Child Development

LIFE BEFORE BIRTH-PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

Manahil
 What is child development?
Child development is about the biological, psychological and emotional changes take
place from infancy up untill the end of adolescence.
Child development is strongly influenced by genetic factors (genes passed on from their
parents) and events during prenatal life. It is also influenced by environmental facts and the
child’s learning capacity.

LIFE BEFORE BIRTH – PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

What is life before birth?
The life of a human being begins at fertilization (or conception), when a sperm
cell fuses with an oocyte (egg) to produce a new human organism. This
individual is called a zygote at the one-cell stage of development, an embryo
through the first eight weeks, and a fetus from eight weeks until birth.
Stages

There are three types of prenatal development

 Germinal
 Embryonic
 Fetal

The Germinal period (weeks 1-2)

Sperm and Ovum at Conception

Conception occurs when a sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote, which begins a
one-cell structure. The mothers and father’s DNA is passed on a child at the moment
of conception. The genetic makeup and sex of the baby are set at this point. The
germinal period (about 14 days in length) lasts form conception to implantation of the
zygote (fertilized egg) in the lining of the uterus. During the first week after
conception, the zygote divides and multiplies, going from a one-cell structure to two

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cells, then four cells, then eight cells, and so on. The process of cell division is called
mitosis. After the fourth division, differentiation of the cells begins to occur as well.
Differentiated cells become more specialized, forming different organs and body parts.
After 5 days of mitosis, there are 100 cells, and after 9 months there are billions of cells.
Mitosis is a fragile process, and fewer than one-half of all zygotes survive beyond the
first two weeks.

After the zygote divides for about 7–10 days and has 150 cells, it travels down the
fallopian tubes and implants itself in the lining of the uterus. It’s estimated that about
60 percent of natural conceptions fail to implant in the uterus. The rate is higher for in
vitro conceptions. Once the zygote attaches to the uterus, the next stage begins.

The Embryonic Period (weeks 3-8)

Human Embryo

The embryonic period begins once the zygote is implanted in the uterine wall. It lasts
from the third through the eighth week after conception. Upon implantation, this
multicellular organism is called an embryo. Now blood vessels grow, forming the
placenta. The placenta is a structure connected to the uterus that provides
nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the developing embryo via the umbilical
cord.

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During this period, cells continue to differentiate. Basic structures of the embryo start
to develop into areas that will become the head, chest, and abdomen. During the
embryonic stage, the heart begins to beat and organs form and begin to function. At 22
days after conception, the neural tube forms along the back of the embryo, developing
into the spinal cord and brain.

Growth during prenatal development occurs in two major directions: from head to tail
(cephalocaudal development) and from the midline outward (proximodistal
development). This means that those structures nearest the head develop before those
nearest the feet and those structures nearest the torso develop before those away from
the center of the body (such as hands and fingers).

The head develops in the fourth week and the precursor to the heart begins to pulse.
In the early stages of the embryonic period, gills and a tail are apparent. But by the end
of this stage, they disappear and the organism takes on a more human appearance. The
embryo is approximately 1 inch in length and weighs about 4 grams at the end of this
period. The embryo can move and respond to touch at this time.

About 20 percent of organisms fail during the embryonic period, usually due to gross
chromosomal abnormalities. As in the case of the germinal period, often the mother
does not yet know that she is pregnant. It is during this stage that the major structures
of the body are taking form making the embryonic period the time when the organism
is most vulnerable to the greatest amount of damage if exposed to harmful substances.
Potential mothers are not often aware of the risks they introduce to the developing
child during this time.

The fetal period (weeks 9-40)

A fetus at 10 weeks of development.

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When the organism is about nine weeks old, the embryo is called a fetus. At
this stage, the fetus is about the size of a kidney bean and begins to take on
the recognizable form of a human being as the “tail” begins to disappear.

From 9–12 weeks, the sex organs begin to differentiate. By the 12th week,
the fetus has all its body parts including external genitalia. In the following
weeks, the fetus will develop hair, nails, teeth and the excretory and
digestive systems will continue to develop. At the end of the 12th week, the
fetus is about 3 inches long and weighs about 28 grams.

