C-4 Hydro-electric power plant

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The hydroelectric or the hydel power plants, generate power using the potential energy of water
available on earth's surface. The rain water collected at different altitudes on the earth's surface
has potential energy with respect to the level of the oceans towards which the water flows. This
energy of the rain water is utilised to drive hydraulic turbines, and in turn to run electric
generators and produce electrical energy. The hydel power developed depends on the head of
water and the quantity of natural rainfall. Generally, reservoirs are constructed to collect the
natural rain and used to generate power throughout the year. Thus the reservoir area, which is a
measure of the water collected and the height of the dam, which is the measure of the head of the
water are two important factors. However, the quantity of water available depends upon the
hydrological cycle and the total rain-fall received by the area in which the power plant is located.

Hydrographs

It is a graph representing the discharge of flowing water with respect to time for a specific
period. The time axis may have units of hour, day, week or month. The discharge units may be
m3/sec, km2-cm/hr or day-second-metre. Discharge hydrographs are also known as flood or
run-off hydrographs) Fig. 4-5 shows typical hydrographs or discharge curves based on daily,
monthly and yearly flows.

Uses of a Hydrographs

A hydrograph is useful to determine a number of parameters, such as:

1) Rate of flow at any instant during the specific recorded period.

2) Total volume of flow in a given period, as the area under the hydrograph represents the
volume of water in a given duration.

3) The mean annual run-off for any of the recorded period.

4) The maximum and minimum run-off for any selected period

5) The maximum rate of run-off during the floods and duration of frequency of floods (peak of
the curve indicates the flood)
 Fig. 4-5. Hydrographs or discharge curves

Unit Hydrograph

A unit hydrograph is a hydrograph with a volume of 1 cm of run-off resulting from a rainfall of

specified duration and a real pattern, which is constructed using the hydrograph data. The theory
of unit hydrograph was introduced by Sherman. He indicated that the time base is common to all
hydrographs resulting from rainfalls of a given duration. When the rainfall distribution is similar
with respect to time and area, then the ordinate of each hydrograph will be proportional to the
volume of run-off.

Limitations to the use of unit hydrograph are:

1) The rainfall distribution varies from one area to another. Hence, the use of unit hydrograph is
limited area of basin of about 5000 sq. km.

2) For long and narrow basins, and odd shaped basins the rainfall distribution is not even, hence
unit hydrograph is not suitable.

4.1.5 Flow Duration Curve

This is another useful graphical representation of the run-off for a given period. The run-off data
on the ordinate against the corresponding percentage of time on the abscissa represents a Flow
Duration Curve. The area under the curve represents the average yield from the stream.

Fig. 4-6 shows a typical flow duration curve. the flow may be expressed as m3/sec/ week or any
other convenient unit of time When the available head of water is known, then the total energy of
flow can be computed. Thus by flow duration curve it is possible to estimate the total power
available at the site. A flow duration curve can be used to determine the minimum and maximum
conditions of flow of water. If the magnitude on the ordinate is the estimated power contained in
the stream flow against the corresponding percentage of time on the abscissa, then the curve is
known as Power Duration Curve.

4.1.7 Selection of Site for Hydel Plants

There are many factors that are to be considered while selecting site for a hydel power plant. The
important factors are as follows:

1) Availability of Water. The site selected should be such that requisite quantity of water is be
available throughout the year for economical generation of power. To estimate the availability of
water, geographical, meteorological and geological investigations of the site are to be
carried-out. Previous records of rainfall of the particular area are to be studied. If needed, aerial
and ground survey can be conducted. Stream flow rate, minimum and maximum quantity of
water available in a year is to be estimated.

2) Storage of Water. The site selected should have good storage capacity, sufficient enough to
use for a full year. This depends upon the reservoir capacity and the catchment area. It is always
intended to store water enough to use even during dry periods, to the extent possible.

