UNIT II: INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR

Ability
Ability is the skills and qualities which make it possible to achieve a goal. It may be
stable and enduring characteristics that are genetic and can be either completely
perceptual or completely motor or a combination.
Employees need to have certain abilities that will make them valuable addition to an
organization. We are acknowledging that everyone has strengths and weaknesses in terms
of ability that make him or her relatively superior or inferior to others in performing
certain tasks or activities.
According to Stephen P. Robbins, “Ability is an individual’s capacity to perform the
various tasks in a job.” Organizations look for employees to have two types of
intellectual and physical abilities depending on the job requirements.

Types of Ability

In Organizational Behavior, the 2 types of ability are;

1. Intellectual Ability.
2. Physical Ability.

Intellectual Ability

Intellectual ability is the capacity to do mental activities, thinking and reasoning, and
problem-solving. It commonly refers to the ability measured by performance on an
intelligence test. It is also sometimes used in the context of discussing the performance of
someone in an academic or real-world setting.

The seven most frequently cited dimensions making up intellectual abilities are number
attitude, verbal comprehension, perceptual speed, inductive reasoning, deductive
reasoning, and memory.

Intellectual abilities have got seven dimensions.

Dimension Description

Number Aptitude It is an ability to do speedy and accurate arithmetic.

 Dimension Description

It is the ability to understand what is read and heard and the

Comprehension
relationship of words to each other.

It is a dying ability to identify visual similarities and differences

Perceptual Speed
quickly and accurately.

Inductive It is the ability to identify a logical sequence in a problem and then

Reasoning solve the problem.

Deductive It is the ability to see the logic and assess the art argument’s
Reasoning implication.

Special It is the ability to imagine how an object would look like its position
Visualization in space was changed.

Memory It is the ability to retain and recall past experiences.

Physical ability

Physical ability is the capacity to do tasks that demand stamina, desire, strength, and
similar characteristics. It can identify individuals who are physically able to perform the
essentials function of a job without risking injury to others. Research on the requirements
needed in hundreds of jobs has identified nine physical abilities involved in performing
physical tasks.

These are -dynamic strength, static strength, trunk strength, explosive strength, extent
flexibility, dynamic flexibility, body – coordination, balance, and stamina.

Factor Description

Dynamic Strength Ability to exert muscular force continuously over time.

Trunk Strength Ability to exert muscular using trunk muscles.

 Factor Description

Static Strength Ability to exert force against external objects.

Ability to expand a maximum of energy in one or a series of

Explosive Strength
explosive acts.

Extent Flexibility Ability to move the trunk and back muscles as far as possible.

Dynamic
Ability to make rapid, repeated flexing movements.
Flexibility

Body co- Ability to coordinate the simultaneous actions of different parts of

ordination the body.

Balance Ability to maintain equilibrium despite forces pulling off balance.

Ability to continue maximum effort requiring prolonged efforts over

Stamina
time.

Intellectual Ability vs. Physical Ability

There are significant differences between these abilities. These are given below:

Intellectual Ability Physical Ability

Physical ability is the capacity to do tasks that

Intellectual ability is the capacity to
demand stamina, desire, strength, and similar
think, reason, and problem-solve.
characteristics.

Intellectual ability is doing with the

Physical ability is doing with the body.
mind.

It is a measure of intelligence and It is the capability of performing physical

involves understanding complex accomplishments, such as flexibility,
concepts and thinking critically. coordination, and basic motor skills.
 Intellectual Ability Physical Ability

It is related to the capabilities of the physical

It is related to the skills of the mind.
structure.

It plays a vital role in complex jobs

It gains importance for successfully doing less-
with demanding information processing
skilled and more standardized jobs.
requirements.

Intellectual ability is the mind’s ability

Physical ability is the ability of the body – i.e.,
– i.e., how clever, intuitive, etc., a
how strong, agile, etc., a person is.
person is.

Intellectual abilities include number Types of physical ability are dynamic strength,
attitude, verbal comprehension, static strength, trunk strength, explosive
perceptual speed, inductive reasoning, strength, extent flexibility, dynamic flexibility,
deductive reasoning, and memory. body coordination, balance, and stamina.

PERSONALITY

Personality refers to the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts
with others. Personality determinants include heredity, environment and situation.

