Syllabus

URP 2105: Landscape Planning and Design

2.0 credits: 2 hours/week

1. Introduction to Landscape Planning and Design and its scope.

2. Historical references and preamble to modern concepts in Landscape Planning and
Design (Greek, Latin, English, French, Japanese, India, Islamic, etc.)
3. Landscape Planning and Design and its relationship with Ecosystem; Study of Ecology
and Geo-physical forces: its importance in Landscape Planning and Design.
4. Landscape Planning and Design-context, method and approaches; Elements of
Landscape Design; Introduction to landscape ingredients and their use to enrich the built
environment.
5. Plants in Landscape Planning and Design: Plantation and plantation design.
6. Site Planning for Landscape Planning and Design. Site development objectives and
principles; site selection, site development, topography, soils, grading, site utilities,
landscaping, and planting.
7. Hostile approach towards Landscape Planning and Design with case studies.

Recommended References

1. Simmonds, J. Ormspce (1988): Landscape Architecture

2. Time-saver Standard for Landscape Design
3. Mowla QA and Helal AKM. (Eds): Works of Japanese Landscape Architects in
Bangladesh 1977-87, compiled by M. Lida, Edited by Mowla and Helal. Published by
JOVA, Dhaka, 1988 (Revised and Expanded 1989).

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 Course Outline

Course Content
1. Concept of landscape, classification
2. landscape planning (concept, process)
3. Significance of landscape planning
4. Basic elements of landscape planning
5. Principles of landscape planning and design
6. Plants in landscape planning and design
7. Global landscape planning and design
A. Italian Landscape
B. French Landscape
C. English Landscape
D. Japanese Landscape
E. Mughal Landscape

Marks Distribution:

Class Assessment Final Exam

Class Tests 5+10=15

(CT-1, CT-2, and CT-3)
30
Class Attendance 5

Total 20

Note: The course content and evaluation process mentioned above might be modified due to
the pandemic situation and other circumstances of the country.

Dr. Farhadur Reza

Associate Professor
Dept. of Urban & Regional Planning
Jahangirnagar University, Bangladesh

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 Lecture 1

Concept of Landscape, Classification

What is Landscape?

“A portion of the earth's surface that can be comprehended at a glance.”

● Landscape may also be defined as natural scenery seen from a single view point.
● Landscapes are formed by natural systems and shaped by history and culture.
● Landscape can be defined as exterior spaces and/ or settings for planned groupings of
structures and spaces (courtyards, malls, parks; sites for homes or other structures;
farms, countryside, national forests, etc.)
● It is combination of both natural and built environment.

Classification of Landscape
1. Natural Landscape
○ A natural landscape is a landscape that is unaffected by human activity.
○ A natural landscape is intact when all living and nonliving elements are free to
move and change.
○ A natural landscape may contain either the living or nonliving or both.
○ The natural landscape is a place under the current control of natural forces and
free of the control of people for an extended period of time.
2. Cultural Landscape
○ Cultural landscapes are places or artefacts currently maintained by people
whether directly or indirectly.
○ Examples of cultural disruptions are: fences, roads, trails, species under human
management, invasive species introduced by people, extraction or removal of
species and objects, vegetation alteration, alterations of animal populations,
buildings, agricultural areas, pollution, paved areas.

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Natural or Cultural Landscape???

Landscape Natural Cultural Comments

Landscape Landscape

Parks for people

Agricultural areas

Orchards

Artificial lakes

Managed forests

Mangrove forests

Golf courses

Back yards

Flower beds

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 Lecture 2

Landscape Planning - Concept, Process

Landscape Design

● The art of changing the natural feature of the outdoor with the intention of making the
environment more attractive and functional.
● It is meant for human physical needs, mental health and divine comfort.

Photo - Sutera Harbour Resort, Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia.

