INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL

LANGUAGE AND CULTURE RESEARCH

R&D, Qualitative, Quantitative, Action, Analysis, and

Narrative Research

Lina Aris Ficayuma, S.Pd., M.Pd

PENERBIT
PREFACE
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Book Cover I i
Preface I iii
Table of Contents I v
List of Figure I vi
List of Tabel I vii
List of Diagram I viii

Chapter One: An Overview of Research

Chapter Two: Philosophy of Research
Chapter Three: Novelty and Gap
Chapter Four: Title and Abstract
Chapter Five: Research Introduction
Chapter Six:
Chapter Seven:
Chapter Eight:
LIST OF TABLE AND FIGURE
 CHAPTER I
AN OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH

In late 16th century, the origin of language research

was founded. From the obsolete French, the stem of the
research word is recerche (noun) and recercher (verb). From
the Old French. Research is the systematic investigation
into and study of materials and sources in order to establish
facts and reach new conclusions.
Learning about research skills and methodologies,
the term “research onion” was proposed by Saunders
(2007), is familiarly heard and discussed. See the figure 1.1.
as follows.

Figure 1.1 Suander’s Research Onion

Saunders’ research onion is a useful tool for thinking

holistically about research design and research
methodology. As the researcher works from the outside of
the onion inwards, they will face a range of choices that
progress from high-level and philosophical to tactical and
practical in nature. It also mimics the general structure of
the methodology chapter.
The research onion is made up of six layers, there are:
1. Research Philosophy
2. Research Approach
3. Research Strategy
4. Research Choices
5. Time Horizon
6. Technique and Procedures

Meanwhile, the explanation of research onion in detail

can be seen in the following figure, figure 2.1.

Figure 1.1. A Philosophical Research Onion

(Saunder, et.al.: 2015)
 According to the second layer of the research onion, a time horizon
of research separated into pairs, there are:
1. Cross-sectional
2. Longitudinal

Furthermore, based on the research strategy, which is placed on the

third layer of the research onion, those strategies are divided into eight
such as:
1. Experiment
2. Survey
3. Archival research
4. Case study
5. Ethnography
6. Action research
7. Grounded theory
8. Narrative Inquiry

While the fifth layer of the research onion, the research strategy,
consists of six categories, there are:
1. Mono-Method Quantitative
2. Mono-Method Qualitative
3. Multimethod Quantitative
4. Multi-Method Qualitative
5. Mixed Method Simple
6. Mixed Method Complex

According to the fifth layer of the research onion, the research

approach consists of three types, there are:
1) Deduction
2) Abduction
3) Induction
 According to Saunders, et al. (2015), they stated that research
philosophy plays a role in the management of research methodology.
There are 5 types of research philosophy which placed on sixth layers of
research onion:
1. Positivism
2. Critical Realism
3. Interpretivism
4. Post-modernism
5. Pragmatism

A. Research Philosophy
The very first layer of the onion is the research
philosophy. But what does that mean? Well, the research
philosophy is the foundation of any study as it describes
the set of beliefs the research is built upon. Research
philosophy can be described from either
an ontological or epistemological point of view. “A
what?!”, you ask?
In simple terms, ontology is the “what” and “how” of
what we know – in other words, what is the nature of
reality and what are we really able to know and understand.
For example, does reality exist as a single objective thing,
or is it different for each person? Think about the simulated
reality in the film The Matrix.
Epistemology, on the other hand, is about “how” we
can obtain knowledge and come to understand things – in
other words, how can we figure out what reality is, and
what the limits of this knowledge are. This is a gross
oversimplification, but it’s a useful starting point (we’ll
cover ontology and epistemology another post).
With that fluffy stuff out the way, let’s look at three of
the main research philosophies that operate on different
ontological and epistemological assumptions:
 ● Positivism
● Interpretivism
● Pragmatism
These certainly aren’t the only research philosophies,
but they are very common and provide a good starting point
for understanding the spectrum of philosophies.

1) Research Philosophy 1: Positivism

Positivist research takes the view
that knowledge exists outside of what’s being
studied. In other words, what is being studied can
only be done so objectively, and it cannot include
opinions or personal viewpoints – the researcher
doesn’t interpret, they only observe. Positivism states
that there is only one reality and that all meaning is
consistent between subjects.
In the positivist’s view, knowledge can only be
acquired through empirical research, which is based
on measurement and observation. In other words, all
knowledge is viewed as a posteriori knowledge –
knowledge that is not reliant on human reasoning but
instead is gained from research.
For the positivist, knowledge can only be true,
false, or meaningless. Basically, if something is not
found to be true or false, it no longer holds any
ground and is thus dismissed.
Let’s look at an example, based on the question
of whether God exists or not. Since positivism takes
the stance that knowledge has to be empirically
vigorous, the knowledge of whether God exists or not
 is irrelevant. This topic cannot be proven to be true or
false, and thus this knowledge is seen as meaningless.
Kinda harsh, right? Well, that’s the one end of
the spectrum – let’s look at the other end.

