WEATHERING,

WEATHERED
ROCKS https://c1.staticflickr.com/9/8094/8507867592_49e19f3d77_b.jpg

and
SOIL
WEATHERING – is a process of a slow continuous breakdown of rocks into smaller
particles that are in equilibrium with the prevailing environment. This process
involves both decomposition (chemical breakdown) and disintegration (physical
breakdown) of rocks and minerals. When particles are moved from their place of
formation (either by moving water, wind, glaciers, and gravity), the process is
called Erosion.
Some definitions:
1)Bedrock – the solid rock underlying all parts of the land surface.
2)Regolith – soil and loose fragments that may cover the bedrock
3)Soil – surface accumulation of sand, clay and decayed plant material (called
humus); biologically active medium and a key component in plant growth

Fundamentals of Physical Geology, Jain, 2014.

Importance of Weathering

 prepare Earth materials for subsequent

transportation by agents of erosion.
 essential component of soil formation at the
Earth’s surface
 directly responsible for land form and landscape
evolution (e.g. Karst landscapes, thick regoliths
in the tropics and subtropics)
Summary on the types of weathering

Fundamentals of Physical Geology, Jain, 2014.

 Types of Weathering
Physical or Mechanical weathering – also called disintegration
process by which a rock is broken down into smaller and smaller
fragments as the result of energy developed by physical forces. The
breakdown of minerals or rock materials by entirely mechanical means
while the chemical composition of the weathered rock (mineral) remains
unchanged. Some of the breaking forces actually originate within the rock
or mineral itself, while others are applied externally. The stresses (both
internal and external) lead to increased strain that eventually ruptures the
rock.
 Exfoliation

 Process in which curved

plates of rock are stripped
from a larger rock mass by
physical forces creating
exfoliation domes. Exfoliation
is also called “sheeting”.
When a mass of rock is
exposed by weathering and
removal of the overlying rock,
there is a decrease in the
confining pressure on the rock,
and the rock expands. This
unloading promotes cracking
of the rock, known as
exfoliation. It is peeling off
like the layers of an onion.
 Frost weathering

a) F r o s t a c t i o n – W h e n w a t e r
trickles down into the cracks,
crevices and pores of a rock mass
and freezes, its volume increases
about 9%. This expansion sets up
pressures directly outward from
the inside of a rock and frost
wedging results.

A second type of frost action is

frost heaving, which occurs
when moisture absorbed by loose
soil or fragments freezes at
shallow levels, heaving the
ground above.

Physical Geology, 2nd ed., Earle and Panchuk, 2019

 Formation of salt crystals within the rock
 When salt water
seeps into rocks and
then evaporates on a
hot sunny day, salt
crystals grow within
cracks and pores in
the rock. The growth
of these crystals
exerts pressure on
the rock and can push
grains apart, causing
the rock to weaken
and break. Physical Geology, 2nd ed., Earle and Panchuk, 2019
 Cracking from plant roots and removal
of material by burrowing animals
• Plants and animals
also play a role in
mechanical
weathering. The
roots of trees and
shrubs growing in
rock crevices
sometimes exert
sufficient pressure to
dislodge previously
loosened fragments
of rock. Although the
process is physical,
the pressure is Physical Geology, 2nd ed., Earle and Panchuk, 2019

exerted by a
biological process
(i.e., growing roots).
 Types of Weathering
2. Chemical weathering – results from chemical changes to minerals that become
unstable when they are exposed to surface conditions. The kinds of changes that
take place are highly specific to the mineral and the environmental conditions.

Chemical weathering processes include solution/dissolution, hydration, oxidation,

hydrolysis, reduction, carbonation & acidification,
Solution/Dissolution – refers to the dissolving of minerals in the presence of water and
involves the removal of atoms from mineral surfaces thus reducing the stability of minerals
and enhancing their vulnerability to subsequent chemical degradation. (e.g. Carbonic acid is
created when carbon dioxide in the atmosphere dissolves in raindrops. Various organic acids are also
released into the soil as organisms decay, and sulfuric acid is produced by the weathering of pyrite and
other minerals.

Physical Geology, Enhanced E-text, G. Flecher, 2017

Karst topography is the three-stage process of

dissolving limestone bedrock, labeled “youth,”
“maturity,” and “old age.” When acidic
groundwater dissolves limestone, valleys, large
caverns, sinkholes, and underground streams are
created. As karst valleys widen and coalesce, the
crust gradually weathers until eventually the
ground surface is lowered to a new level.
 Chemical Weathering processes

OXIDATION involves a loss of electrons while

Oxidation/Reduction –
REDUCTION involves a gain of electrons: oxidation of one mineral
component is achieved through reduction of another.

(e.g. the process of rusting

occurs when oxygen combines
with iron to form iron oxide.
Oxidation occurs when
electrons are lost from one
element during the reaction.
In this case, we say that iron
was oxidized because it lost
electrons to oxygen to form
the reddish-brown iron oxide
called hematite (Fe2O3) or
in other cases a yellowish-
colored rust called limonite
[FeO(OH)].)
Physical Geology, 2nd ed., Earle and Panchuk, 2019
 Chemical Weathering processes

Hydrolysis/Hydration – Hydrolysis refers to the reaction of hydrogen in solution with mineral

surfaces and subsequent formation of secondary clay minerals as displaced cations react with
hydroxy ions in adhered water on mineral surfaces. On the other hand hydration involves the
addition of water to a mineral structure to form a new mineral

(e.g. The hydrolysis of feldspar and other silicate minerals and the oxidation of iron in
ferromagnesian silicates all serve to create rocks that are softer and weaker than they were
to begin with, and thus more susceptible to mechanical weathering.

