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Chapter I
HISTORY OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

The scientific examination of questioned documents however, did not

develop into a distinct profession until about 1870, even though prior to that
time certain legal photographers had made an attempt to discover forged
writings by the use of photography.
The Frenchman Alphonse Bertillon, the inventor
of anthropometry, was also master of photography
who fancied himself as great document, expert as well.
With false modesty, he disclaimed expertise in
handwriting comparisons, but nevertheless frequently
proceeds to opinions on the genuineness of documents.
These opinions, coming as they did from the renowned head of the
French Identification Service, carried great weight. It was Bertillon, the
photographer and anthropometrist, who gave part of the damming evidence in
the famous Affaire Dreyfus ( which resulted in Emile
Zola's famous manifesto J'accuse). By testifying in
that Alfred Dreyfus had written the document which
served as the basis of his conviction for treason and
his subsequent banishment. Later of course, Dreyfus
innocence was established, as well as Bertillon's error
in testifying that Dreyfus wrote incriminating document,
Bertillon's mistaken opinion was the result of lack of expertise in the
comparison of handwriting, demonstrates probably more dramatically than
any other example that a photographer is not a person qualified to give
opinions on the identity of handwritings not even a photographer who is also
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experienced in making minute and accurate measurement of insignificantly

appearing trace evidence, as Bertillon was. Each age has its crime, with the
corresponding protective measure all alike the product of the age's conditions.
In each age crime takes advantage of conditions, and then society wakes and
gradually overtakes crime by discovering new expedients.
In modern history since Charlemagne and the beginning of the civilization
in Europe, some twelve hundred years ago there have been epochs in the
history of documents In the first, skinparchment is the vehicle, and writing is
an esoteric art for the monkish few.
Forgery flourished in the middle ages, chiefly as successful method of
acquiring land title. The forged Decretals of tsodorous came down to us as a
typical in positions of that age. In the next epoch, paper is made, then printing
is invented, and education in writing becomes gradually universal. Amidst
these new conditions, the falsifier again outstrip society for a while. A
Chatterton and a Junius can baffle the community.
In 1800s, the most daring impositions remain possible. But society at last
seems to have overtaken the falsifier once more. Science and Art, the mass,
are more isolated individuals. We have apparently entered further upon, a
somewhat variant documentary epoch, that of the typewriting machine
It was sometime in 1870 that attempts were
made to discover forged writings by the use of
photography. Following the civil war in the US, the
first major questioned document case was that of
Sylvia Ann Howland which was tried in New
Bedford, Mansachusetts court.

By 1916 Albert S. Osborn made the first

significant textbook on Questioned Document and
Dean Wigmore of Northwestern University Law
School said, "Mr. Osborn had established a new
profession Impressively, the early handwriting experts
were teachers of writing, lithographers, engravers and
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clerk of court who were exposed to the work where much writing was exposed
and done
Eventually, enlightenment gradually superseded the relics of ignorance
Provisions of law as Section 1731 Title 28, U.S. code originally enacted on
February 26, 1913 are now common to many states and countries, and
insure the admissibility of exemplar matter to wit. The admitted or proved
handwriting of any person shall be admissible, for purpose of comparison to
determine genuineness of other handwriting attributed to such person,
The service for the examination of questioned documents began in the US.
Department of Treasury in a formal way in 1913 when Bert C. Farrar was
made the first examiner of Questioned Documents in the Federal Service
In 1950, the first comprehensive scientific
police laboratory was established as the
"Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory, a
division of the North Western University Law
School. In this project, document examiners
are those dedicated to the enlightenment of
law enforcement owed so much to the late Dean Wigmore and the the late
Col Calvin Goddard. Later, the U.S. Bureau of
Standards participated in the scientific examination
of questioned documents for the FBI, US
Department of Justice Later of course, the FBI set
up its own scientific laboratory which eventually
became the best in the world. In 1959, the Post
Office Department of the US established also a
laboratory program through its Inspection Service. During the World War II,
the military services emphasized the training of document examiners to cope
up effectively with the many evidential documents borne of military operations,
intelligence, and personnel.
In 1942, the American Society of Document Examiners was founded
and it had explored assiduously the improvement of techniques for examining
and demonstrating document evidence. This society had been a pillar of
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strength in private practice of document examination In many state, Bureau of

Investigation and Identifications, State Police Departments, County Sheriff's
Offices, and City Police Departments have established the position of
document examiner realizing that more investigations will turn on Scrap of
Paper than any other category of physical evidence. Training programs in-
service and in cooperation with academic institutions are being made to
develop document consciousness and utilization that would prove beneficial
to the profession.