Concept; People’s personalities are based on a set of broad qualities or dispositions,

according to trait theories of the concept of personality. In an effort to figure out which
characteristics make up the core of a person’s personality and how many different kinds
of personality traits there are, several hypotheses and research projects have been
undertaken.
Extroverts, neuroticism, and psychoticism are the three most common personality
qualities, according to psychologist Hans Eysenck.
It’s safe to say that the “Big Five” hypothesis of personality traits is now the most
commonly recognized and extensively used one. Five broad personality dimensions are
proposed by the theory:
(1) Extraversion – Sociable, talkative and assertive

(2) Agreeableness – Good natured, co-operative, and trusting

(3) Conscientiousness – Responsible, dependable, persistent and

achievement-oriented
 (4) Emotional Stability -- Viewed from a negative stand point:
Tense, insecure and nervous
(5) Openness to experience – Imaginative, artistically sensitive and
intellectual

Determinants of Personality

(1) Biological Factors:

(i) Heredity: It means the transmission of the qualities such as physical

stature, facial attractiveness, sex, temperament, muscle composition,
reflexes etc, from the ancestors and parents to the descendants. Heredity is
generally more important in determining a person’s temperament than his
values and ideals.

(ii) Brain: There is a general feeling that brain plays an important role in the
development of one’s personality. However, no conclusive proof is
available so far about the nature of relationship between the brain and
personality.

(iii) Physical features: An individual’s external appearance may have a

tremendous effect on his personality. Such factors include height, weight,
color, facial features, etc. of the individual.

(2) Family and Social factors: The development of individual’s personality is also
influenced by his family and other social groups. The infant acquires those behaviour
patterns that are customary and acceptable to the standards of the family and the
community where the family lives. The status of the family in the society influences
individual’s perception about self, others, work, money, etc.

(3) Situational factors: An individual’s personality may change in different situations.

The demands of different situations may call for different aspects of one’s personality.
Therefore, we should not look at the personality factor in isolation.

Group and culture are the early environmental factors that influence later
behaviour. Family and the social setting during early stages of education are the
important factors which influence the initial formation of personality. Whatever the child
learns lasts for life time. Later in life, it is the peer groups of primary affiliations at work,
social activities etc. which shape the personality of an individual.
(4) Other factors:

a) Temperament: Temperament is the degree to which one responds emotionally.

b) Interest: An Individual normally has many interests in various areas. The successful
persons in the same occupation have to a large extent, the same interests.

c) Character: Character primarily means honesty. It is resistance to stealing and

cheating others.

d) Schema: It is an individual’s belief, frame of reference, perception and attitude

which the individual possesses towards the management, the job, working conditions,
pay, fringe benefits, incentive system, and development programmers in the
organization.

e) Motives: Motives are the inner drives of an individual. They represent goal directed
behaviour of individual.

Personality traits:

The early work in the structure of personality revolved around attempts to identify and
label enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s behaviour. Popular
characteristics include shy, aggressive, submissive, lazy, ambitious, loyal, or timid. These
characteristics, when they are exhibited in a large number of situations, are called traits.

1. Reserved Outgoing
2. Less Intelligent More intelligent
3. Affected by feelings Emotionally stable
4. Submissive Dominant
5. Serious Happy-go-luck
6. Expedient Conscientious
7. Timid Venturesome
8. Tough-minded Sensitive
9. Trusting Suspicious
10. Practical Imaginative
11.Forthright Shrewd
12. Self-assured Apprehensive
13. Conservative Experimenting
14. Group-dependent Self-sufficient
15. Uncontrolled Controlled
16. Relaxed Tense
Table 1 Sixteen source traits
Theories of Personality:

Theories of Personality: These Are the 6 Main Frameworks

1. Psychodynamic theories
2. Trait theories
3. Humanistic theories
4. Social cognitive theories
5. Biological theories
6. Evolutionary theories
Personality theories in psychology aim to provide a framework to understand human
personality, including the causes and motivation for thoughts, behaviors, and social
interactions. Personality is your unique set of behaviors, experiences, feelings, and
thought patterns that make you.
While it may change subtly over time, your personality remains fairly consistent
throughout your life after a certain age.
Personality theories look to answer why specific features and traits develop in one person
over another — or develop at all. The goal is to identify what makes everyone so similar
and so different at the same time.