2) Research Philosophy 2: Interpretivism

On the other side of the spectrum,
interpretivism emphasises the influence that social
and cultural factors can have on an individual. This
view focuses on people’s thoughts and ideas, in light
of the socio-cultural backdrop. With the interpretivist
philosophy, the researcher plays an active role in the
study, as it’s necessary to draw a holistic view of the
participant and their actions, thoughts and meanings.
Let’s look at an example. If you were studying
psychology, you may make use of a case study in your
research which investigates an individual with a
proposed diagnosis of schizophrenia. The
interpretivist view would come into play here as
social and cultural factors may influence the outcome
of this diagnosis.
Through your research, you may find that the
individual originates from India, where
schizophrenic symptoms like hallucinations are
viewed positively, as they are thought to indicate that
the person is a spirit medium. This example
illustrates an interpretivist approach since you, as a
researcher, would make use of the patient’s point of
view, as well as your own interpretation when
assessing the case study.
 3) Research Philosophy 3: Pragmatism
Pragmatism highlights the importance of using
the best tools possible to investigate phenomena. The
main aim of pragmatism is to approach research from
a practical point of view, where knowledge is not
fixed, but instead is constantly questioned and
interpreted. For this reason, pragmatism consists of
an element of researcher involvement and
subjectivity, specifically when drawing conclusions
based on participants’ responses and decisions. In
other words, pragmatism is not committed to (or
limited by) one specific philosophy.
Let’s look at an example in the form of the
trolley problem, which is a set of ethical and
psychological thought experiments. In these,
participants have to decide on either killing one
person to save multiple people or allowing multiple
people to die to avoid killing one person.
This experiment can be altered, including
details such as the one person or the group of people
being family members or loved ones. The fact that the
experiment can be altered to suit the researcher’s
needs is an example of pragmatism – in other words,
the outcome of the person doing the thought
experiment is more important than
the philosophical ideas behind the experiment.

To recap, research philosophy is the foundation of

any research project and reflects the ontological and
epistemological assumptions of the researcher. So, when
you’re designing your research methodology, the first thing
you need to think about is which philosophy you’ll adopt,
given the nature of your research.

B. Onion Layer 2: Research Approach

Let’s peel off another layer and take a look at
the research approach. Your research approach is
the broader method you’ll use for your research
– inductive or deductive. It’s important to clearly identify
your research approach as it will inform the decisions you
take in terms of data collection and analysis in your study
(we’ll get to that layer soon).
Inductive approaches entail generating theories
from research, rather than starting a project with a theory
as a foundation. Deductive approaches, on the other
hand, begin with a theory and aim to build on it (or test it)
through research.
Sounds a bit fluffy? Let’s look at two examples:
An inductive approach could be used in the study of an
otherwise unknown isolated community. There is very little
knowledge about this community, and therefore, research
would have to be conducted to gain information on the
community, thus leading to the formation of theories.
On the other hand, a deductive approach would be taken
when investigating changes in the physical properties of
animals over time, as this would likely be rooted in the
theory of evolution. In other words, the starting point is a
well-established pre-existing body of research.