Landscape Planning

● Landscape Planning is the development and application of large scale strategies,

policies and plans to create successful environments, in both urban and rural settings,
for the benefit of current and future generations.
● Landscape architects working in landscape planning, operate at all contexts and scales,
from the international to the local, and on all types of development, advising on or
managing proposals for change which may affect the landscape.
● They assess and resolve environmental, economic and social opportunities and
constraints relevant to areas of landscape interest and take these into account in
addressing a landscape's potential and capacity to accommodate change.
● Landscape planning is a tool that creates a balance between human and nature in terms
of protection and improvement.

Photos - Enhancing the landscape.

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Landscape Planning Process

● Preparing and advising on policy and strategy within legal frameworks.

● Preparing Green Infrastructure plans and implementation strategies plans.
● Project management, coordination of and contributions to detailed assessments studies
including:
○ Environmental Impact Assessment and environmental statements,
○ Landscape and Visual Impact Assessment,
○ Landscape character surveys, assessment and reports.
● Master planning for development and regeneration schemes.
● Consultation and community/ stakeholder engagement.
● Contributing to planning appeals and public enquiries and acting as an expert witness.
● Advising on compliance with relevant policy, legislation, good practice and relevant
standards.
● Managing projects.
● Providing advice on policy and strategy.

Goals of Landscape Planning

1. Land and urbanization

○ The earth and many of its resources is finite and only a small percentage of it
surface is capable of habitation and sufficiently fertile for the production of food.
○ The conservation through proper landscape planning is therefore one of the most
fundamental principles in sound land use planning to cope with the trend.
2. Erosion and salination
○ Overgrazing of land by animals, intensive cultivation of marginal lands,
deforestation and forest degradation initiate the erosion of soil. Vast plantations
of timber have been removed for more agricultural lands and fuelwood.
○ This has resulted in the erosion and turning of hundreds of thousands of hectares
of fertile lands into arid landscapes. Intense vaporation in the dry periods drew
the salts from the soil to the surface thus sterilizing the soil.

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 3. Husbandry and conservation
○ To promote good husbandry and the establishment of a conservation ethics
which seeks to preserve the countryside, the widest variety of land uses and
landscape, the greatest number of wildlife habitats and the keeping open of all
possible options for future action.
4. Comprehensive planning goals
○ These goals are likely to be otherwise achieved without planning especially to
prevent the harmful results of sporadic and uncontrolled developments.
5. The balance land uses
○ To balance the priorities given to the different uses of countryside such as - urban
development, forestry, mining, recreation, transportation, oil installations, industry
and utility services with amenity consideration.
6. Corporate planning
○ To encourage a comprehensive multi-disciplinary and corporate approaches to
rural and urban planning.

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 Lecture 3

Importance of Landscape

Importance of Landscape
f

Economic
● Plants increase tourism revenues. Guests willingly pay an extra $30 per night for rooms
overlooking the jungle- like display, netting $7 million a year in additional room revenues.
● Landscaping increases property market value. A study estimates that an attractive
landscape increase the value of a home.

Photos - Cameron Highlands, Malaysia; Fraser Hill, Malaysia; Bukiy Tinggi; Genting Highlands;
Pahang National Park, Malaysia; Chini Lake, Malaysia; Tioman Island, Malaysia; Landscape
increase the value of a home.

● Horticulture and landscaping industry offer job opportunities.

● Nature increases worker productivity. Psychologists have found that plants and green
spaces provide a sense of rest that allows workers with access to plants and nature to
be more productive.

Photos - Nature increases worker productivity; Offer job opportunities.

● Landscaping reduces crime. In a California study, landscaped areas were relatively

graffiti-free, while open, non-landscaped areas were graffiti targets.
● Views of plants increase job satisfaction. Employees with an outside view of plants
experience less job pressure and greater job satisfaction than workers viewing
man-made objects or having no outside view. They also report fewer headaches and
other ailments than workers without the view.

Photos - View of plants experience less job pressure; Non-landscaped areas were graffiti
targets.