3) Head of Water. Head of water is the highest level of water at the upstream from where water
flows down for power generation. Higher the head available, lesser the quantity of water required
for a known power output and hence, lesser is the storage requirement. Power generated depends
mainly on the head of water available, which is seen from the relation,

Where, m = discharge or rate of water flow, kg/sec.

H = head of water, m

g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2

η= efficiency of the prime mover and generator (about 0.8 to 0.9)

Hence, the site selected should give the highest head of water.

4) Ground Water Data. It is an important factor to be considered, since it decides the stability
of the ground at the reservoir and dam construction area. It is essential to select a site which has
lesser ground water movement, as it provides a solid reservoir base and also seepage will be
minimum. A strong reservoir base also helps in reducing the foundation costs for the darn
construction.

5) Distance from the Load Centre.

It is always essential that the site selected should be as nearer as possible to the load centre.
Increased distances lead to increased power transmission costs and higher transmission losses.
Other factors to be considered in the selection of a good site are the easy accessibility to the site
by road and/or rail, cheap cost of the land and the availability of non-polluted, clean water for
power generation.

4.1.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydel Plants

Advantages

1) Operating cost of the plant including auxiliaries is low.

2) The maintenance of the plant is comparatively less.

3) Less labour is required to operate the plant.

4) No nuisance of smoke, exhaust gases, soot and other pollution.

5) The sites of hydel plants are usually away from the developed areas and hence the land is very
cheap.

6) Load fluctuations can be met rapidly without loss of efficiency.

7) There are no stand-by losses.

8) Since no fuel used, there are no problems of handling, charging and disposal.

Disadvantages

1) Initial cost of the plant including the cost of dam is very high.

2) The feasibility of a hydel plant depends mainly on the availability of water and hence the
natural phenomenon of rain and thus the problems of stopping the plant may arise during dry
seasons.
3) Usually the sites will be away from the load centres, which causes loss of power and high
costs in transmission lines.

4) It takes considerably long time for erection compared to the erection of thermal plants.

4.2 CLASSIFICATION OF HYDEL PLANTS

Hydel power plants can be classified as follows:-

1. Quantity of water available

a) Run-off river plants without pondage

b) Run-off river plants with pondage

c) Pumped storage plant

2. Head of water

a) Low head plant b) Medium head plant c) High head plant.

3. Nature of load

a) Base load plant b) Peak load plant

4. Capacity of plant

a) Low capacity plant (100-999 kW)

b) Medium capacity plant (1 MW-10 MW)

c) High capacity plant (above 10 MW)

4.2.1 Run-off River Plants without Pondage

In such plants water is not stored, but only the running water is used for power
generation. In such power plants the power generated directly depends upon the rate of flow
available. Hence, during rainy seasons some excess quantity of water may run waste without
doing any power generation. During dry periods the power production will be very poor, since
the water flow rate will be low.

4.2.2 Run-off River Plants with Pondage

In such plants, the excess water available during rainy seasons is stored in the reservoirs. The
plant works with the normal run-off during the rainy season, while the stored water from the
reservoir is utilised to supplement the low flow rate during dry periods. Power production will
not be affected by the dry seasons. Hence, plants with pondage can generate a constant rate of
power through out the year. If Pumped Storage Plants Such plants are most suitable for supplying
sudden peak load requirements. However, such demands can be met only for a short duration. In
the normal operation they can meet the average demand only.

Fig. 4-8. Pumped storage plant

Fig. 4-8 shows the schematic of a pumped storage plant. Such type of plant consists of two
storage reservoirs. The upstream reservoir is the main (head race) storage reservoir to which
water flows from the catchment area. The second reservoir is the down stream (tail race)
reservoir, in which the used water from the upstream is collected.

The water in the down stream reservoir is pumped back to the main upstream reservoir,
during off peak periods. This facilitates making use of the excess water during peak hours. A
pumped storage plant is a peak load plant and operates in combination with other base load
plants such as a thermal power plant. The off peak load capacity of the thermal plant is used for
pumping water from the down stream reservoir to the main upstream reservoir. The schematic
arrangement of pumped storage plant operating along with a thermal plant to meet the peak load
demands, is shown in Fig. 4-9.

