional
coarse aggregates can be the justification of the issue. Meanwhile, considerable amount of fly
ash produced from thermal power plants is disposed in landfills and ponds, creating hazard to
the nature. Researchers have focused in utilizing fly ash to produce aggregates through the
process of pelletization. Geopolymerization parameters such as Na 2O content, slope and speed
of disc pelletizer influence the properties of fly ash based pelletized aggregates. The
compressive strength of geopolymer aggregate concrete depicted a higher value than concrete
with conventional aggregates. The objective of this paper is to present the factors affecting the
production of geopolymer aggregate concrete and the properties of these novel aggregate
concrete.
Keywords: Geopolymer aggregate (GPA), pelletization, binder, mechanical properties

1. Introduction
Concrete occupies the first place in the extensive usage of available man-made materials and second
place, after water, in the most consumed source on Earth. Cement, the primary ingredient of concrete,
is leading emitter of Carbon dioxide world-wide [2]. CO2 emissions of cement occur during its
manufacture, of which, the calcination reaction releases about half of the emission and fossil burning,
to attain the high temperature needed for calcinations, emits additional 40% of Carbon dioxide. The
fact is that either the chemical reaction of calcination or the heat requirement arrived by burning fossil
fuels cannot be altered in the cement’s production [7]. Establishment of clinker-free options or partial
replacement of clinker proportion with substitute materials like fly ash can be an alternative to reduce
emissions from cement.
India stands in the third position in the production of coal. The fly ash produced from the
existing 120 thermal power plants is approximately 120-150 million tons [1]. The major concerns with
fly ash is the large land area requirement for dumping fly ash and these ashes contain heavy metals
Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 licence. Any further distribution
of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI.
Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd 1
ISTCE 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 982 (2022) 012017 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/982/1/012017

originated during combustion, which causes toxicity when percolated in to ground water [1]. Hence,
there is a demand to establish substitute building materials with innovative construction techniques,
presenting a suitable solution to ecological balance, at the same time complying functional and
technical specifications of construction.
There is a boom in the urbanization with the rapid growth in population on mother earth.
Hence, there is a necessity to assess and capture global construction market at a rapid pace to
accommodate the growing population [7]. This seriously affects the built environment, by creating
depletion in the supply of resources available for construction. In this urbanization and
industrialization, improvement in technical advancements linked with sustainability to create healthy
environment is the gift we can present to our next generations.
Taking into account the above scenario, the review spotlights state-of-the-art developments
of geopolymer aggregates as a potential technology to replace conventional aggregates, by achieving
sustainability. The most exhaustive research in the area of geopolymers was conducted by Prof. Dr.
Joseph Davidovits, who coined the term Geopolymer in 1979. He has proposed this concept by
utilizing flyash in place of cement but cement takes the lead of binding all materials in concrete
whereas fly ash is not a cementitious material [8]. Hence, he suggested Si and Al ions existing in fly
ash to react with alkaline liquids to establish fly ash as a binder material. This process is said to be
geopolymerization [2]. The alkaline solutions used for this purpose are the combination of sodium
hydroxide and sodium silicate or potassium hydroxide and potassium silicate
Despite the fact that geopolymer binders have no cement content present in it, they are
considered to be novel binders, produced by polymerization of alumino-silicate by alkali activators.
Pozzolanic materials rich in reactive Silica and Alumina such as fly ash, GGBS, metakoalin, rice husk
ash or a combination of these are considered to be the raw materials. The solution of alkaline activator
is a mixture of sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution or potassium silicate
(K2SiO3) and potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution. The Si and Al atoms present in mineral
admixtures get dissolved into the alkaline activator solution [2, 8].
Aggregates occupy about 70% of the concrete’s volume and hence have a vital role in its
contribution to the properties of concrete. Considering the expanding global population and its
constructional needs, the world is running short of aggregates and now is facing the challenge of
producing artificial aggregates to meet the demand of global concrete industry [23, 24].
Pelletization is a known technique to the world, but its usage was mostly restricted to iron,
steel making and agricultural industries because of the resource availability in construction sector. But
now, the usage of this technique is gaining importance recently to overcome the shortage of aggregates
in meeting the demand of aggregates. Research on the manufacture of artificial aggregates utilizing the
by-products from the industry like fly ash, bottom ash etc by agglomeration technique is studied [3].
Artificial aggregates can be produced by clustering fly ash into lumps in a pelletizer and then adopting
hardening methods such as sintering, cold bonding, water curing, autoclaving and steam curing [4].
Among these, sintering is extensively used if fly ash has carbon content ranging between 2-6%. The
other methods, cold bonding and autoclaving are dependent on the presence of binders such as CaO,
irrespective of the carbon content [4]. However, cold bonding method absorbs very less energy in
comparison to the other hardening techniques.
Along with the hardening methods used in producing pellets, the parameters influencing the
pelletization efficiency depends up on the raw materials, binder type, angle of the drum, the speed of
revolution, dosage and duration of pelletization [4-5]. Pellets can be manufactured from drum, disc,
mixer and cone type pelletizers. Among these types, disc type pelletizer is preferable as it is easier to
control distribution of pellet sizes [6]. The inclusion of chemical additives is crucial in the process of
pelletization to improve the aggregate strength [26] and durability properties [10].