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Environment
● Plants protect water quality. Proper landscaping reduces nitrate leaching from the soil
into the water supply.
● Proper landscaping reduces soil erosion. A dense cover of plants and mulch holds soil in
place, keeping sediment out of lakes, streams, storm drains, and roads; and reducing
flooding, mudslides, and dust storms.

Photos - Soil erosion; Protect water quality.

● Plants improve air quality. Landscape plants, including shrubs and turf, remove smoke,
dust, and other pollutants from the air.
● Landscape for nation identity. Cultural heritage including historic buildings, sites, cultures
and other invaluable assets are the distinguished elements that encapsulate a nation’s
soul and spirit.

Photos - Plants improve air quality; Landscape for nation identity.

● Landscaping conserves natural resources. By using trees to modify temperatures and

protect against wind, the amount of fossil fuels used for cooling and heating is reduced.
● Noise and Glare Reduction. Studies have shown that turf grass surfaces absorb harsh
sounds significantly better than hard surfaces such as pavement, gravel, or bare ground.
These benefits are maximized by an integrated landscape of turf grasses, trees, and
shrubs.

Photos - Noise and Glare Reduction; Landscaping conserves natural resources.

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Lifestyle
● Gardening is excellent physical exercise. Routine gardening tasks such as shoveling and
even mowing grass with a push-type, reel lawn mower can measure up to the exertion
rates of jogging, bicycling, or aerobics.
● Gardens produce healthy food. Fresh food from the garden can have up to three times
as many vitamins and minerals as canned or frozen food.

Photos - Gardens produce healthy food likes edible garden; Gardening is excellent physical
exercise.

● Horticulture is therapeutic. Horticultural therapy is a treatment for a variety of diagnoses.

Working with and around plants improves quality of life through psychological and
physical changes.
● Landscapes heal. Restorative gardens offer an environment for people who are sick,
injured, and under stress to recover and regain confidence in themselves. Such
landscapes are also currently used by hospices in treatment of Alzheimer patients.

Photos - Gardens offer an environment for people who are sick, and under stress to recover and
regain confidence in themselves.

● Privacy and tranquility. Well-placed plantings offer privacy and tranquility by screening
out busy street noises and reducing glare from headlights.
● Better atmosphere for learning. To test attentiveness, a university class rotated between
two classrooms. One contained plants and foliage, and one did not. Results at the end of
the academic year showed inattentiveness was reduced by 70 percent in the room
containing plants, plus indications of better exam performance.

Photos - Privacy and tranquility; Better atmosphere for learning.

Landscaping is an integral part of our culture and plays an essential role in the quality of our
environment, affecting our economic well-being and our physical and psychological health.
Landscaping is one of the most cost effective tools for improving and sustaining the quality of
life, whether in the city, the suburbs, or the country.

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 Lecture 4

Basic Elements of Landscape Planning

Hard Landscape Elements

The term hard landscape is used by practitioners of landscape architecture and garden
design to describe the construction materials which are used to improve a landscape by
design.

Soft Landscape Elements

The term soft landscape is used by practitioners of landscape design, landscape
architecture, and garden design; and gardeners to describe the vegetative materials
which are used to improve a landscape by design.

A. Hard Landscape Elements

● Hard landscape can also describe outdoor furniture and other landscape
products.
● A wide range of hard landscape materials can be used, such as brick, gravel,
stone, concrete, timber, bitumen, glass, metals, etc.

Functions of Hard Landscape Elements

● to provide physical visual interest. i.e. texiure, colours, materials.
● to satisfy practical needs of user, i.e. seating safety, comfort.
● to protect landscape plantings, i.e. retaining walls. for example, can help prevent
erosion and porous paving material limits water runoff.

Examples
● Gazebos/ Pavillions.
● Sculptures.
● Other elements.

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B. Soft Landscape Elements
The range of soft landscape materials includes each layer of the ecological sequence:
aquatic plants, semi-aquatic plants, field layer plants (including grasses and herbaceous
plants) shrubs and trees.