Closely linked to research approaches

are qualitative and quantitative research. Simply
put, qualitative research focuses on textual, visual or
audio-based data, while quantitative research focuses
on numerical data. To learn more about qualitative and
quantitative research, check out our dedicated post here.
What’s the relevance of qualitative and quantitative data to
research approaches? Well, inductive approaches are
usually used within qualitative research,
while quantitative research tends to reflect
a deductive approach, usually informed by positivist
philosophy. The reason for using a deductive approach here
is that quantitative research typically begins with theory as
a foundation, where progress is made through hypothesis
testing. In other words, a wider theory is applied to a
particular context, event, or observation to see whether
these fit in with the theory, as with our example of
evolution above.
So, to recap, the two research approaches
are inductive and deductive. To decide on the right
approach for your study, you need to assess the type of
research you aim to conduct. Ask yourself whether your
research will build on something that exists, or whether
you’ll be investigating something that cannot necessarily
be rooted in previous research. The former suggests a
deductive approach while the latter suggests an inductive
approach.
2:38
C. Onion Layer 3: Research Strategy
So far, we’ve looked at pretty conceptual and intangible
aspects of the onion. Now, it’s time to peel another layer off
that onion and get a little more practical –
introducing research strategy. This layer of the research
onion details how, based on the aims of the study, research
can be conducted. Note that outside of the onion, these
strategies are referred to as research designs.
There are several strategies you can take, so let’s have a
look at some of them.
● Experimental research
● Action research
● Case study research
● Grounded theory
● Ethnography
● Archival research
Strategy 1: Experimental research
Experimental research involves manipulating one variable
(the independent variable) to observe a change in another
variable (the dependent variable) – in other words, to
assess the relationship between variables. The purpose of
experimental research is to support, refute or validate
a research hypothesis. This research strategy follows the
principles of the scientific method and is conducted within
a controlled environment or setting (for example, a
laboratory).
Experimental research aims to test existing theories rather
than create new ones, and as such, is deductive in nature.
Experimental research aligns with the positivist research
philosophy, as it assumes that knowledge can only be
studied objectively and in isolation from external factors
such as context or culture.
Let’s look at an example of experimental research. If you
had a hypothesis that a certain brand of dog food can raise a
dogs’ protein levels, you could make use of experimental
research to compare the effects of the specific brand to a
“regular” diet. In other words, you could test your
hypothesis.
In this example, you would have two groups, where one
group consists of dogs with no changes to their diet (this is
called the control group) and the other group consists of
dogs being fed the specific brand that you aim to investigate
(this is called the experimental/treatment group). You
would then test your hypothesis by comparing the protein
levels in both groups.

Strategy 2: Action research

Next, we have action research. The simplest way of
describing action research is by saying that it involves
learning through… wait for it… action. Action research is
conducted in practical settings such as a classroom, a
hospital, a workspace, etc – as opposed to controlled
environments like a lab. Action research helps to inform
researchers of problems or weaknesses related to
interactions within the real-world. With action research,
there’s a strong focus on the participants (the people
involved in the issue being studied, which is why it’s
sometimes referred to as “participant action research” or
PAR.
An example of PAR is a community intervention (for
therapy, farming, education, whatever). The researcher
comes with an idea and it is implemented with the help of
the community (i.e. the participants). The findings are then
discussed with the community to see how to better the
intervention. The process is repeated until the intervention
works just right for the community. In this way, a practical
solution is given to a problem and it is generated by the
combination of researcher and community (participant)
feedback.
This kind of research is generally applied in the social
sciences, specifically in professions where individuals aim
to improve on themselves and the work that they are doing.
Action research is most commonly adopted in qualitative
studies and is rarely seen in quantitative studies. This is
because, as you can see in the above examples, action
research makes use of language and interactions rather
than statistics and numbers.

Strategy 3: Case study research

A case study is a detailed, in-depth study of a single
subject – for example, a person, a group or an institution,
or an event, phenomenon or issue. In this type of research,
the subject is analysed to gain an in-depth understanding
of issues in a real-life setting. The objective here is to gain
an in-depth understanding within the context of the study
– not (necessarily) to generalise the findings.
It is vital that, when conducting case study research, you
take the social context and culture into account, which
means that this type of research is (more often than not)
qualitative in nature and tends to be inductive. Also, since
the researcher’s assumptions and understanding play a role
in case study research, it is typically informed by an
interpretivist philosophy.
For example, a study on political views of a specific group of
people needs to take into account the current political
situation within a country and factors that could contribute
towards participants taking a certain view.

Strategy 4: Grounded theory

Next up, grounded theory. Grounded theory is all about
“letting the data speak for itself”. In other words, in
grounded theory, you let the data inform the
development of a new theory, model or framework. True to
the name, the theory you develop is “grounded” in the
data. Ground theory is therefore very useful for research
into issues that are completely new or under-researched.
Grounded theory research is typically qualitative (although
it can also use quantitative data) and takes
an inductive approach. Typically, this form of research
involves identifying commonalities between sets of data,
and results are then drawn from completed research
without the aim of fitting the findings in with a pre-
existing theory or framework.
For example, if you were to study the mythology of an
unknown culture through artefacts, you’d enter your
research without any hypotheses or theories, and rather
work from the knowledge you gain from your study to
develop these.

