Spoilage probability

Calculate the spoilage probability of a 48-minute

process at 113˚C when D113=4 minutes, and the
initial microbial population is 104 per container. From
the equation given:
r = 10F/D / N0
r = 1048/4 / 104
= 108
That means spoilage of 1 container can be expected
in 108 containers.
THERMAL DEATH TIME (TDT, F value)
THERMAL DEATH
• Reduce microbial population from 10,000 to 1,000 
F=1D
• Reduce microbial population from 10,000 to 100 
F=2D
• Reduce microbial population from 10,000 to 10 
F=3D
• So, F is a multiple of D value
• And hence, we can say that F=nD, where n is log
reduction
• As temperature of food increases during
processing; higher rate of microbial destruction.

• Initial heating part of process contributes little

towards total lethality until the retort temperature
is approached
• Most of accumulated lethality takes place in last
few minutes, before cooling begins.

• Lethal rate depends on the z value of micro-

organism
Retorting
• Retorting is heating foods in hermetically
sealed containers to extend their shelf life.
• Retorts sterilize food that is sealed in a
container, using steam or other heating
methods.
• Depending on the heating medium, there are:
• water immersion retorts
• water spray retorts
• saturated steam retorts.
Retorting
• Shelf life of sterilised foods depends in part on
the ability of the container to isolate food
completely from environment.
• Heat-sterilisable container:
• rigid containers like glass, metal cans, and
plastic or flexible retort pouches
Retorting
• Removing air (exhausting) before
filled containers are processed
 prevents air expanding with the heat
 reduces strain on container.
 prevents internal corrosion &
oxidative changes in some foods.

• Steam replaces the air & on cooling

forms a partial vacuum in the head
space.
Retorting
Heating by saturated steam

• Latent heat is transferred to food when saturated

steam condenses on the outside of container.
• If air is trapped inside the retort, it forms an
insulating boundary film around the cans which
prevents steam from condensing  under
processing.
Retorting
Heating by saturated steam
• Problem with processing solid or viscous foods  low
rate of heat penetration to the thermal centre.

• Over-processing  damage to nutritional & sensory

characteristics of food near the walls of container

• To increase rate of heat transfer  thinner profile

containers & agitation of containers.

• Increase retort temperature  reduce processing times

& protect nutritional & sensory qualities, but impractical;

• higher pressures  require substantially stronger &

more expensive containers & processing equipment.
 Retorting
Heating by saturated steam
• After sterilisation the containers are cooled by sprays of
water.

• Steam is rapidly condensed in retort, but food cools

more slowly & pressure in containers remains high.

• Compressed air to equalise pressure to prevent strain on

container seams (pressure cooling).

• When food has cooled to < 100ºC, the over-pressure of

air is removed & cooling continues to appr. 40ºC.

• At this temperature, moisture on container dries which

prevents surface corrosion & allows label adhesives to
set more rapidly.
 Retorting
Heating by hot water
• Foods are processed in glass containers or flexible
pouches under hot water with an overpressure of air.
• Glass containers; thick & lower thermal conductivity of
glass  slower heat penetration, longer processing
times, higher risk of thermal shock than cans.
• Foods in rigid polymer trays or flexible pouches heat
more rapidly  thinner material & smaller cross-section
of container.
• process variables monitored:
– temperature of raw material
– temperature of cooling water
– temperature of steam
– time of processing
– heating & cooling rates.
 2. UHT | aseptic processes
• Higher processing temperatures for a shorter time are
possible if the product is sterilised before it is filled into
pre-sterilised containers in a sterile atmosphere.

• Liquid foods: milk, fruit juices and concentrates, cream,

yoghurt, wine, salad dressing, egg & ice cream mix.
• Foods with small discrete particles: cottage cheese,
baby foods, tomato products, fruit & vegetables, soups &
rice desserts.

• High quality of UHT foods  chilled & frozen foods

• Shelf life of at least 6 mo without refrigeration.
The advantages of UHT The main limitations of UHT
processing compared with processing are;
canning; • cost & complexity of the
• better retention of plant
sensory characteristics • necessity to sterilise
and nutritional value, packaging materials,
• energy savings, associated pipework
• easier automation and & tanks,
the use of unlimited • maintenance of
package sizes. sterile air & surfaces
• UHT products may also in filling machines,
be fortified with heat- • higher skill levels
sensitive bioactive required by
components after operators &
sterilisation, including maintenance staff.
probiotics, omega-3 fatty
acids and conjugated
linoleic acids,
phytosterols or fibre.
 Theory
• Given increase in temperature
 rate of destruction of micro-organisms &
many enzymes increases faster than rate of
destruction of nutrients & sensory components

• Some enzymes, e.g. proteases & lipases are

more heat resistant.
 not destroyed by some UHT treatments &
may cause changes to flavour of products during
prolonged storage.
• UHT processes heat food
rapidly to holding
temperature & major part of
lethality accumulates at a
constant temperature.