Advantages of Pumped Storage Plants

1) Compared to peak load plants, the initial cost of this plant is low.

2) The power plant operation is flexible, since it can operate both as peak load and base load
plant.
3) Such plant can meet sudden peak hour demands, and is highly reliable in operation.

4) Since they operate at higher load factors, the overall efficiency of the plant is high.

Fig. 4-9. Pumped storage plant for peak load

4.2.4 Storage and Pondage

Storage plants are the plants with facilities for storing water at their sites. However, often such
plants cannot store as much water as required for the full year operation. For continuous
operation, it is always preferred to have one or more reservoirs upstream. Depending upon the
place of storage and the function, the reservoirs are grouped as storage and pondage.

Storage: Storage can be defined as the collection of a large quantity of run-off during
mansoon seasons, which is essentially used in the dry seasons for the plant operation. This is the
main or the upstream reservoir, made by the construction of a dam across the stream (Fig. 4-10).
 Fig.4-10. Storage reservoir based hydel plant

Pondage: It is defined as a regulating means of water, and is a small reservoir that is used for the
collection of the excess flow water from the dam spill ways of the main reservoir or from the
river stream. It is basically a small pond or reservoir just behind the power house (Fig. 4-11).

Fig. 4-11. Pondage reservoir based hydel plant

The amount of regulation obtained with pondage usually involves storing water during
low loads (during low power demand periods such as early morning hours and Sundays) to aid
carrying peak loads during the week. The water that would go over the dam spill-way unused
during low-loads can be released and added to normal river flow to supply peak loads, usually
for a few hours of duration. For fluctuating loads, pondage increases the maximum capacity that
a plant can carry.

Plants with reservoirs upstream can store excess water of spring floods for release during
summer to supplement the low rates of flow during this dry season. Reservoir water elevation
will generally be lowest during the year at the end of the summer.

Pondage increases the capacity of a river for a brief period only, like for a week. But, _
storage increases the capacity of a river over an extended period such, like 6 months to 2 years.

4.2.5 Low Head Hydel Plant hydel plant

Hydel Plant with a water head of less than50 meter is termed &low head plant (the such plants, a
small dam is constructed across a river to obtain the necessary water head:, The excess water is
allowed to over the dam, while the water head is made use to run a hydraulic turbine. The water
from the dam is taken through a canal to the turbine. For low head plants Francis or Kaplan
turbines are used. There is no water hammer problem in such plants, hence no, surge tank is
provided in the water line. The schematic arrangement of a typical low head hydel plant is shown
in Fig. 4-12.
 Fig. 4-12. Low head hydel plant

4.2.6 Medium Head Hydel Plant

A hvdel with a water head of in the range of 50 to 100 meters is termed a medium head plant. In
this, the water is stored in a main reservoir. This water is allowed to a small pond or forebay
through a canal. The water from the forebay is taken to the turbine through penstock. In such
plants the forebay itself acts as the surge tank, and hence receives the excess water during the
low demand periods. Francis turbine is most suitable for medium head hydel plant. The
schematic arrangement of a typical medium head by n Fig. 4-13.

Fig. 4-13. Medium head hydel plant

4.2.7 High Head Hydel

Plant hydel plant with a water head of more than 100 meters is termed a high head plant. In this
case, the water from the main reservoir is carried through tunnels up to the surge tank, ord.
Where it is taken through the penstock. Since the water head is very high, the effect of water
hammer is too severe in such plants. Thus, it is essential to provide a surge tank in the water line
at appropriate location. The surge tank takes care of the increasing and decreasing water levels
during the low-demand and high demand periods, respectively. The Francis and Pelton wheel
turbines are most suitable for high head plants. A typical high head hydel power plant is shown
in Fig. 4-14.