Ground Covers & Grasses

● Some ground cover plants make good alternatives to turfgrasses in some
ocations, especially in the xeriscaped landscape.
● They provide variety of texture and color, reduce soil erosion, and serve as a
transition between grass areas and shrub or flower beds.
● Grasses add variety to many types of gardens, including water, rock, wildlife,
craft, xeriscape, container and others.
● Ornamental grasses add two elements to the garden experience that are not
readily obtainedfrom many other Plants: movement and sound.

Shrubs
● Shrubs are the primary way gardeners can diversify the garden horizontally.
● Shrubs are also a useful source for food and cover for wildlife on a smaller scale,
often down to ground level.
● Shrubs provide cover for some smaller shade-loving plants.
● Some flowering shrubs attract birds with their fruit and some shrubs even provide
colorful fall foliage rivaling any tree.

Trees
● Besides the economic value a quality tree can add, it also provides shade,
privacy, and beauty.
● Trees provide dramatic vertical layering within the landscape and garden.
● Trees create shady microclimates in the landscape, protecting shrubs and
groundcovers from direct exposure to the natural elements.

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Examples
● Fragrant and Flowering Shrubs.
● Ornamental Garden (English & French) - Pattern using evergreen shrubs called
parterres and knots. Shape of geometry, box, yew are frequently trimmed.
● Topiary - as an art form it is a type of living sculpture.
● Annual Plant - Plants that lasting only for a few months and nomally planted at
the strategic location.

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 Lecture 5

Principles of Landscape Planning

The Reality Principles

A. Functional
● Allows for easy movement.
● Accessible for maintenance recreation, leisure.
● Functional and maintainable over entire life.

B. Easy to Maintain
● Reduces need for: fertilizers, pesticides, equipment (mowers), water, extra labor/
expense.

C.Environmentally Sound
● "Right plant right place" decreases: disease, insect, stress, water needs.
● Plants in stress = more maintenance.

D. Cost Effective
● Cost should not dictate whether the landscape is: functional, maintainable,
environmentaily sound.
● Low cost can meet all these needs.

E. Visually Pleasing
● Fundamentally, good landscape design is a matter of "managing the viewer's
eye."
● Framework needed to create a visually pleasing landscape includes:
functionality, form follows function, and maintainabilily, right plant, right place.

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Six Main Principles

1. Unity
● Landscape elements should tie together.
● Should provides good blend of simplicity and variety.
● Features can still be treated differently to match the theme.
● Repeat these to unify the landscape: color, curvy lines, straight lines,
construction materials, textures.
● Use similar backgrounds and foregrounds to establish connections.
● Same color/different plant.
● Focal points establish dominance and unify group.
● Repetition strengthens unity:
Selected plant material should be repeated throughout landscape.

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 ● Connections strengthen Unity:
Interconnected parts allow the eye to move smoothly from one element to
another appreciating the whole picture.

● Unity: Dominance.
Focal points establish dominance to unify a variety of materials. Also Can draw
attention to or away from something

● Unity of Three Law: Whenever three elements of the same kind are grouped
together there is a strong sense of unity.

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2. Simplicity
Achieved by repetition of ideas or materials.
● One of most common errors in landscapes is trying to do "too much".
● Less can be more.
● Too much variety in plant material becomes chaotic.
● Reduce the number of themes.
● Viewer should experience the landscape in parts as well as a whole.
● Too much simplicity = Monotony.

3. Variety
A variety of lines, forms, textures and colours is required in order to achieve an
interesting landscape.

● Simple but not monotonous.

● Variety without looking cluttered.

● Too much variety causes visual confusion.

● Variety and Simplicity work in a delicate balance

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4. Balance
Symmetrical
● Formal, static, classical design.
● The same thing on each side of a central axis, bilateral symmetry.
● Distribution of visual weight- equal.