2. Significance of the study

The adoption of innovative alternate coarse aggregate in the production of concrete has the promising
capability to reduce the dependence on conventional aggregates as well as utilising the waste disposal
from thermal power plants, reducing its environmental impact on the globe. This review furnishes an
extensive analysis of the updated information starting from initiation of GPA. The paper projects the

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ISTCE 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 982 (2022) 012017 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/982/1/012017

literature and investigations on the key parameters of the pellesting disc, hardening methods, alkali
details, aggregate properties and mechanical properties of GPA for distinct factors.

3. Geopolymerization
Geopolymers are zero-PC binders formed through a polycondensation reaction of alumino-silicate
sources, derived from waste by-products, in alkaline solutions [7, 25, 27]. Geo-polymerization
produces inorganic polymers of 3D network with cross-linked polysialate chains [8]. In the ordinary
Portland cement, calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H) gel is the main binding compound, whereas the
geopolymers are based on the polycondensation (termed as Geo-polymerization) of silica (SiO2) and
alumina (Al2O3) sources in highly alkali environment such as NaOH or KOH solutions [7]. Geo-
polymerization is a process in which silicon, aluminium and oxygen atoms create a chain of SiO4 and
AlO4 four-fold linked alternatively by shared oxygen atoms [8]. Poly-sialate is the term suggested for
the chemical designation of geopolymers based on silica-aluminates [9].

To characterize geopolymers, Davidovitis has formulated the following formula [8]

Mn[– (Si – O2)z – Al – O]n.wH2O
where M represents alkali metal
z = 1, 2 or 3
n represents the degree of polymerization

The following steps are involved in the process of geo-polymerization [7, 8]

1. Alkali Activation: The silicate and aluminate monomers are produced by dissolving activated
alumina-silicate in highly alkaline solution and this activity is said to be alkali activation
2. Polycondensation: The gel phase of alumino-silicate is highly reactive. Considerably fast
chemical reactions occur under alkaline conditions, forming a stable 3D polymeric network
and ring framework of Si-O-Al bonds.
Geopolymer aggregate concrete has similar reaction mechanism as that of geopolymer concrete [10].
The highly alkaline activators react with the silicates and aluminates in low calcium fly ash to produce
an amorphous three-dimensional network of silicon and aluminium atoms linked by oxygen atoms in a
tetrahedral coordination [10].

4. Constituents of Geopolymer Aggregate Concrete:

4.1 Flyash:- Low Calcium Fly ash (Class F) is preferred for preparation of fly ash pellets
Other source materials like GGBS, metakoalin, rice husk ash may also be used to
act as binder materials.
4.2 Alkaline solutions
4.2.1 Sodium Hydroxide:- It is available in the form of pellets or flakes and
is dissolved in one litre of distilled water to attain the required
molarity of sodium hydroxide solution.
4.2.2 Sodium Silicate:- The Sodium silicate solution is available in liquid
form, which is mixed with sodium hydroxide solution in required
ratios, to prepare the alkaline liquid.
This alkaline activator solution should be prepared a day advance before it is used
for casting.
4.3 Water:- Potable tap water
4.4 Super plasticizer: - High range water reducing admixtures such as Sulphonated
Naphthelene formaldehyde based are preferred in improving the workability of the
mix, the dosage of mix is to be finalized based on the trial mixes.

5. Preparation of pelletized GPA

The aggregates grain size distribution may be achieved by any of the two methods mentioned [11]:

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ISTCE 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 982 (2022) 012017 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/982/1/012017

(a) crushing of rock

(b) agglomeration of fines that has cementitious property either by themselves and/or by blending
them with mineral additive.
Agglomeration of moisturized fines in a rotating drum or disc turns out to be the process of
pelletization [11]. Disc pelletizer is the preferred one in the production of geopolymer aggregates.
A review on the following significant parameters influencing the pelletization efficiency is carried out.
(i) Binder - type and percentage,
(ii) Pelletization – disc angle, speed and duration
(iii) Moisture content
(iv) Hardening methods
(v) Alkali information
The following table 1 summarizes the literature review of different authors on the important elements
regulating the production process of geopolymer aggregates. Fly ash is the raw material used in all the
cases considered in table 1.