Fig. 4-14. High Head Hydel

4.3 GENERAL LAYOUT OF A HYDEL PLANT

Fig. 4-15 shows the general layout of a storage type hydel power plant with necessary
components and protective devices. The main components of a storage type hydel power plant
arc as follows:

1. Catchment area

2. Storage Reservoir

3. Dam

4. Penstock

5. Forebay

6. Power house

7. Draft tube

8. Trash rack
 9. Spill way

10. Surge tank

The last three units are the protective devices, which help in the safe functioning of the
hydel plant.

Fig. 4-15. General layout of a hydel power plant

The different components and their functions are briefly discussed below.

1. Catchment Area: The complete area around the reservoir, around the river and the river
basins near the reservoir is termed the catchment area. A larger catchment area results in better
run-off into the reservoir. The reservoir capacity and the dam size are dependent on the size of
the catchment area and the intensity of the rainfall.

2. Reservoir: The main purpose of reservoir is to store water during rainy season and supply the
same during dry season. The reservoir is located at a region of heavy rain fall, with sufficient
catchment area. 3. Dam: The function of a dam is to increase the height of water level behind it,
hence to increase the reservoir capacity. The -darn also helps to increase the working head of the
power plant.

4. Trash Racks: The water intakes from the dam or from the forebay are provided With trash
racks to prevent the entry of debris. The debris if allowed may damage the wicket gates and
turbine runners, or choke-up the nozzles of the impulse turbine, thus hampering the plant
operation. If the winter is severe, arrangements to heat the trash racks by electrical means are
made to prevent the clinging of ice around it. Sometimes bubbling arrangement is made near the
trash racks, which brings them in contact with warm water and minimises the icing problem.

5. Forebay: It serves as a regulating reservoir and temporary storage pond. It receives the excess
water when the load on the plant is reduced and provides water for initial increment of an
increasing load, while the water in the canal is being accelerated. Thus, forebay is a naturally
provided storage which is able to absorb the flow variations. This can also be considered as the
naturally provided surge tank as it performs the work of a surge tank.

6. Surge Tank: It is a protective device connected to the penstock. Its function is to protect
penstock against water hammer effects during low demand periods and avoid vacuum effect
during high demand periods. It achieves this by stabilizing the velocity and pressure in the
penstock.

7. Penstock: A pipe between the surge tank and prime mover is known as penstock. The
structural design of a penstock is same as other pipes, except for that it is made stronger inside,
to withstand high pressures caused by water hammer during load fluctuations. Penstocks are
usually made of steel through reinforced concrete. Penstocks are equipped with head gates at the
inlet which can be closed during repair of the penstocks. In very cold weather conditions, it is
better to bury the penstock to prevent the ice formation in the pipe and to reduce to number of
expansion joints required.

8. Spillway: It is considered as a safety valve of a clam. It must have the capacity to discharge
major floods without damage to the dam and at same time keeps the reservoir level below some
predetermined maximum level.

9. Power House / Prime Mover: Power house is the place where prime mover is run and
electric power is generated. The main purpose of the prime mover is to convert the kinetic energy
of water into the mechanical energy to produce electric current. These are Pelton, Kaplan and
Francis turbines.

10. Draft Tube: This essential part of reaction turbine installation. It supplements the action of
the runner by utilizing most of the remaining kinetic energy of the water at the discharged end of
the runner.

4.4.2 Spillways

It is a safety device constructed with the dam. It functions when the dam faces flood
problems. If allows the passage of excess water from the reservoir, whenever the level raises
above the predetermined safer level, thus avoiding the damage to the darn. The different types of
spill ways are:
 1) Ogee Spillway: Fig. 4-17a shows a ogee spillway. It is the crust of the dam, designed
in such a way that, whenever the reservoir level reaches the safe limit the water starts flowing
out. This is the simplest spillway and widely used for concrete dams.

2) Chute Spillway: A chute spillway is shown in Fig. 4-17b. In this type of spillway, the
excess water during floods flows-out of the dam and gets discharged through concrete channels
constructed along the sloping dam as shown in figure. This type of spillway is suitable for
earthen dams.