Strategy 5: Ethnography
Ethnography involves observing people in their natural
environments and drawing meaning from their cultural
interactions. The objective with ethnography is to capture
the subjective experiences of participants, to see the world
through their eyes. Creswell (2013) says it
best: “Ethnographers study the meaning of the behaviour, the
language, and the interaction among members of the culture-
sharing group.”
For example, if you were interested in studying interactions
on a mental health discussion board, you could use
ethnography to analyse interactions and draw an
understanding of the participants’ subjective experiences.
For example, if you wanted to explore the behaviour,
language, and beliefs of an isolated Amazonian tribe,
ethnography could allow you to develop a complex,
complete description of the social behaviours of the group
by immersing yourself into the community, rather than just
observing from the outside.
Given the nature of ethnography, it generally reflects
an interpretivist research philosophy and involves
an inductive, qualitative research approach. However, there
are exceptions to this – for example, quantitative
ethnography as proposed by David Shafer.

Strategy 6: Archival research

Last but not least is archival research. An archival research
strategy draws from materials that already exist, and
meaning is then established through a review of this
existing data. This method is particularly well-suited to
historical research and can make use of materials such as
manuscripts and records.
For example, if you were interested in people’s beliefs about
so-called supernatural phenomena in the medieval period,
you could consult manuscripts and records from the time,
and use those as your core data set.
As you can see, there is a wide range of choices in terms of
research strategy. The right choice for your project will
depend largely on your research aims and objectives, as
well as the choices you make in terms of research
philosophy and approach.

D. Onion Layer 4: Choices

The next layer of the research onion is simply called
“choices” – they could have been a little more specific,
right? In any case, this layer is simply about deciding how
many data types (qualitative or quantitative) you’ll use in
your research. There are three options – mono, mixed,
and multi-method.
Let’s take a look at them.
Choosing to use a mono method means that you’ll only
make use of one data type – either qualitative or
quantitative. For example, if you were to conduct a study
investigating a community’s opinions on a specific pizza
restaurant, you could make use of a qualitative approach
only, so that you can analyse participants’ views and
opinions of the restaurant.
If you were to make use of both quantitative and qualitative
data, you’d be taking a mixed-methods approach. Keeping
with the previous example, you may also want to assess
how many people in a community eat specific types of
pizza. For this, you could make use of a survey to collect
quantitative data and then analyse the results statistically,
producing quantitative results in addition to your
qualitative ones.
Lastly, there’s multi-method. With a multi-method
approach, you’d make use of a wider range of approaches,
with more than just a one quantitative and one qualitative
approach. For example, if you conduct a study looking at
archives from a specific culture, you could make use of two
qualitative methods (such as thematic analysis and content
analysis), and then additionally make use of quantitative
methods to analyse numerical data.
As with all the layers of the research onion, the right choice
here depends on the nature of your research, as well as
your research aims and objectives. There’s also the practical
consideration of viability – in other words, what kind of
data will you be able to access, given your constraints.

E. Onion Layer 5: Time horizon

What’s that far in the distance? It’s the time horizon.
But what exactly is it? Thankfully, this one’s pretty
straightforward. The time horizon simply describes how
many points in time you plan to collect your data at. Two
options exist – the cross-sectional and longitudinal time
horizon.
Imagine that you’re wasting time on social media and
think, “Ooh! I want to study the language of memes and
how this language evolves over time”. For this study, you’d
need to collect data over multiple points in time – perhaps
over a few weeks, months, or even years. Therefore, you’d
make use of a longitudinal time horizon. This option is
highly beneficial when studying changes and progressions
over time.
If instead, you wanted to study the language used in memes
at a certain point in time (for example, in 2020), you’d
make use of a cross-sectional time horizon. This is where
data is collected at one point in time, so you wouldn’t be
gathering data to see how language changes, but rather
what language exists at a snapshot point in time. The type
of data collected could be qualitative, quantitative or a mix
of both, as the focus is on the time of collection, not the
data type.

As with all the other choices, the nature of your

research and your research aims and objectives are the key
determining factors when deciding on the time horizon.
You’ll also need to consider practical constraints, such as
the amount of time you have available to complete your
research (especially in the case of a dissertation or thesis).
Onion Layer 6: Techniques and Procedures
Finally, we reach the centre of the onion – this is where you
get down to the real practicalities of your research to make
choices regarding specific techniques and procedures.
Specifically, this is where you’ll:
● Decide on what data you’ll collect and what
data collection methods you’ll use (for example, will
you use a survey? Or perhaps one-on-one
interviews?)
● Decide how you’ll go about sampling the
population (for example, snowball sampling, random
sampling, convenience sampling, etc).
● Determine the type of data analysis you’ll use to
answer your research questions (such as content
analysis or a statistical analysis like correlation).
● Set up the materials you’ll be using for your study
(such as writing up questions for a survey or
interview)
What’s important to note here is that these techniques and
procedures need to align with all the other layers of the
research onion – i.e., research philosophy, research
approaches, research strategy, choices, and time horizon.
For example, you if you’re adopting a deductive,
quantitative research approach, it’s unlikely that you’ll
use interviews to collect your data, as you’ll want high-
volume, numerical data (which surveys are far better suited
to). So, you need to ensure that the decisions at each layer
of your onion align with the rest, and most importantly,
that they align with your research aims and objectives.