1. Psychodynamic theories

Sigmund Freud Trusted Source laid the foundation for psychodynamic personality
theories with his proposal of the id, the ego, and the superego. Freud saw these three parts
of the mind as the basis of human personality.
According to Freud, these concepts could explain individual behavior.
the psychosexual personality development part of Freud’s theory, he explained how a
person came to those beliefs and ideals.
Freud thought early childhood experiences played the most important role in how
personality developed. Early life, he said, was defined by five psychosexual stages based
on the pleasure sensations in erogenous zones:

 oral: mouth and sucking reflexes

 anal: bladder and bowel control
 phallic: genitals and gender identification
 latency: sexuality is paused and latent, and gives room to social skills
 genital: mature sexuality and defined sexual interest and orientation

Freud suggested that each stage presented you with a developmental conflict. If you
successfully overcame it, you would move into the next phase of development.

2. Trait theories
Trait theory is one of the most popular types of personality theories. It proposes that
people’s personalities vary according to which basic personality traits are more dominant.
In this sense, each trait is seen as a continuum.
One of the best-known trait theories is the five-factor theory, also known as the Big 5,
proposed by Donald W. Fiske. This theory states that personality is made up of five
distinct traits:

 agreeableness
 conscientiousness
 extraversion
 neuroticism
 openness to experience

Each trait has a range that goes from one extreme to another and each person falls
somewhere along that range.

3. Humanistic theories

The humanistic approach to theories of personality involves understanding not only

behavior and thought patterns, but also what someone believes gives their life meaning.
Humanistic theories propose that someone’s personality depends heavily on what they
think of themselves — who they believe they are.

4. Social cognitive theories

Social cognitive theories of personality include several schools of thought like

behaviorism, social learning theory, and expectancy-value theory.

Behaviorism Behaviorism theory proposes that human behavior is the direct result of
facing rewards and punishments.

Social learning theory Closely related to behaviorism is Albert Bandura’s social

learning theory, which takes behavioral models and adds the component of thought. In
other words, the theory proposes that your thought process plays an essential part in
deciding if you should imitate or not a certain behavior (learning)

Expectancy-value theory Another behaviorism-based model of human personality is

Julian Rotter’s framework.
When someone believes they have control over an outcome, they’re more motivated to
action. This is particularly so when they anticipate a positive outcome because similar
actions have been rewarded in the past.

5. Biological theories

Biological personality theories assert that brain structures and neurophysiology are what
determine your personality traits, according to 2016 research.
In other words, something as simple as higher neurotransmitter levels might provide you
with a more positive outlook, for example, than someone else.

6. Evolutionary theories
According to this framework of evolutionary theories, human personality is primarily the
result of genes and most useful traits.
Ultimately, evolutionary theory states that personality characteristics that increased your
ancestors’ chances for survival are the traits you may have at the core of your personality
today.

LEARNING

Concept of learning

Learning refers to any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of
experience. Ironically, we can say that changes in behaviour indicate that learning has
taken place and that learning is a change in behaviour. Our definition has several
components that deserve clarification. First, learning involves change. This may be good
or bad from an organizational point of view. People can learn unfavorable behaviours-to
hold prejudices or to restrict their output, for ex-as well as favorable behaviours. Second,
the change must be relatively permanent. Temporary changes may be only reflexive and
fail to represent any learning. Therefore, this requirement rules out behavioural changes
caused by fatigue or temporary adaptations. Third, our definition is concerned with
behaviour. Learning takes place where there is a change in actions. A change in an
individual’s thought processes or attitudes, if accompanied by no change in behaviour,
would not be learning. Finally, some form of experience is necessary for learning. This
may be acquired directly through observation or practice.

Nature of Learning
The changes brought out in our behaviour through learning by all means are accounted as
an acquired phenomenon. Learning in this way can't be attributed to some or the other
hereditary influences.

1. Learning is the Change in Behaviour: - Learning in its any form or shape is always
associated with some or the other changes in learner's behaviour. That is why learning is
always directed or aimed for bringing changes in learner's behaviour. However, these
changes in learner's behaviour should always be desirable ones as the undesirable
changes, if these are allowed to happen, prove detrimental to the welfare of the learner as
well as to the society.