3) Shaft Spillway: Fig. 4-17c shows a shaft spillway. In this, water flows through a
horizontal tunnel to the penstock from the reservoir. In the dam a vertical shaft is constructed
connecting the horizontal tunnel. Whenever the water level exceeds the safe limit, excess water
starts flowing through the vertical shaft as shown in figure.

4) Siphon Spillway: Fig. 4-17d shows a siphon spillway. When the water level reaches
A-A the siphon starts working and siphons out water up to B-B. This type is suitable for small
capacity reservoirs.

Fig. 4-17. Spillways

4.4.3 Penstocks

Penstocks are the pipelines that connects between the water source (such as the reservoir,
forebay, water way) and the hydraulic turbine. These are usually large circular pipes with
diameters ranging form 1 meter to 8 meters. Penstocks are usually made of steel or concrete
pipes.

Care should be taken to keep the entry to the penstock at the dam or the forebay at a low
level, submerged always under the water. If the entry is open to air, it may take air along and
create aeration prob1lAms in the prime mover, thus affecting the performance.

The penstocks should be laid in such a way that there are no sharp bends. Sharp bends
cause frictional losses and reduce the effective water head. Generally penstocks are exposed
type, since they are economical and easy to repair and maintain. However, covered penstocks can
be used when the regions are prone to sliding rocks, snow, earth and such dangers, so as to avoid
damage to the pipe line.

4.4.4 Water Hammer - Surge Tanks

Whenever there is a sudden fall in the demand, the governor closes the penstock valve to a
minimum. This sudden closure of the valve increases the pressure inside the penstock due to the
kinetic energy of the water which is high enough to damage the penstock pipe. This effect is
termed Water Hammer. Also, whenever there is a sudden rise in the load demand the gates are
opened instantly by the governor, thereby creating vacuum in the penstock pipe. This causes to
bubbling and foaming action. This leads to operational problems in the turbine. These problems
can be overcome by providing a surge tank in the penstock line. Basically, a surge tank is a
cylindrical Open top storage unit, which connected to the penstock line and located very close to
the turbine.

Function of Surge Tank

During the normal demand/flow periods, the turbine gates are open to normal position,
since there are no fluctuations in the water level in the surge tank. The normal water level in the
surge tank is always lower than that of the basic reservoir level. This is due to the head loss due
to the frictional losses in the flow line. It is shown as level A in Fig. 4-18. During low demand
periods, the turbine gates are closed partly and water flow is reduced to keep the turbine speed
constant. Due to sudden closure of the flow path, the flowing water in the penstock comes to a
halt thereby building pressure in the line. If there is no surge tank this creates a water hammer in
the penstock and may cause damage to the pipe line. With the surge tank present in the line, this
sudden stoppage of water flow results in an increase in the level in the surge tank (level B, as
shown in figure). This causes a retarding head and reduces the velocity of water in the penstock
thereby avoiding water hammer effect.
 Fig. 4-18. Function of a surge tank

Similarly, when the demand is normal, the gate is opened to the normal position, so that
the flow velocity on the penstock reaches the normal value. For this, the required water is
supplied by the surge tank, and the water level in the surge tank suddenly reduces and fluctuates
up and down till its motio7n is damped down by friction.

When there is a sudden rise in the load, additional water required is supplied by the surge
tank thus avoiding the possibility of vacuum formation in the penstock. During this the water
level suddenly drops down below the normal as the water excess water is supplied by the surge
tank. This is indicated as level C in Fig. 4-18.