Let’s Recap: Research Onion 101

The research onion details the many interrelated
choices you’ll need to make when you’re crafting your
research methodology. These include:
● Research philosophy – the set of beliefs your
research is based on (positivism, interpretivism,
pragmatism)
● Research approaches – the broader method you’ll
use (inductive, deductive, qualitative and
quantitative)
● Research strategies – how you’ll conduct the
research (e.g., experimental, action, case study, etc.)
● Choices – how many methods you’ll use (mono
method, mixed-method or multi-method)
● Time horizons – the number of points in time at
which you’ll collect your data (cross-sectional or
longitudinal)
● Techniques and procedures (data collection
methods, data analysis techniques, sampling
strategies, etc.)

Now that we’ve peeled the onion, it’s time for you to get
cooking. Most importantly, remember that designing your
research methodology all starts with your research aims
and objectives, so make sure those are crystal clear before
you start peeling.
 CHAPTER II
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

A. Philosophy of Qualitative Research

The key components of philosophy include “ontology” and
“epistemology”. Ontology deals with nature or involves the
philosophy of reality; whereas, the term epistemology comes from the
Greek word “episteme” which means knowledge. In simple terms,
epistemology is the philosophy of knowledge or how we come to
know reality (Gortner, 1993).
Research philosophical paradigm are sets of beliefs and
practices that regulate inquiry within a discipline by providing
lenses, frames and processes through which study is carried out
(Steven & Edwards, 2008). Research philosophy directs the
perspective from which researcher formulate research
questions, plan how problem can be investigated, select
research design as well as identify what methods are used and
how data are collected, analyzed and interpreted (Steven &
Edwards, 2008).
The researchers does not always clearly state the
philosophical stance on which the study is based; however, one
can identify the stance by carefully reading the literature review,
identifying the research question, understanding the purpose of
the study and examining the researcher’s method (Carr, 1994).
Moreover, the researcher’s knowledge of both types of research
approach endorse accurate selection of the methodology for the
problem identified (Carr, 1994). Research methods are selected
 that facilitate to plan a study systemically, to collect data and
investigate information (Boyd, 2001).
“Qualitative is a systematic, interactive and subjective
approach used to describe life experiences and give them
meaning” (Burns & Grove, 2006, p. 35). This type of research is
conducted to describe and promote understanding of human
experience such as stress. While, “Quantitative research is a
formal, objective, and systematic process in which numerical
data are used to obtain information about the world” (Burns &
Grove, 2006, p. 35).
Philosophy of qualitative research is “interpretive, humanistic, and
naturalistic” (Creswell, 2007). It places significant importance to the
subjectivity. The ontological assumption is that there is no single
reality but encompasses multiple realities for any phenomenon
(Speziale & Carpenter, 2003). Moreover, every individual perceive,
interpret and experience a situation or phenomena of interest from
one own point of view, since individual has different experience of
reality (Polit & Beck 2008). The epistemological assumption is that
knowledge developed from subjective observation, which is at the
level of rich description, and in-depth understanding (Speziale &
Carpenter, 2003). According to Creswell (2007), qualitative
researchers believe that “truth is both complex and dynamic and
can be found only by studying persons as they interact with and
within their sociohistorical settings” (p. 89). Therefore, qualitative
research, phenomena can best understand and sort by embedding
researcher in the situation rather than quantifying data that require a
construction of a fixed instrument or a set of question (Speziale &
Carpenter, 2003). Furthermore, it is context and time bound (Polit &
Beck 2008). Qualitative study is generally conducted in the
naturalistic setting rather than in the artificial laboratory (Burns &
Grove, 2006). Researcher interacts with the participants explore
perceptions, feelings, thoughts, beliefs, expectations, and behavior
to obtain knowledge about the phenomena of interest so
researchers has an active part in the study (Burns & Grove, 2006).
This approach encompasses well-planed steps before researcher
enters the settings in which observations and inquiries would be
made (Speziale & Carpenter, 2003). The focus of qualitative
research is usually broad not reductionistic because the intent is to
give meaning to the whole (Polit & Beck 2008). In this approach,
data is collected through in-depth conversations, diary keeping,
extensive interviewing, extended observation, and focus groups
interviews to acquire insights regarding these subjective realities, so
no attempts are made to control interaction (Polit & Beck 2008).
Qualitative data take the form of words so researchers keep a detail
notes, and record the interviews than identifies categories that help
to sort and organize the data (Creswell, 2007). The intent for the
organization of the data is to have individualized interpretation that
describes the phenomenon being studied (Creswell, 2007).
Moreover, researcher spends substantial time going back and forth
through the notes that would help to identify important connections
(Polit & Beck 2008).