Symmetrical Problems
● Symmetry can be boring.
● Plant loss on one side loses balance.
● A symmetrical house may not allow asymmetrical landscape.

Asymmetrical
● Casual.
● Indicates movement.
● Achieved by using similar ideas but different things on either side.
● Distribution of visual weight - equal.

Asymmetrical Problems
● Empty areas that make your eye uneasy.
● Bottom left side feels Heavy.
● Top right feels light.
● Floating, not grounded.

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Asymmetrical
● Effective.
● Eye feels a sense of unity.
● No uneasiness.
● Calmness.
● Feel grounded and enclosed.

5. Proportion/ Scale
How things relate to each other with respect to size.
● Large elements and small elements need an intermediary to bring them together.
● Large difference in size creates dissonance.
● Very large material can be intimidating.
● Generally don't want very large in residential design.
● Make people feel welcome.
● Bring things down to human scale.

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6. Sequence
● From horizontal to rounded to vertical.
● From low spreading plants to verticał plants.
● Here to there.
● Near to far.
● Turf-shrubs-trees.
● Sequence can help the eye move from one area to another - orderly progression.

● Sequence (rhythm) can be achieved through the graduation in size and type of
plants used.

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 Lecture 6

Plants and Landscape Design

Role of Plants in Landscape Design

1. Air Quality
● Trees are an efficient and cost-effective way for a community to improve its air
quality and reduce pollution.
● A mature tree absorbs between 120-240 pounds per year of small particles and
gases. like carbon dioxide, which are released into the air by automobiles and
industries.
● In addition, a single tree produces nearly three-quarters of the oxygen required
for a person.

2. Water Quality
● Trees help anchor soil and reduce storm water runoff, saving the high costs of
drainage ditches, storm sewers, and other "engineered solutions" to storm water
management.
● A street lined with 32' tall trees can reduce runoff by almost 327 gallons, allowing
cities to install smaller and less expensive water management systems.
● Reducing runoff also decreases topsoil erosion and the amount of silt and other
polutants washed into streams, rivers and lakes.

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3. Lower Heating and Cooling Costs
● Urban areas with little vegetation can experience temperatures of up to seven
degrees higher than those with tree cover. This translates into significantly higher
energy costs to cool buildings.
● Properly planted trees can cut heating and cooling costs by as much as 12 %
and reduce overall power demand.

4. Reduced Noise Pollution

● Trees can play an important role in deadening unwanted noise.
● Sound waves are absorbed by a tree's leaves, branches, and twigs. Studies
suggest that belts of trees 100' wide and 45' long can cut highway noise to half.

5. Health Value
● Trees and vegetation can affect our mood and help relieve stress.

6. Economic Value
● Trees are a major economic asset to a community, building a positive community
image which is a key factor in attracting residents, businesses, and visitors alike.
● The landscaped areas enjoy higher occupancy and rental/ lease rates than
identical properties that lack landscaping.

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7. Shelter
● The shade of trees is welcomed by man and beast alike, providing essential
shelter in the hottest climates.
● Trees are often used as windbreaks to shelter sensitive crops.

8. Aesthetic Value
● Trees provide a variety of aesthetic values and accentuate the architectural
design of buildings.

Planting Design Consideration

The following criteria shall be considered in planting design:
1. Plant Material,
2. Soil conditions,
3. Availability and quality of water,
4. Availability of sunlight,
5. Quality of air,
6. Maintenance,
7. Functional Aspects of Design with Plants.

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1. Plant Material
The major sets of factors that influence the choice of plant material are related to the
characteristics, both botanical and physical of plant material and the context in which
the plant material is to be used.

Physical and Botanical Characteristics of Plant material

(a) Nomenclature (botanical and trade-name),
(b) Origin, family and natural habitat,
(c) Growth characteristic and fom as a function of habitat,
(d) Physical characteristics, for example bark, texture, foliage, etc.
(e) Propagation and maintenance; and
(f) Use in landscape design.