Types of Surge Tanks

Different types of surge tanks are used in the power plants depending upon the design and
topographical requirements. Some important types of surge tanks are as follows:

a) Cylindrical Surge tank

This is the simplest design. It is simply a plain cylindrical tank connected to the penstock line
through a short connecting conduit (Fig. 4-19a). The tank size is kept to a level so as to maintain
a stable flow to the turbine, and minimum fluctuations in the water level. However, this design is
not a common design due to its slow response to demands and also it is expensive. This is not a
commonly used design in hydel plants.
 Fig. 4-19. Types of surge tanks

b) Conical Surge tank

It is a conical shaped vessel connected to the penstock (Fig. 419b). it is a better design
than the cylindrical surge tank. Since it has an increasing area of cross section, it can handle the
water fluctuations more effectively. Also, it has a considerably faster response to load
fluctuations.

c) Spillway type Surge tank

This is a closed cylindrical vessel with a bell mouth spill way connected to it (Fig. 4 19c).
The tank is designed to meet the water demand from the stock available in it, while the excess
water during low demand periods over flows out of the surge tank through the spill way,

d) Differential Surge tank

This is cylindrical tank with a central riser with small ports at the lower end (Fig. 4-19d). Water
movement in the tank is through the ports. It responds effectively to the variations in load
demands, and also the oscillations in the wafer level are minimal.

e) Gallery type Surge tank

This is special surge tank design. It has two separate water galleries (Fig. 4-19e). The upper
gallery stores the water when the load on the turbine drops, while the lower gallery supplies
water when there is a sudden increase on the turbine load.

t) Inclined Cylindrical Surge tank

This is a cylindrical tank inclined at some angle q (Fig. 4-19f). With this inclination the effective
area of water surface increase by an amount cosec q. Hence, the actual height of the surge tank
can be reduced. Due to increased water area, this surge tank can respond faster to load variations
than the simple cylindrical design. However, its construction is difficult, expensive and preferred
only when the topographical situations demand for such requirements.

4.4.5 Draft Tubes

Draft tube is an integral part of the reaction turbine, which connects the runner exit to the tail
race. It can be a metallic or concrete pipe having gradually increasing cross section towards the
outlet to ensure that as little energy as possible is left in water as it discharges into the tail race.
The area of the draft tube at the top is circular and same as that of the turbine outlet, so that
shock and aeration problems are minimum. Draft tube provides a negative suction head at the
runner outlet by which it is possible to install the turbine above the tail race level without any
loss of head. Since the velocity of the water leaving the runner is quite high, the kinetic energy
will be lost if water is allowed to discharge freely. The draft tube reduces outlet velocity and
increases the useful pressure head thereby increasing the turbine output. The different types of
draft tubes used in hydel plants are illustrated schematically in Fig. 4-20.

1) Straight divergent tube (Fig. 4-20a), is used in low specific speed vertical shaft Francis
turbines. It has a circular inlet and rectangular outlet. The cone angle should be less than 8° for
optimum turbine performance. It gives a better speed regulation when the turbine load drops
down.

2) Moody spreading tube (Fig. 4-20b) has two split section at the outlet. This section
reduces the whirl action of water flowing at high velocity.

3) Simple elbow tube (Fig. 4-20c) has circular cross section throughout.

4) Elbow type draft tube has a circular inlet and a rectangular outlet (Fig. 4-20d) .
 Fig. 4-20. Types of draft tubes

Example: At a particular site, the mean monthly discharge is as follows:

Month Discharge,m3/s Month Discharge,m3/s

January 100 July 1000
February 225 August 1200
March 300 September 900
April 600 October 600
May 750 November 400
June 800 December 200

From the given monthly flow data, the hydrograph is drawn as shown in Fig. a. Total flow is 7075
m3/s, and the average flow is 589.6 m3/s. To draw the flow duration curve, we have to compute the
maximum periods for which each of the discharges are available, and the % of time for each flow.
This is done as shown in the table below. In the table, column (a) lists the given discharge rates,
column (b) gives the maximum length of time of the discharge availability, and column (c) computes
the % of time of availability.
 Discharge, m3/s (c) % of time =b/12 x
(a) Length of time, months 100
(b)

100 12 100

200 11 91.7

225 10 83.33

300 9 75

400 8 66.7

600 7 58.3

750 5 41.7

800 4 33.3

900 3 25

1000 2 16.7

1200 1 8.3

Using this computed data of % of time against the discharge, the flow duration curve is Plotted
(the thick dotted curve) as shown in Fig. b.
 From the flow duration plot and the intersection of the average flow, it can be seen that
the average flow is available for about 60% of the total period of 12 months.
 Example : At a particular site, the mean monthly discharges (in millions of m3) of a river in
12 months from January to December are 30, 25, 20, 0, 10, 50, 80, 100, 110, 65, 45 and 30,
respectively. Draw the hydrograh and flow duration curve.