Definition of terms
Alteration - It is any form of changes be it an addition or a deletion to the
original contents of a document.
Arc - The bend, crook, or curve on the inner side of the upper loop of letters
such as c, h, m, n.
Baseline - The ruled or imaginary line upon which the writing rests.
Beard - The slight up and down introductory stroke or sort of double hitch,
seen at the beginning of many capital letters.
Blunt - The beginning and ending strokes of letters, both small and capital, in
which the pen touch the paper without hesitation, beard, hitch, or knob.
Buckle Knot - The horizontal and looped strokes that are often used to
complete such letters of A, F, f, H and D.
Central Pocket Loop or Body - The part of letter ordinarily formed by a small
circle that usually lies on the line of writing, as the bodies of a, b, d, g, o, p.
Characteristic - Any property or mark that distinguishes and in document
examination commonly refers to identifying details. There are two groups of
characteristics, class and individual.
Class Characteristic - Not all characteristics encountered in document
examination are peculiar to a single person or thing and one that is common
to a group may be described as a class characteristics.
Collation - The critical comparison or side by side examination.
Comparison - The act of setting two or more items side by side to weigh their
identifying qualities. It implied not only a visual but also a mental act in which
the elements of one item are related to the counterparts of the other.
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Conclusion - A scientific conclusion results from relating observed facts by

logical, commonsense reasoning in accordance with established rules of laws.
Copybook Form - The design of letters that is fundamental to a writing
system This term is derived from the old methods of teaching handwriting
from a copybook containing engraved script printed on each page for the
student to imitate.
Crime - An act in violation of penal law.

Cursive Writing - Writing in which the letters are for the most part joined
together.
Disputed Document - A term suggesting that there is an argument or
controversy over the document.
Document - In its fullest meaning, any material that contains marks, symbols,
or signs either visible, partially visible, or invisible that may ultimately convey a
meaning or message to someone. Pencil or ink writing, typewriting, or printing
on paper are the more usual forms of documents
Document Examiner - One who studies scientifically the details and
elements of documents in order to identify their source or to discover other
facts concerning them. Document examiners are often referred to as
handwriting identification experts, but today the work has outgrown this latter
title and involves other problems than merely the examination of handwriting
Ductus Brocken letters. The disconnected and non-continuous stroke
between two
Ductus Link - The continuous line that joins two letters.
Examination - The act of making a close and critical study of any material,
and with questioned documents is the process necessary to discover the facts
about them. Various types of examinations are undertaken, including
microscopic, visual, photographic, chemical, ultraviolet, and infra-red
examination.
Exemplar - Refers to specimen standards or disputed document which has
been used for comparison Expert Witness - A legal term used to describe a
witness who by reason of his special technical training or experience is
permitted to express an opinion regarding the issue, or a certain aspect of the
issue, which is involved in a court action. His purpose is to interpret technical
information in his particular specialty in order to assist the court in
administering justice. Eye Loop (Eyelet) - The small loop formed by strokes
that extend in divergent direction as in b, c, f, k, p, q, r, s, v, w, and z.
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forensic Science - The field of science that is used in the judicial process. A
number of scientific disciplines commonly make up the more active segments
of forensic science. Some are described from the physical, medical, and
dental sciences, and the best qualified workers specialize in the court-oriented
aspects of each discipline. Questioned document examination is a notable
part of forensic science in that it developed directly from the need of court
experts to answer problems regarding documents instead of growing out of
established field of science.
Forgery - An act of counterfeiting documents, signatures, with the intent to
deceive or defraud.
Foot - The base or bottom of a letter that lies on the line of writing.