Vegetation Types (Evergreen and deciduous)

(a) Evergreen trees for:
(i) Places requiring shade throughout the year,
(ii) Strong visual screening,
(ii) Part of windbreak or shelter planting, and
(iv) Areas where leaf lifter is to be discouraged.

(b) Deciduous trees for:

(i) Greater visual variety,
(ii) Partial visual barrier,
(iii) Areas where under-planting is to be encouraged (for example grass), (iv) Emphasis
on branching and flowering pattern, and
(v) Areas where shade is not required throughout the year.

In botany, an evergreen is a plant that has leaves throughout the year, always green.
This contrasts with deciduous plants, which completely lose their foliage during the
winter or dry season.

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 ● Growth rate and age of vegetation,
● Landscapes are developed to sustain future generations; slow growing long lived
native trees shall be emphatically included in all major planting schemes.

Growth Habits of Various Kinds of Vegetation and their Form

The overall physical form of a plant is usually the result of the foliage density and
branching pattern.

(a) Trees of fastigited or columnar habit

● Casurina esquisitifolia (beet wood)
● Grevilea robusta (Silver Oak)
● Polyathia logifolia (Ashok)
● Populus species (Poplar)

(b) Tall trees with canopy

● Dalbergia sissoo (Sheesham)
● Tamarindus indica (Imli)
● Terminalia arjuna (Arjun)

(c) Trees of spreading habit

● Delonix regia (Gulmohar)
● Lagerstroemia flosreginae (pride of India)
● Pithecolobium saman (Rain Tree)

(d) Trees of weeping habit

● Callistemon lanceolatus (Bottle brush)
● Salix babylonica (Weeping willow/ Peking willow)

The above classification is helpful in choosing various combinations of the above types
to achieve desired function and visual objectives.

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2. Soil Conditions
● Physical as well as chemical properties of the available scil are important.
● Physical properties include consideration of light (for example sandy) and heavy
(for example clayey) soils, and their structure.
● Chemical properties pertain to the presence or absence of nutrients and salts,
soil, alkalinity or acidity.

3. Availability and Quality of Water

● The water requirement may be derived by data of humidity and rainfall of plants
natural habitat.
● The water table of the area where the plantation is to be done has a crucial
bearing on the design with plants as well as a financial implication for reduced
maintenance if planted appropriately.

4. Availability of Sunlight
● The growth rate of plants are directly related to sunlight availability; such as
plants that require
(a) full sunight,
(b) partial sunlight,
(c) predominantly shade, and
(d) complete shade.

5. Quality of Air
● Growth may be affected by chemical pollutants such as sulphur dioxide or
physical pollution such as dust.
● Certain plants have the ability to withstand pollution, such plants are imperative
for industrial areas, roads, highways, etc.

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6. Maintenance
● The success of a designed landscape depends upon the growth of vegetatioon
over an extended period of time; therefore maintenance of landscape is also a
design component.

7. Functional Aspects of Design with Plants

(a) Improve existing environmental conditions with respect to soil, drainage,
microclimate, air pollution;
(b) Create a designed physical environment through the organization of open space;
and
(c) Interpret and express the contemporary understanding of the man-nature
relationship, that is, design with plants on an ecological rather than horticulture basis.

Example - Specimen plant as focal point, accent plant, corner & border plant.

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 Lecture 7

Global landscape planning and design

A. Italian Landscape

Italian garden is stylistically based on:

● Symmetry,
● Axial Geometry,
● The principle of imposing order over nature.
It influenced the history of gardening, especially French gardens and English gardens.
● Geometrical patterned beds are a distinct element of Italian style.
● Traditionally, Italian garden had few flowers.
● Display and backdrop for sculpture.
● Contrast of sun and shades.
● Water features.
● Green being dominant color of the Italian garden.
● There's no single style in Italian gardens, they have been shaped by climate,
geography, history and Roman Renaissance.
● It basically displays careful design to showcase man's control over nature.
● Historic themes.
● A perfect Italian garden brings them with fusion of formal and informal spaces.