Also, estimate the power developed in MW if the available head is 90 m and the overall
efficiency of generation is 85%. Assume each month of 30 days.

Solution:

Hydrograph & Flow duration curve

From the given monthly flow data compute the maximum periods for which each of the
discharges are available, and the % of time for each flow, as described in Example above, and
plot the hydrograph and flow duration curves as explained earlier (curves not drawn here,
students to draw the curves with reference to Fig. above).

Power Developed in MW

From the given flow data, the average flow per month is,

= (30+25+20+0+10+50+80+100+110+65+45+30)/12

= 47.08 millions of m3/month

= 47.08 x 106 m3/month

Power developed in MW is given by the relation,

P=mgHη
where, m = flow rate in kg/sec
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2
H = Head of water in meters

P = 13.6x106 watts or

P = 13.6 MW
Example : Mean monthly discharge for 12 months at a particular site of a river is tabulated
below.

Month Discharge in million Month Discharge in million

3
of m per month of m3 per month
April 500 October 2000
May 200 November 1500
June 1500 December 1500
July 2500 January 1000
August 3000 February 800
September 2400 March 600
(i) Draw the hydrograph and flow duration curve for the given discharges and find the average
monthly flow. (ii) Calculate the power available at mean flow of water, if the available head is 80
m and overall efficiency is 80%. Take 30 days in a month. (VTU: Jan 2010)

Solution:

The total flow is 17500 millions of m3 per year and the average flow is, 17500/12=1458.3
millions of m3/month. From the given monthly flow data, the hydrograph is drawn as shown in
Fig. a.

Discharge in Length of time, (c) % of time = b/12 ×

millions months 100
3
of m per month (a) (b)

200 12 100

500 11 91.7

600 10 83.33

800 9 75

1000 8 66.7

1500 7 58.3

2000 4 33.3

2400 3 25

2500 2 16.7

3000 1 8.3
To draw the flow duration curve, compute the maximum periods for which each of the
discharges are available, and the % of time for each flow (see table above). In the table, column
(a) lists the given discharge rates, column (b) gives the maximum length of time of the discharge
availability, and column (c) computes the % of time of availability. Using this computed data of
% of time against the discharge, the flow duration curve is plotted (the thick dotted curve) as
shown in Fig. b.
Example: the mean weekly discharge for 12 weeks of a river is given below

Week 1st 2st 3st 1st 2st 3st 7st 8st 9st 10st 11st 12st
Discharge, 100 200 300 1200 600 900 800 600 1000 600 400 200
m3/s

i) Draw the hydrograph and flow duration curve. ii) If the head available is 100 m and overall
efficiency of generation is 85%, find the power available at mean flow of water. (VTU: Jan
2009)
Solution: From the given monthly flow data, the hydrograph is drawn as shown in Fig. a. The
total flow is 6900 m3/s, and the average flow is 575 m3/s. To draw the flow duration curve, we
have to compute the maximum periods for which each of the discharges are available, and the %
of time for each flow. This is done as shown in the table below. In the table, column (a) lists the
given discharge rates, column (b) gives the maximum length of time of the discharge availability,
and column (c) computes the % of time of availability.

Discharge, m3/s (c) % of time =b/12 x

(a) Length of time, months 100
(b)

100 12 100

200 11 91.7

300 9 75

400 8 66.7

600 7 58.3

800 4 33.3

900 3 25

1000 2 16.7

1200 1 8.3

Using this computed data of % of time against the discharge, the flow duration curve is 'plotted
(the thick dotted curve) as shown in Fig. b.
7.2.2 OTE Power Plant Development

In 1882, D'Arsonval suggested that it is possible generate power based on the ocean thermal
energy, by utilising the energy in the warm surface water of the ocean and rejecting heat to the
colder water of the lower layer.