Quantitative approach is emerged from positivist paradigm.

Positivist paradigm places considerable value on “rationality,
objectivity, prediction and control” (Burns & Grove, 2006, p. 15).
“The ontological assumption is that there is one reality, which exists
and can be validated through the senses” (Brink & Wood, 2001, p.
22). Epistemological assumption is that knowledge can be define
and explore through careful measurement of the phenomenon of
interest. Researchers believe that “all human behavior is objective,
purposeful, and measurable” (Brink & Wood, 2001, p. 22). It
encompasses the study of research questions or hypotheses that
identify prevalence and characteristic of the concept, test the
relationship, assess cause and effect relationship between variable
and tests for intervention effectiveness (Polit & Beck 2008). The
researcher needs to find or develop the instrument or tool to
measure the phenomenon of concern while researcher remain
detached from the study in order to prevent personal values and
biases to influence the study results (Polit & Beck 2008). Research is
driven by numerical data collection than it is subjected to statistical
analysis. The focus or perspective for quantitative research is usually
concise and reductionistic which means whole cannot be studied
but it will be broken down into parts so that the parts can be
examined (Polit & Beck 2008). Furthermore, “Quantitative research
requires control to identify and limit the problem and attend to limit
the effect of extraneous or outside variables that are not the focus of
the studies” (Burns & Grove, 2006, p. 132). Control, instrument and
statistical analyses are used to ensure that the research findings
accurately reflect reality and that would help to make the finding
generalize (Brink & Wood, 2001). The four quantitative research
designs used most often in nursing research are descriptive designs,
correlation designs, experimental designs and quasi-experimental
designs (Burns & Grove, 2006)

The methodology chosen depend on what one are trying to

do; researcher purpose and question to investigate rather than
commitment to a particular paradigm (Brink & Wood, 2001). Thus,
the methodology must match a particular phenomenon of interest.
My thesis topic: Stress and Coping among first year master students
at Aga Khan University (AKU). I have selected quantitative approach
because I am interested to identify factor that causes stress among
first year master student at Aga Khan University and explore the
coping strategies used by the students. Moreover, it helps to
investigate the stress level among different entities of AKU such as
School of Nursing, Medical College and Institute of Education
development. The finding from the study recommends possible
strategies that would assess future students dealing with the stress
so that they are able to cope more effectively. The research design
guides the researcher in planning and implementing the study in a
way that is most likely to achieve the intended goal (Polit & Beck
2008). Skill in selecting and implementing a research design can
improve the quality of the study and thus the usefulness of the
findings; therefore, to achieve that purpose Descriptive Cross-
sectional design would be selected. It is appropriate for “describing
the status of phenomena or for describing associations among
phenomena at a fixed point in time” (Polit & Beck, 2008, p.166). The
overall aim is to ‘discover new meaning, describe what exists,
determine the frequency, and categorize, count, or measure
information’ (Burns and Grove, 2006, p. 24). In quantitative
descriptive research, data is obtained from many participants under
natural conditions, with no attempt to manipulate the situation (Brink
& Wood, 2001). To illustrate, a descriptive study, I have formulated
following research questions that include “what are the sources of
stress among first year master student at AKU”. “What are the
difference between stress level among first year master students at
School of Nursing, Medical College and Institute of Education
development”? “What are the coping strategies use to manage
stress by master students of AKU”? In a quantitative study,
researcher starts with a theory, framework or conceptual model. I
have selected Roy adaptation model. In quantitative study,
researcher follows step-by-step process by posing a question to the
end by obtaining an answer. All the findings together provide a
composite picture related to the number of student suffering from
stress, the factors that cause stress among students, stress copying
strategies among students and finally comparing the stress level of
different entity at AKU. It has been clearly stated in the research
topic and question that the study setting would be Aga Khan
University. It has School of Nursing, Medical College and Institute for
Education development. These entities offers different masters
programme which include Master of Science in Nursing, Master in
Bioethics, Master in Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Master in Health
Policy and Management and Master of Education Programme. The
universal sampling would be planned. The information would be
obtained from all those who are in the first year Master programme
at AKU 2010-2011. Taking the entire study sample reduces the
sampling error (Polit & Beck 2008).