Fundamentals of Physical Geology, Jain, 2014.

Chemical Weathering processes

Fundamentals of Physical Geology, Jain, 2014.

Factors influencing chemical weathering

1. Particle size – The greater the surface area of a particle, the more vulnerable it is to
chemical attack., because substances can only react chemically with the surface when they come
into contact with each other (provided the substance does not penetrate the surface).

2. Composition of original material – Minerals respond at different rates to weathering

(minerals turn to clay).

3. Climate – rocks respond to different climate conditions

4. Moisture – when moisture is accompanied by warmth, rate of chemical weathering is faster

(e.g. carbonic acid on limestone).

5. Plants and animals – they produce oxygen, carbon dioxide and certain acids that enter into
chemical reactions with earth materials (e.g. production of carbonic acid).
Fundamentals of Physical Geology, Jain, 2014.
Weathering products

Fundamentals of Physical Geology, Jain, 2014.

Weathering products

Physical Geology, Enhanced E-text, G. Flecher, 2017

 SOIL
It is characterized as unconsolidated material brought about by the weathering
of the underlying bedrock. It can be organic or inorganic in nature, and are
usually naturally occurring (Akhtar, September 2012)

According to Akhtar (2012), soil can either be:

1. Residual Soil – bedrock weathered and materials remained at

original location
2. Transported Soil – materials were transported by water, wind, air,
etc. and were deposited at another location.

Soil is the accumulation of materials

t h a t d e p e n d o n fa c t o r s s u c h a s
climate type, rock type, and mineral
composition (Roy & Bhalla, 2017).

Image source:
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/healthy-soils/why-practice-
soil-conservation/?cn-reloaded=1
Soil Formation
Soil formation
● Prior to the formation of soil, a
layer of partly weathered rock
known as regolith lies above a
much deeper layer of unweathered
rock. The boundary between the
two is known as the “basal
weathering front.”
● Over the years, a layer of organic
material or “topsoil” forms over the
regolith as plants grow, die, and
decay on the surface. This topsoil
gradually becomes rich in humus,
a dark mass of rotting organic
material formed when
microorganisms digest plant and
animal remains.
● Humus restores minerals and
nutrients to the soil, a stage known
as “immature” or “skeletal” soil.
● Eventually, a deep, humus-rich
mature topsoil forms over a layer of
subsoil poorer in humus but
containing dissolved minerals
washed down from above.
● Each layer of mature soil is known
as a “horizon.”
Earth Science an Illustrated Guide to Science, Adams and Lambert, 2006
The Soil Profile
(Horizons)

The idealized soil profile exhibits

varying layers as shown in the
figure.

O Horizon – the layer of organic

matter

A Horizon – the layer of partially

decayed organic matter mixed with
mineral material

E Horizon – the eluviated (leached)

layer from which some of the clay
and iron have been removed to
create a pale layer that may be
sandier than the other layers

B — the layer of accumulation of

clay, iron, and other elements from
the overlying soil
Physical Geology, 2nd ed., Earle and Panchuk, 2019
C — the layer of incomplete
weathering
 Soil types

Soil types
● Soil varies according to the
climate
it is formed in.
● In a humid climate, soil water
washes soluble substances
down
and out of the soil.
● In a desert climate, soil water
carries dissolved mineral salts
upwards as water evaporates on
the surface. These can form a
hard
desert crust on the surface.
● In a tropical climate, the soil
has
little or no humus.

Earth Science an Illustrated Guide to Science, Adams and Lambert, 2006

 Soil texture

Soil texture can be described

in terms of the relative
proportions of sand, silt, and
clay, as shown in the figure.
The sand and silt components
in this diagram are dominated
by quartz, with lesser
amounts of feldspar and rock
fragments, while the clay
component is dominated by
the clay minerals.

Physical Geology, 2nd ed., Earle and Panchuk, 2019

IMPORTANCE OF WEATHERING AND SOIL IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING
The geotechnical properties of soil [1] are significant factors considered in civil
engineering. The feasibility or stability of structures (roads, bridges, buildings, dams
etc.) depend whether the geotechnical properties favor the construction of the said
structures.

Some examples (Roy & Bhalla, 2017):

1. Specific Gravity – higher SG are more suitable for roads and foundations
2. Density Index – the relative decrease in volume of voids due to
compaction
3. Consistency Limit – the expansive or plasticity behavior of soil that may
affect the stability of building foundations
4. Particle Size Analysis – the shape being spherical or angular of the soil
grains have effects on its shearing strength
5. Compaction – increases the shear strength of the soil while reducing its
compressibility and permeability

[1] GPs of soil will be discussed in detail on your major CE courses

Read more: http://article.sapub.org/10.5923.j.re.20170704.03.html
References

Akhtar, M. (September 2012). The Role of Soil Mechanics in Civil Engineering.

International Journal of Emerging trends in Engineering and Development (Issue 2, Vol.
6), 104-111.

Roy, S., & Bhalla, S. (2017). Role of Geotechnical Properties of Soil on Civil Engineering
Structures. Scientific & Academic Publishing, 7(4): 103-109.
https://engineeringdiscoveries.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Different-Types-Of-
Soiljhhjjhj.jpg
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 Foundation failures

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Examples-of-Bearing-Capacity-Failures-of-shallow-
foundations-in-Adapazari5_fig1_242114180

https://www.structuredfoundation.com/wp-
content/uploads/2020/04/Extreme-example-of-foundation-
failure.jpg

http://pubs.sciepub.com/ajcea/3/4/1/bigimage/fig1.png