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 B. French Landscape

● Most French gardens were designed to be looked at from specific places, such
as terraces or balconies.
● The overall impression of the French landscaping style is one of harmony, one of
power of man over nature, where every tree and every bush is given a chosen
location and shape.
● Symmetry and geometry are the keywords when designing such gardens.
● The whole of garden is composed like a painting reaching for pure aesthetical
qualities.
● Like a painting, it is also created to be seen as a whole.

Key Features

● The focus of the garder-tends to be the house, usually a palace and paths
radiate out of this creating long axial views.
● A geometric plan is used and symmetry is very important.
● A central axis leads away from the house - perpendicular to the house.
● Paths tend to gravel and edged with clipped hedges and topiary laid out in
symmetrical patterns.
● Statuary is often used in French Garden Design. Pavilions are often incorporated
too.
● Water is often a key feature of French garden design and lots of round pools and
long rectangles of water is incorporated, the reflection of the water adding to the
symmetry and tranquility of the scene. Fountains and cascades are also very
common features.
● Close to the house planting is kept low (no trees).
● Further from the house paths are often edged with trees, these are almost
always manipulated in some way.
● Trees are always planted in straight lines adding perspective and reinforcing the
symmetry of the garden.

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 C. English Landscape

Many people consider that the landscape garden are the greatest contribution of
England to world culture after Shakespeare.

William Kent
● In the early years of 18th century, the Artist and Designer William Kent began to
compose gardens look like landscape paintings.
● Kent is recognised as the Father of the English landscape garden.

Elements within English Gardens

● Recreations of classic buildings.
● Ruins.
● Bridges.
● Natural Stone.
● Cobblestone.
● Wattle edging and panels.
● Bee skep.

Characteristics of English Gardens

● Lake
There was always a lake in the English gardens, most were man-made but all
appeared to be natural forming basins. Their edges were irregular and often had
pathways merging through the trees and close to the water's edge.
● Rolling Lawns
Rolling lawn topography allowed visitorrs for surprises as they come around
mounds or niche.
● Tree Groves
Tree groves were spread throughout the landscape with paths that allowed the
gardens users to wander (walk/ roam) in and out of the groves and provide a
view of rolling lawns against mass tree plantings.

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 ● Ha Ha Wall
The purpose of ha ha wall was to separate garden from the grazing land but was
invisible from a distance. Cattle could be kept securely in their fields without the
use of hedges or fences to interrupt the view.
● Grottos
Grottos were used as romantic hideouts. They were manmade but build to
resemble a dark natural forming cave.

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 D. Japanese Landscape

● The art of gardening is believed to be an important part of Japanese culture for

many centuries.
● The garden design in Japan is strongly connected to the philosophy and religion
of the country.
● The line between garden and its surrounding landscape is not distinct.
● Gardens incorporate natural and artificial elements.
● Japanece gardens are serene and simple places om calm, providing a peaceful
retreat for refiection and meditation.
● They avoid the extravagance of many Western garden designs, and consist
mostly of evergreens, rocks, pebbles, sanc, ponds and waterfalls.
● Any architecture found in the garden tends to be minimalisic, with the focus
primarily on natural landscane rather than elaborate and ornate designs.
● Worn and natural elements are integrated into the gardens, and brignt colours
are used in a direct manner to represent seasonal shifts.
● In the Japanese garden, the viewer should consider nature as a picture frame
into which the garden, or the man-made work of art, is inserted.
● From ancient times to the present, living in harmony with nature has reflected the
in Japanese gardens as per seasons.