The major study variables are stress and coping. A tool

“student stress and coping inventory” is selected for the study. This
tool is develop and tested by Barbara Jaffin Cohen, (2001). This tool
is selected because it assesses the major variable of the study. It is
also planned that tool would be pilot tested to check its utility and
appropriateness in the local context. A pilot study is a crucial
element of a good study design, area of concern, lesson learn and
refinements needed are identified (Por, 2005). Quantitative
information is analyzed through statistical procedure. It covers
broad range of techniques; from simple that is use regularly to
compute the average through computer to complex and
sophisticated method. Researcher use statistical procedure to
organize, interpret and communicate numeric information (Polit &
Beck 2008). I have plan for descriptive statistic to describe and
synthesize data.

Conclusion
According to Clarke (1998), “research methods can be described,
considered and classified at different levels, the most basic of which
is the philosophical level”. All nursing research is conducted within
philosophical paradigm because it help investigator to understand
explicitly the philosophical assumptions underlying their
methodological choices (Steven & Edwards, 2008). Proctor (1998)
considers that consistency between the aim of a research study, the
research questions, the chosen methods, and the personal
philosophy of the researcher is the essential underpinning and
rationale for any research project.
Reference

Business Bliss Consultants FZE. (November 2018). Philosophy of

Quantitative and Qualitative Research. Retrieved from
https://nursinganswers.net/essays/philosophy-of-quantitative-
and-qualitative-nursing-essay.php?vref=1

CHAPTER III
THE NATURE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

A. The Nature of Qualitative Research

Research Qualitative research is a research process that
aims to understand the subjective experiences of people. It
uses non-probability sampling. which means open-ended
questions with no predetermined assumptions. Researchers
analyze the data they collect through a process of coding by
themes and patterns that emerge from this analysis.
There are different types of qualitative research methods
according to the various data collection techniques that
researchers use. Examples include interviews, focus groups,
and observation. These methods help gather information on
the participants' perceptions, feelings, and opinions about an
issue or problem researchers are investigating.

B. The Usage of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research may be a reliable approach when you
want to understand a topic in-depth and from the perspective
of the people involved. Qualitative research can also help you
understand the meaning and significance of an experience or
one event. If you want to understand the context of an
experience, such as where it takes place, qualitative research
may be your best option.
Qualitative research is appropriate for:
1) Learning about something that is not well-defined or
measurable in numbers.
2) Learning how people interpret events of experiences
rather than just knowing what happened.
3) Understanding how people feel about a topic instead of
only knowing their opinions.

C. The Advantages of Qualitative Research

There are many benefits of qualitative research, including:
1) Flexibility
The researcher can choose to perform a small or large
study and easily adjust the research plan to reflect new
learning and insights.
2) Depth
Qualitative researchers invest time in understanding
complex phenomena from multiple perspectives over
time. This means they can get deeper insights than
quantitative studies often provide.
3) Customization
Qualitative methods give you more freedom to adapt
your methodology to suit your research question and
goals. The researcher can customize the study duration,
participants, and research methods.
4) Meaning
Qualitative research focuses on meaning rather than
facts and statistics. Qualitative methods allow people in
 studies, such as customers or employees, to share their
perspectives without the limitations of facts and
numbers.

Conclusion
Qualitative research has the benefit of obtaining
detailed and in-depth analysis of a phenomenon.
While it does not allow us to gather population data
or make future trend analysis based on numerical
findings, it helps us to provide meaningful answers to
nuanced questions in a way that quantitative
research cannot. The above approaches to
qualitative research can be combined with
quantitative approaches (in what’s called mixed-
methods research) or used alone to develop detailed
and rigorous information about social phenomena.