Table 1: Literature review on the elements influencing pelletization

Author (Year) Type of % of Pelletiz Disc angle Pelletizati- Moisture Alkali Methods
binder binder -er disc of -on content details of
speed Pelletizer duration (%) Hardening
(rpm) (degree) (min)

Baykal and Lime and 8 35-55 20-50 20 29-33 - Cold

Doven (2000) cement bonding
[11]
R.Manikandan, Bentonite 4-14 35-55 35-55 8-16 23-25 - Sintering
K.Ramamurthy
(2007) [12]

R.Manikandan, Kaolinite 4-30 35-55 35-55 8-16 33-35 - Sintering

K.Ramamurthy
(2007) [12]

Gesoglu et.al. Cement 5-20 0-54 30-92 20 23-35 - Cold

(2007) [13] and bonding
GGBS
Anja Terzic Water - 35 40 20 - Water Sintering
et.al (2014) glass, glass and Cold
[14] Na2SiO3 used as bonding
binder is
taken as
Alkali
activator

Gomathi, A GGBS, 30 55 36 15 25 10M of Cold

Sivakumar Bentonite NaOH bonding
(2014) [15] and
Metakaol
-in

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ISTCE 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 982 (2022) 012017 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/982/1/012017

Puput Cement w/c = 60 48 20 - 4M, 6M Cold

Risdanareni 0.5 and 8M bonding
et.al., (2020) of NaOH
[16]
K.N.Shiva Alkaline 5% 40 45 15 18-22 SiO2/ Sintering
Prasad, solution Sodium Na2O =
et al. (2021) Oxide 0.3
[17]
B. P. Sharath GGBS 10-50 13-15 45 12-18 13-15 3.5 - 5% Sintering
and B. B. Das of mass
(2021) [18] of flyash

The outline of the table-1 reveals that irrespective of the hardening methods adopted, type of binder
and percentage of binder content used in the production of GPA concrete, for a moisture content of 13
to 35%, the pelletization speed was in the range of 35-60 rpm with its angle of pelletizer ranging
between 35 to 55 degrees. The duration of the pelletizing process is 8 to 22 min.

Even before the pelletized aggregates are used in production of concrete, it is essential to test the
aggregate characteristics of GPA. These aggregate characteristics are to be verified with conventional
aggregate as well of Indian Standard codal provisions and then should be used in GPA concrete
production if the results are satisfactory. A review of literature on the properties of geopolymer
aggregates is done and presented as follows in table 2

Table 2: Literature review on the characteristics of geopolymer aggregates

Author (Year) Source Aggregate Aggregate Water Bulk Specific
Materials Impact Crushing Absorption density gravity
Value Resistance (%) (kg/m3)
(%) (%)
P.Priyadharshini Flyash based 25.4 22.7 13.23 1247 2.12
et.al (2011) [19] aggregate
P.Gomathi, Flyash and 38.00 17.62 17.86 987.89 1.80
A.Sivakumar Metakoalin
(2014) [15] based
aggregate

P.Gomathi, Flyash and 31.96 22.81 13.01 1001.56 1.68

A.Sivakumar GGBS based
(2014) [15] aggregate

Shivaprasad K Geopolymer 23.60 27.30 9.80 1200 1.95

et.al, (2019)[20] aggregate
Kolimi Flyash, 15.2 49.3 12.5 957.6 2.64
Shaiksha Vali Hydrated
et. al., (2019) lime, Steel
[21] slag and
Nano-Silica
of 0.5%

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 ISTCE 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 982 (2022) 012017 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/982/1/012017

Puput Flyash based - 62.8+0.7 23.23+1.14 2146.2 -

Risdanareni LWA
et.al., (2020)
[16]
B. P. Sharath Fly ash and 25.30 24.40 9-12 Relative -
and B. B. Das Iron Ore density
(2021) [18] Trailings 2.3-2.5
aggregate

The bulk density of the aggregate is mostly in the range of 900 to 1200 kg/m3, which classifies GPA
under light weight aggregate. For this range of bulk density, the aggregate impact value ranged from
23 to 38% while the aggregate crushing resistance showed considerable variation between 17% and
49% for different literatures. The water absorption portrays the durability property of aggregates
which speaks about the water penetration into the pores of concrete [28]. Researchers reported the
water absorption of pelletised aggregates from 9% to 24% and this is dependent on composition of raw
material and methods of hardening [29].

Based on the previous available literatures, the linkage between the varability of parameters and its
influence on the results have been investigated and reported in table -3. The source of materials used
in the production of GPA and the parameter of variation have been focussed and their influence on the
mechanical properties of GPA along with the primary findings of the study have been investigated.
These mechanical properties considered in this survey include the dry sensity, compressive strength
and the flexural strength of GPA.