Graphology - The art of attempting to interpret the character or personality of

an individual from his handwriting.
Guided Signature (Guided Writing) - Specimen of writing executed while
the writer's hand is at steadied.
Hand lettering - Any disconnected style of writing also known as hand
printing. Handwriting - Is the result of very complicated series of act being a
whole combination of a certain form of mental and muscular habits acquired
by long painstaking effort.
Hitch - The introductory backward stroke added to the beginning of many
capital letters; it is also occasionally found in some small letters.
Hook (Through) - The bend, crook, or curve on the inner side of the bottom
loop, or curve of small letters.
Holographic Document - Any document completely written and signed by
one person, also known as a holograph. In a number of jurisdictions a
holographic will can be probated without anyone having witnessed its
execution
Hump - The rounded outer side of the top of the bend, crook, or curve in
small peculiar letters such as h, k, m, n.
Individual Characteristics - A characteristics that is highly personal or and is
unlikely to occur in other instances.
Infrared Examination - The examination of documents employing invisible
radiation beyond the red portion of the visible spectrum. Infrared radiation can
be recorded on specially sensitized photographic emulsions or it can be
converted by means of an electronic viewing device into visible light for an on-
the-scene study of the evidence.
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Infrared luminescence - A phenomenon encountered with some dyes used

in inks and colored pencil that, when illuminated with norrow band of light in
the blue-green portion of the spectrum, give off a luminescence that can be
detected in the far-red or near-infrared range. The technique is useful in
distinguishing between certain inks and colored pencils, and in detecting or
deciphering erasures.
Initial spur - The long initial stroke of a letter.
Insertion - The addition of writing and other material within a document such
as between lines or paragraphs, or the addition of whole pages to a document.
Interlineation writing- The act of inserting writing or typewriting between two
lines of writing.
Knob (Initial Spur) - Found eithe at the beginning or end of letters, both small
and capital which the pen touched or left the paper so slowly that a tiny pool
of ink spread slightly.
Main stroke (Stem or Shank of Staff) - The long upright downward stroke
that is the trunk or stalk, seen especially in B,F,K,P.
Microscopic examination - Any study or examination made with the
microscope in order to discover minute physical details.
Natural variation - Normal or usual deviations found between repeated
specimens of any individuals handwriting or in the product of any typewriter or
other record making machines
Natural writing - Any specimen or writing executed normally without ant
attempt to control or alter its identifying habits. Oblique light examination - An
examination with the illuminations so controlled that it grazes or strikes the
surface of the document from one side at a very low angle; also referred to a
side light examination.
Obliteration - The blotting out or smearing over of writing to make the original
invisible or undecipherable.
Patching (Retouching) Is a stroke going back to repair a defective portion of
the writing stroke. Careful patching is a common fault in forgeries
Pen emphasis The act of intermittently forcing the pen against the paper
surface with increase pressure or the periodic increase in pressure of the
writing.
Pen-lift - An interruption in a stroke caused by removing the writing
instrument from the paper. Disconnection between letters and letter
combination may be due to lack of movement control. Using a ballpoint pen
may cause pen lift due to failure of the ball to rotate.
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Pen position (pen hold) - It is the location of the pen in relation to the paper
surface, which can be determined by the presence of the emphasis or pen
shading.
Pen pressure - The average force with which the pen comes in contact with
the paper or the usual force involves in the writing. This is one of the most
personal but somewhat hidden characteristics in writing.
Pen scope - Represents the reach of the hand with the wrist at rest. It is the
average scope or limits of the pen during the process of writing with the wrist
of the hand at still.
Photomicrograph A photograph made through a compound microscope and
may be a greatly enlarged image of a small area.
Photo macrograph - An enlarged photograph may be prepared with only a
lens of very short focal length.
Quality - A distinct or peculiar character. In this text, "quality" is used in
describing handwriting to refer to any identifying factor that is related to the
writing movement itself. Questioned Document - Any document about which
some issue has been raised or that is under scrutiny.
Restoration - Any process in which erased writing is developed or brought
out again on the document itself.
Retracing - The stroke that goes back over another writing stroke; it is slightly
to occur in other writing.
Rhythm - The balance quality of movement or the harmonious recurrence of
strokes or impulse. As an element of writing, rhythm accounts to be one of the
very essential for there is nothing in handwriting so difficult to imitate as the
exact quality of a muscular rhythm.
Secret Inks - A material used for writing that is not visible until treated by
some developing process, also referred to as sympathetic ink.
Shading - Refers to the more obvious increase in the width of the letter
strokes or the widening of the ink strokes due to the added ink on the flexible
pen point or the use of the stub pen.
Significant Writing Habits - Refers to characteristics of writing which is
sufficiently unique and well fixed to serve a strong basis for the identity or
non-identity of the writing.
Skill - Refers to the relative degree of the writer's proficiency degree of the
writer's proficiency. It cannot be accurately measured although it can be
grouped as to poor, average and good. Writing skill is dependent to many
factors, manual dexterity being the most important. Its basis is either legibility
or symmetry.
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Slant - Refers to the degree of writing inclination relative to the baseline or the
slope of the writing.
Smeared - over writing - An obliteration accomplish by covering the original
writing with opaque substance.
Space Filler (Terminal Spur) - An upward horizontal or downward final
strokes usually seen in small letters such as A,S,U,Y.
Speed of writing - It cannot be measured precisely from the finished
handwriting but it can be interpreted in broad term as to slow and drawn,
deliberate, average and rapid.
Splicing - A term used by document examiners to denote the slight
overlapping of two strokes after an interruption in the writing. It may be a part
of imitated, fraudulent signatures that are prepared one or two letters at a time.
Spurious Signature - It is a fraudulent signature in which was no apparent
attempt at simulation or imitation. It is a common form of forgery encountered
in investigations of fraudulent checks depends on the surrounding
circumstances rather than upon the quality of the signature for his success.
Standard - A condensed and compact set of authentic specimens which, if
adequate and proper, should contain a true cross section of the ch, if from a
known source. They are used by the document examiner as the basis for his
identification on non-identification of the questioned document, as for example
the known handwriting which serves to establish who wrote the disputed letter.
Stereoscopic Microscope - It is considered as most powerful and useful
equipment in the laboratory. It is an instrument that can bring together two
objects into the same field of view so that they may easily be compared under
the same degree of magnification. This is extensively used in questioned
document, fingerprint and ballistics.
System (of writing) - The combination of the basic design of letters and the
writing movement as taught in school. Writing trough use diverges from the
system, but generally retains some influence of the basic training
Traced Forgery- Any fraudulent signature executed by actually following the
outline of a genuine signature with a writing instrument. Such a signature may
be produced with the mid of carbon paper by first tracing a carbon outline and
then covering this with a suitable ink stroke, or the forgery may be traced from
an outline made visible though the model signature and the fraudulent
document.
Transmitted light examination - An examination in which the document is
viewed with the source of illumination behind it and the light passing through
the paper.
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Tremor - A writing weakness portrayed by irregular, shaky strokes.