The first attempt to utilize the OTE was made in 1926 by G. Claude, a French scientist.
He constructed a 40 kW land-based OTEC power plant near Cuba. In his plant, a part of the
warm surface water was converted into steam in a low-pressure flash evaporator operating at a
high vacuum. In the flash evaporating process, sensible (heat) energy in the water gets converted
into latent energy. The steam produced in the evaporator was expanded in a turbine and
subsequently condensed by direct contact with the cold sea water piped from the lower layer in
the ocean.

However, Claude's system to utilize the OTE for power generation was not successful,
mainly due to reasons like corrosive nature of the sea water (corrosion resistance materials were
expensive), the pressure was low as water was evaporated at low temperature, high pumping
work required for operations, requirement of very large turbine, and conveying the cold
sea-water to the power plant over a long distance.

Thus, Claude's experiment demonstrated that the OTE power plant will inherently require
large components, have a relatively low power output, and operate at a high vacuum when the
working fluid is water.

7.2.3 Problems Encountered in Harnessing OTE

1) The sea water is more corrosive, thus the life of the plant is less.

2) The water can be evaporated (in a flash evaporator) at low temperatures only, thus the
corresponding pressure is low, thus only smaller outputs are possible.

3) Much pumping work is required to remove the non- condensable gases.

4) The specific volume is more due to low pressure and temperature. This necessitates a large
turbine.

5) The plants have to be based at lands, some distance away from the OTE source. This requires
long pipelines to convey cold sea water to the power plant.

6) Due to low output and large components the cost of the OTE power plant is high.

7) The plant requires expensive and large size structures for installation and operation.
7.2.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of OTE plants Advantages

1) OTE is available free of cost, and in large quantities.

2) OTE is non-polluting and non-depleting in nature.

Disadvantages

1) Arrangement of the plants very difficult.

2) The power developed is not continuous.

3) Transmission costs are high.

4) Cost per unit of power generated is high.

5) Sea water corrosion problem is severe.

7.2.6 Closed Rankine Cycle OTEC System

In 1965, J.H. Anderson presented in considerable detail a conceptual design of an OTE

power plant encased in a submerged structure anchored in deep water of the Caribbean sea. The
plant was designed to operate with a thermal differential of 20°C between the warm surface
water and the colder water in a layer 600 m below the surface. Approximately 14% of the gross
power generated by the plant was consumed by the plant auxiliary equipment.

The closed Rankine cycle OTEC power plant operates with a low boiling fluid like
propane as the working medium (the other low boiling fluids that can be used are ammonia,
R-12, R-22, etc.). The schematic representation of this system is shown in Fig. 7-7.

The warm sea water flows through a heat exchanger, the boiler, in which the low-boiling
point propane is evaporated. Propane vapour at a pressure of about 1035 kPa (absolute), propane
expands ill the turbine to a pressure of about 690 kPa (absolute). Condensation of the vapor is
effected in a surface condenser by transfer of heat to the cold sea water. The temperature increase
in the cooling water is about 3 to 4°C. Special attention must be given for the design of heat
exchangers, in order to reduce all secondary temperature drops, because these elements (Heat
exchangers) are very large, and to obtain highest possible drop in temperature through turbine.

Special attention must be given for the design of heat exchangers, in order to reduce all
secondary temperature drops, because these elements (Heat exchangers) are very large, and to
obtain highest possible drop in temperature through turbine.

Also, the operating pressure in the closed propane cycle is high, and hence a turbine of
reasonable size and cost is to be used. Vacuum and dearation problems are eliminated by
operation of the thermal cycle above atmospheric pressure.
Fig. 7-7. Closed Rankine cycle OTEC system