Table- 3 Literature review on the influence of variables on the mechanical properties of GPA
Author Type Parameter Variability Dry Compressive Flexural Investigation
of information density Strength -28 Strength results
variation (kg/m3) days (MPa) (MPa)
Baykal and Fly ash + 1.Fly ash The
Doven Cement / Blend type 2.Flyash+8%Cem – 28-32.7 15-20 combination
(2000) [11] Lime 3.Flyash+8%Lime of fly ash
with lime
yielded
maximum
compressive
and flexural
strengths
Gesoglu Fly ash Fly ash Specific gravity – Maximum – Fly ash with
et.al. properties 2.31 – 2.56 value is low specific
(2007) [13] Specific surface 60MPa gravity has
area 3206 – 3928 better
cm2/g compressive
strength
Gesoglu Fly ash + Blend % Three 1976 – 16 – 43 – Max. 28 day
et al. 2012 GGBS+ of fly ash, combinations 2099 compressive
[22] Cement GGBS and 1.Cem+GGBS strength =
Cement 2.Cem+flyash 43 MPa @
3.Cem+GGBS + 40%GGBS +
fly ash 40% Fly ash
+ 20% Cem

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 ISTCE 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 982 (2022) 012017 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/982/1/012017

P.Gomathi, Fly ash + Curing Normal curing & 1862 – 31.98 4.33 Oven curing
et al., GGBS Hot air over 2195 25.40 @Oven is optimum
(2014) [15] curing @ 1000C curing due to
3.61 @ improvement
Normal in strength
curing properties
Chamila Fly ash + Cylindrical Dia – 20 to 34mm 2134 – 30 – 35.6 4.33- 34 × 38 mm2
Gunasekara Koalin specimen Height 12–38 mm 2164 4.75 (dia. × ht.) &
et al. size and Pressure – 6.37 to Pressure 6.87
(2018) [10] pressure 6.87MPa MPa is
applied optimum
T. Udhaya Fly ash + Height of Height – 150 to – 37.1 – 37.4 3.86 150×300mm2
Kumar GGBS + specimen 300 mm & Pressure
et al. Metakoalin 6.78 MPa is
(2020) [7] optimum
Puput Molarity 4M, 6M and 8M 2097 – Maximum – 6M-optimum
Risdanareni of 2205 64MPa @ due to higher
et al. activator 8M crushing
(2020) [17] resistance &
reduction in
macropores

6. Durability aspects of GPA

Durability of concrete refers to the satisfactory performance of concrete under exposure to different
environmental conditions. The deterioration caused under aggressive environments, chemical attack,
weathering actions lead to the reduced service life of the structure. A durable concrete must be capable
of resisting deterioration caused by the above factors, while maintaining the strength aspects. Hence,
there is a need to investigate the durability criteria along with the strength conditions. There is
considerable amount of research done in geopolymer concrete however, the investigations on
geopolymer aggregate concrete is limited. Chamila Gunasekara et al., have studied permeability and
suggested that low values of permeability of water and air indicated dense pore concrete with GPA
[10]. The study also revealed that GPA concrete is free from large voids or cracks [10].

7. Future Scope of work

The mix design of geopolymer is still not included in the Indian Standard codal provisions, and hence
there is a need to understand the concept of geo-polymerization at a deeper level. Though the
durability studies of geopolymer concrete is available, these durability studies of GPA concrete is
limited and hence continual research in the area of durability studies of GPA concrete is essential.
Research on the long-term behaviour can be a vital point of research to understand the performance of
GPA concrete

8. Conclusion
The technology of geopolymer aggregate is gaining importance due to the depletion of the availability
of conventional coarse aggregates. Though geopolymer technology has a long history, production of
aggregates with this technology has picked up its considerable research from a decade. Production of
geopolymer aggregates with fly ash or GGBS would lead to longstanding protection of environment,
at the same time improving the properties from an early age. This concept of GPA is a promising
technology over conventional aggregates for the further generations. The review of literature reveals
that GPA has better aggregate properties like crushing resistance, impact value and reduced porosity.
GPA concrete has established better mechanical properties with various combinations of pozzolana,

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ISTCE 2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 982 (2022) 012017 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/982/1/012017

different activator molarities, curing conditions. The optimum angle for disc pelletizer to produce
good quality of fly-ash aggregates is found to be 450. The bulk density being mostly in the range of
900-1200 kg/m3 terms GPA as light weight aggregates. The aggregate impact value recorded its value
less than the limiting value of 45%, however, the crushing resistance has exceeded its limiting value of
45% in few literatures. There is a need to verify and investigate the reasons for this and focus on the
improvement methods by varying different parameters. There is a need to continue the investigations
of GPA as there are several unknown gaps regarding raw materials, fresh and hardened properties and
chemical attacks.

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