Elements of a Japanese Garden

1. Water
2. Rocks
3. Trees and Flowers
4. Bridges and Fences
5. Stone lanterns and water basins
6. Fish

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1. Water
● Water is a constant in Japanese gardens, as a reflection of life and its
fundamental role in human existence.
● Ponds, streams and waterfalls are all popular features. In dry rock gardens
known as Zen gardens, water is instead symbolized by sand.
● Traditional gardens consist of asymmetrical ponds- positioned as they would be
in nature. Ponds symbolize the ocean or a lake, while waterfalls represent a
miniature version of Japanese mountain streams. It is advised that waterfalls
should face towards the moon to capture its reflection.
● It is thought that water flowing from east to west will carry away evil, and that the
owner will have a healthy and long life. Water flowing from north to south is said
to bring good luck.

2. Rocks
● Rocks are an important feature of a Japanese garden, and carry different
symbolic representations:
a) Vertical rock - Mount Horai, Mount Sumuru or a jumping carp.
b) Horizontal rock - islands or earth.
c) Sand and gravel - the ocean or a flowing river.
d) Rough volcanic rocks- mountains.
● Smooth rocks are normally used as stepping stones or around lakes, while hard
metamorphic rocks are placed around waterfalls or streams.
● Arrangements of three rocks are most common in Japanese gardens - the tallest
rock represents heaven, the medium-sized rock is humanity, and the bridge
between heaven and earth is shown with the smallest rock.
● Rocks are also evident in clusters of two, five or seven, and are sometimes
placed in a random configuration to represent spontaneity.

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3. Trees and Flowers
● Trees and flowers are arranged carefully to create a picturesque scene, or to
hide anything unsightly. Trees are selected for their autumnal colours, and
flowers are chosen by their season of flowering. Moss is often used to suggest
that the garden is ancient.
● Some of the most popular trees and flowers include the lotus (sacred in Buddhist
teachings), pine (representing longevity), azalea, oak, bamboo, cherry, maple
and gingko trees.

4. Bridges and Fences

● Bridges have been known to symbolise the path to paradise and immortality, and
are most often made of natural materials such as wood, stone or logs covered in
earth and moss. They are either arched or flat, and became particularly popular
in the Edo period when stroll gardens first emerged.
● Fences are made of bamboo or wood and are kept simple. They are either inner
fences, outer fences or fences that extend from the house to the garden.

5. Stone Lanterns and Water Basins

● A stone lantern provides a dim light that softly illuminate elements in the garden,
represents the four natural elements- fire, water, earth and wind.
● Stone water basins are intended for visitors in tea gardens, with guests expected
to wash their hands and mouth before the tea ceremony. The water flows through
a bamboo pipe into the basin.

6. Fish
● Koi are domesticated common carp found in Japanese gardens. They were first
developed in Japan in the 1820s, where the various colours were established
through careful breeding. Koi is a homophone for “affection” in Japanese, and the
fish (known locally as nishikigoi) are a common symbol of love and friendship.

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Characteristics of Japanese Gardens
● Japanese garders always have water, either a pond or stream.
● Rock, sand and gravel are an essential feature of the Japanese garden.
● The buildings are well apart from the body of water.
● the buildings are simple, with very little ornament.
● Japanese gardens are designed to be seen from the outside.
● The structures in a Japanese garden from the Edo period onward are organized
asymmetrically.
● Fences and walls.
● Paths or tobi-ishi, usually used in tea gardens.
● Japanese garden is predominately green with its use of evergreen trees. Flowers
are also carefully chosen by their season of flowering.

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 E. Mughal Landscape

● Significant use of rectilinear layouts are made within the walled enclosures.
● Typical features include pools, fountains and canals inside the gardens.
● Had handsome walls and great gateways.
● More like forts than gardens.
● Mughals were obsessed with symbol and incorporated it into their gardens in
many ways.
● Include trees of various sorts, some to provide shade merely, and others to
produce fruits;
○ flowers, colorful and sweet-smelling;
○ grass, usually growing wild under the trees;
○ birds to fly the garden with song; the whole cooled by a pleasant breeze.
● The garden might include a raised hillock at the center.

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