• Sterilising value = lethal rate

at the holding temperature *
holding time.
• The come-up time & cooling
periods are very short
Processing
• Food is heated in relatively thin layers with close control
over the sterilisation temperature, and passed to a
holding tube that has sufficient length to retain the food
for the required time.
• The sterilised product is cooled either by evaporative
cooling in a vacuum chamber or in a second heat
exchanger.
• Vacuum cooling is based on the principle of
evaporation: as water evaporates (at relatively lower
temperatures based on decreased pressure by
vacuum) from the product, energy is removed, and
the temperature drops.
• After cooling, the food is temporarily stored in a
pressurised sterile tank and packaged under sterile
conditions.
• Sterilised product is cooled in a 2nd HE or in a
vacuum chamber if de-aeration is also required.
•
• Containers are not required to withstand
sterilisation conditions  laminated cartons OK

• Cartons are pre-sterilised with H2O2,

• Filling machines are enclosed & maintained in a

sterile condition by ultraviolet light & filtered air.

• A positive air pressure is maintained in filling

machine to prevent entry of contaminants.
• OK to liquid & small-particulate foods but problems in
larger pieces of solid food.

• Major difficulties:
– enzyme inactivation at centre of the pieces of food
causes overcooking of surfaces; limiting particle sizes
– agitation is necessary to improve the rate of heat
transfer and to aid temperature distribution, but this
causes damage to product
– lack of suitable equipment for processing & filling
– settling of solids is a problem if the equipment has a
holding tube.
• uncontrolled and overlong holding times and
variable proportions of solids in the filled product.
 Equipment
• Ideal UHT process
 heat product instantly to the required temperature,
 hold it at that temperature to achieve sterility &
 cool it instantly to filling temperature.

• In practice, depends on
 the method used to heat food
 sophistication of control (cost of equipment).
 properties of the food (e.g. viscosity, presence of
particles, heat sensitivity & tendency to form deposits on
hot surfaces).
• UHT processing equipment:
– operation > 132ºC
– exposure of a relatively small volume of product to a
large surface area for heat transfer
– maintenance of turbulence in the product as it passes
over the heating surface
– use of pumps to give a constant delivery of product
against pressure in heat exchanger
– constant cleaning of heating surfaces to maintain high
rates of heat transfer & to reduce burning-on of
product.
• according to the method of heating:
– direct systems
(steam injection & steam infusion)
– indirect systems
(plate HE, tubular HE (concentric tube or
shell-and-tube) & scraped surface HE)
– other systems
(microwave, dielectric, ohmic & induction
heating).
Direct methods
• Steam injection (uperisation) & Steam infusion

Steam injection
• Steam at 965 kPa into a pre-heated liquid product in fine
bubbles by a steam injector & rapidly heats product to
150ºC.

• After a suitable holding period (e.g. 2.5 s) product is

flash cooled in a vacuum chamber to 70ºC; condensed
steam & volatiles in product are removed.

• Moisture content of product returns to appr. the same

level as raw material.
• Advantages:
– one of the fastest methods of heating & cooling;
suitable for more heat-sensitive foods
– volatile removal is an advantage with some foods
(e.g. milk).

• Limitations:
– only suitable for low-viscosity products
– relatively poor control over processing conditions
– requirement for potable steam, more expensive to
produce than normal processing steam
– regeneration of energy is less than indirect systems
– flexibility for changing to different types of product is
low.
Steam infusion
• Food is sprayed in a free-falling film into high-
pressure (450 kPa) potable steam in a
pressurised vessel.
• Heated to 142–146ºC in 0.3 s, held for 3 s in a
holding tube before flash cooling in a vacuum
chamber to 65–70ºC.
• Heat from the flash cooling is used to pre-heat
the feed material.
• Advantages
– over injection methods
 liquid does not contact hotter surfaces & burning-
on is reduced.
 – almost instantaneous heating of food to the
temperature of steam & very rapid cooling
 high retention of sensory characteristics &
nutritional properties
– greater control over processing conditions than steam
injection
– lower risk of localised overheating of product
– suitable for higher viscosity foods compared to steam
injection.

• Other disadvantages
– blockage of the spray nozzles
– separation of components in some foods.
With steam injection, steam is forced into the milk flow through a nozzle; with
steam infusion, milk is sprayed into a cylindrical vessel with a steam atmosphere.
Indirect systems
Plate HE (described formerly)
• limitations due to the higher temperatures & pressures.

Tube and shell HEs

concentric tube HE
 Combination of plate & tubular designs.
 Counter-current flow & helical corrugations  to generate
turbulence & to increase rate of heat transfer.
 Able to operate at high pressures with viscous liquids.
 Turbulence can be increased