Atkinson, P., Delamont, S., Cernat, A., Sakshaug, J.,

& Williams, R. A. (2021). SAGE research methods
foundations. London: Sage Publications.
Bandura, A. (1965). “Influence of models’
reinforcement contingencies on the acquisition of
imitative responses”. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology. 1 (6): 589–595.
doi:10.1037/h0022070. PMID 14300234. S2CID
13032768.
 CHAPTER IV
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TYPE

1. Ethnography
2. Autoethnography Research
3. Life History Research
4. Observational Research
5. Phenomenology
6. Grounded Theory
7. Case Study
8. Focus Group Research
9. Interview Research
10. Narrative Research
11. Action Research
12. Participatory Research
13. Critical Discourse Analysis
14. Visual and Multimodal Discourse Analysis
References:
https://helpfulprofessor.com/types-of-qualitative-research/

There are several types of qualitative research, including:

1. Action research

In action research, the researcher participates in a situation

and collects data on it. The researcher uses this data to
analyze the situation and collects more data if they want to
adjust the scope of the study or its results. Action research is
cyclical, meaning each step involves collaboration between the
study participants and the researcher. You can conduct action
research at any level, including the individual, group or
community level.

This type is appropriate when you want to learn how

something works within its natural environment. For example,
if you want to understand people's challenges while using
technology at work, you can collaborate with teams in
different departments to study this topic.

Related: Qualitative Researcher Skills: Definition and

Examples

2. Phenomenological

The phenomenological method is a qualitative research

technique that seeks to understand the meaning that people
give to their experiences. This type of research uses the
phenomenological inquiry method, which focuses on how
individuals experience events.

Phenomenological researchers focus on subjective

understanding and biases to look at what people say about
themselves, rather than on objective interpretations of what
participants say. This helps researchers better understand
people's experiences.

Related: Qualitative Observation: Definition, Types and

Examples
3. Ethnographic

Ethnographic research is a qualitative method that focuses on

understanding human behavior. Ethnographers are interested
in a phenomenon's social context while learning about cultural
norms and beliefs.

In ethnographic research, the researcher frequently lives with

the research subjects and studies their culture. Ethnographers
interview the most knowledgeable people about their roles
and responsibilities within the society or community. Data
collection and analysis occur simultaneously, as researchers
record their observations in field notes. These notes serve as
raw data for future analysis.

Related: What Is Qualitative Forecasting? Definition and

Methods

4. Case study

Case studies are in-depth examinations of people or groups of

people. They help researchers understand an intervention's
context, process and outcomes. Case studies also help
researchers understand the cause-and-effect relationships
between variables and the change process over time.

For a case study to qualify as qualitative research, the

researcher must focus on the meaning of experiences to
subjects. They then use content analysis to evaluate the data
from case studies.
Related: What Is Research Methodology? (Why It's
Important and Types)

5. Narrative model

Narrative research is a popular qualitative research method

because it helps you understand how people live and make
decisions. You collect data about subjects by tracking them as
they go through different stages of your study. By
understanding these experiences through observations of
participants over time, businesses can create buyer personas
for their products and services based on these narratives.

Researchers explore a few participants' experiences by

collecting information on their attitudes, beliefs and behaviors
during specific situations. This method allows researchers to
gather data from several sources at one time to identify
themes or patterns. The narrative research method involves
collecting stories from participants to share later. This process
involves asking questions like:

● What was happening?

● How did it feel?
● Why was this important?
● What did you do next?

Related: Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research: What's the

Difference?

6. Grounded theory
Grounded theory is a qualitative research method that uses a
systematic review of existing data to develop theories about
why events happened the way they did. The grounded theory
method uses inductive and deductive approaches to theory
development. Rather than using probability sampling
procedures, researchers use purposeful sampling to select
certain subjects who may share new perspectives on the
phenomenon under study.

Related: What Is Field Research?: Definition, Types and

Examples

7. Focus groups

Focus groups are an important tool in qualitative research.

They reveal people's attitudes, perceptions and beliefs to
enhance researchers' knowledge of a particular topic. For
instance, moderators might conduct focus groups with eight
to 12 participants who meet at set times over several weeks or
months. Participants may test out a new product, and
researchers can observe subjects and conduct interviews
about their experience.

For example, a beverage company may plan to launch a new

brand of energy drinks. It invites people of different ages and
backgrounds to taste the drink over multiple days. The
researchers then conduct follow-up interviews asking each
person what they think about the new drink relative to other
drinks currently available on the market.

Related: Social Research: Definition, Types and Common

Methods
8. Historical

Historical studies identify, locate, evaluate and synthesize data

from the past. Historical research helps researchers
understand why something happened and what its impact
was. Researchers can use this data to predict the future or
understand the past better.

You can find data for historical research in documents or relics

and artifacts. These include books, published works such as
newspapers and older texts and letters from people who lived
during certain periods. Historical data sources can be primary
and secondary sources. Primary sources provide direct
information or evidence, while secondary sources contain
indirect information.

Based on 6 types of qualitative research:

14 type of qualitative research
 CHAPTER 7
POPULATION AND SAMPLE