Ultra Violet photograph - Any photograph that records the document under
ultraviolet illumination. With some of these the ultraviolet radiation strikes the
film, but with others a filter is employed so that the only visual fluorescence
caused by the ultraviolet is recorded.
Whirl - The upward stroke, usually on letters that have a high loop as h. d and
I. Writing - It is the result of a very complicated series of acts being as a whole
or combination of certain forms of visible mental and muscular habits acquired
by long continued painstaking effort.
Writing combination - Both the circumstances under which the writing was
prepared and the factors influencing the writer's ability to write at the time of
execution. Circumstances pertaining to preparation involve the writer's
position (sitting, standing, abed, etc.), the paper support backing and the
writing instrument's health, nervous state, or degree of intoxication.
Writing impression - The small writing indentation completely or virtually
devoid of any
pigment. It Video Links:
may be made 1. Questioned Document Examination (Introductory):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nA2ALAjaLHA
on the sheet 2. What Was The Dreyfus Affair?:
of tablet https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yC8aMb2fI9s
paper that 3. The Howland Will Case of 1865 - Was it a forgery?:
was https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o4EOqjQ1KEY
immediately
below the one
on which writing was done or remain after pencil or typewriting has been
thoroughly erased.

Writing offset - The result of a paper coming in contact with fresh ink writing.
It may be the mirror image of entire words or sentences, as are sometimes
found on a blotter, or merely fragments of words of letters.
Wrong - handed writing - Any writing executed with the opposite hand from
that normally used. Some workers refer to this writing as with the awkward
hand". It is one means of disguise.
Xerox - A positive photocopy made directly on plain paper.
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References: Questioned Document Examination: Dr.Lilee

Galeon