At about 16 weeks, the fetus is approximately 4.5 inches long. Fingers and
toes are fully developed, and fingerprints are visible. During the 4-6th
months, the eyes become more sensitive to light and hearing develops.
The respiratory system continues to develop. Reflexes such as sucking,
swallowing, and hiccupping develop during the 5th month. Cycles of sleep
and wakefulness are present at that time as well. Throughout the fetal stage,
the brain continues to grow and develop, nearly doubling in size from weeks
16 to 28. The majority of the neurons in the brain have developed by 24
weeks although they are still rudimentary and the glial or nurse cells that
support neurons continue to grow. At 24 weeks the fetus can feel pain.

The first chance of survival outside the womb, known as the age of viability is
reached at about 22 to 26 weeks. By the time the fetus reaches the sixth month of
development (24 weeks), it weighs up to 1.4 pounds. The hearing has developed, so
the fetus can respond to sounds. The internal organs, such as the lungs, heart,
stomach, and intestines, have formed enough that a fetus born prematurely at this
point has a chance to survive outside of the mother’s womb.

Between the 7th and 9th months, the fetus is primarily preparing for birth. It is
exercising its muscles, its lungs begin to expand and contract. It is developing fat
layers under the skin. The fetus gains about 5 pounds and 7 inches during this last
trimester of pregnancy which includes a layer of fat gained during the 8th month. This
layer of fat serves as insulation and helps the baby regulate body temperature after
birth.

Around 36 weeks, the fetus is almost ready for birth. It weighs about 6 pounds and is
about 18.5 inches long, and by week 37 all of the fetus’s organ systems are developed
enough that it could survive outside the uterus without many of the risks associated
with premature birth. The fetus continues to gain weight and grow in length until
approximately 40 weeks. By then, the fetus has very little room to move around and
birth becomes imminent.

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During the fetal stage, the brain develops and the body adds size and weight until the
fetus reaches full-term development.

Environmental Risks
Any environmental agent which may affect and cause damage to the development of
embryo or fetus during the prenatal period is referred to as teratogen.

The study of factors that contribute to birth defects is called teratology.

Teratology is the study of abnormalities of physiological development in organisms

during their life span. It is a sub-discipline in medical genetics which focuses on the
classification of congenital abnormalities in dysmorphology caused by teratogens

EFFECTS

The possible effects of teratogens do not only include physical change, but may also
involve psychological consequences, developmental delays, and even death.

Environmental exposure to teratogens can create long-lasting effects that range from
infertility, intrauterine growth restriction, structural defects, and functional central
nervous system abnormalities that may lead to fetal death.

The study of factors that contribute to birth defects is called teratology. Teratogens are
usually discovered after an increased prevalence of a particular birth defect. For
example, in the early 1960’s, a drug known as thalidomide was used to treat morning
sickness. Exposure of the fetus during this early stage of development resulted in
cases of phocomelia, a congenital malformation in which the hands and feet are
attached to abbreviated arms and legs.

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A look at some teratogens:
Alcohol

Tobacco

Drugs

Environmental chemicals

Sexually transmitted infections

Maternal Diseases

Maternal stress

Factors influencing prenatal risks:

There are several considerations in determining the type and amount of damage that
might result from exposure to a particular teratogen (Berger, 2004). These include:

 The timing of the exposure: Structures in the body are vulnerable to the most
severe damage when they are forming. If a substance is introduced during a
particular structure’s critical period (time of development), the damage to that
structure may be greater. For example, the ears and arms reach their critical
periods at about 6 weeks after conception. If a mother exposes the embryo to
certain substances during this period, the arms and ears may be malformed.
 The amount of exposure: Some substances are not harmful unless the
amounts reach a certain level. The critical level depends in part on the size and
metabolism of the mother.
 Genetics: Genetic make-up also plays a role on the impact a particular
teratogen might have on the child. This is suggested by fraternal twin studies
who are exposed to the same prenatal environment, yet do not experience the
same teratogenic effects. The genetic make-up of the mother can also have an
effect; some mothers may be more resistant to teratogenic effects than others.
 Being male or female: Males are more likely to experience damage due to
teratogens than are female. It is believed that the Y chromosome, which
contains fewer genes than the X, may have an impact

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Critical Periods of Prenatal Development. This image summarizes the three developmental
periods in prenatal development. The blue images indicate where major development is happening
and the aqua indicate where refinement is happening. As shown, the majority of organs are
particularly susceptible during the embryonic period. The central nervous system still continues to
develop in major ways through the fetal period as well.

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