2. Change in Behaviour caused by Learning is Relatively Enduring or Permanent:

- Change in behaviour caused by learning is neither too permanent (as caused through
maturation) nor too temporary (as caused by the factors like fatigue, illness etc.). They lie
between these two states and are usually referred to as relatively permanent changes
implying that although frequent on unwanted changes in the learned behaviour can't take
place, yet the needed changes can be introduced in the manner such as getting rid of the
bad habits or unlearning a wrong method of doing things etc.

3. Learning is a Continues Life Long Process: - Learning is, although not inherited, yet
its beginning can be very well made right from the conception of the child. The
environment available in the womb of the mother may work as facilitator for such
learning. Every day new problems are faced, new situation are created and the individual
has to face these situations and bring essential changes in his behaviour. Thus, it is a
never changing process and it is why we refer that it goes from womb to tomb.

4. Learning is a Universal Process:- We, all the living creatures on this earth have the
abilities and capacities for learning irrespective of the nature of our species, caste, color,
sex, geographical location or some other such individual differences. Therefore, the
myths like that members of the upper castes especially Brahmins have more capacity of
learning than the members belonging to the lower castes and untouchables, women have
inferior learning capacity than men, or the blacks possess sub normal capacities for
learning in comparison to whites, etc. have no substantial ground. On the contrary, the
truth remains that every living being on the earth has been favoured by the nature to
possess the capacity to learn according to the species specific characteristics and
environment as well as opportunities available for learning.

5. Learning is Purposive and Goal Directed: - All learning is goal-directed. It is the

definiteness of the aim and clear understanding of the purpose which makes an individual
learn immediately the techniques of performing a particular task. It is the purpose or goal
which determines what he sees in the learning situations and how he acts there in
Therefore, the purpose or goal is the pivot, around which the entire system of learning
revolves. In case where there is no purpose, definitely there would, hardly be any
learning.

The Learning Process

The learning process is a mental and habit formation process. Attention is paid to certain
stimuli used for learning which are recognized and translated into reinforcement and
behaviour. If the learner gets a reward for his improved behaviour, he forms it into
behaviour. Proper habits motivate the employee who makes efforts in the right direction.
The efforts result in satisfaction and become a stimulus for further learning. This process
continues and the employee learns in the process.

Stimuli Attention Recognition Translation

Reinforcement

Behaviour

Efforts Motives Habit Reward

Fig.7. The Learning Process

THEORIES OF LEARNING

There are four theories which explain how individuals learn new patterns of
behaviour.

1. Classical conditioning: Classical conditioning deals with the association of one

event with another desired event resulting in a desired behaviour or learning. It is a
type of conditioning where an individual responds to some stimulus that would
invariably produce such a response. Learning through classical conditioning was
first studied by Ivan Pavlov, a famed Nobel Prize winning Physiologist, at the turn
of the 20th century.
 2. Operant Conditioning: Operant is defined as behaviour that produces effect.
Operant conditioning is based on the work of B.F. Skinner who advocated that
individuals emit responses that are rewarded and will not emit responses that are
either not rewarded or are punished. Operant conditioning is voluntary or learned
behaviour and it is determined, maintained and controlled by its consequence. .
Behaviour is likely to be repeated if the consequences are favorable and it is not
likely to be repeated if the consequences are unfavorable. Thus, the relationship
between behaviour and consequences is the essence of operant conditioning.

3. Cognitive Learning: Cognitive learning is learning achieved by thinking about

the perceived relationship between events and individual goals and expectations. For
instance, the process motivation theories deal with explaining “why” people decide to do
things. They do so by examining how people come to view various work activities as
perceived opportunities to satisfy needs, pursue desired rewards, and eliminate felt
inequities. Cognition refers to an individual’s ideas, thoughts, knowledge, interpretations,
understandings, etc, about himself and his environment.

4. Social Learning: Social learning is learning achieved through the reciprocal

interactions between people, behaviour and their environment. Social learning theory
integrates the cognitive and operant approaches to learning. It recognizes the importance
of consequences as determinants of behaviour. It also emphasizes that people acquire
new behaviours by observing and imitating others in the social setting. People learn
through observation and direct experience. Social learning can also take place via (i)
Modeling or vicarious learning; (ii) symbolism and (iii) self control.