See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/346452584

Fundamentals of Theory of Numbers : THAT CONTAINS THE CONSTRUCTION

OF INTEGERS FROM NATURALS WITH ITS GEMOTERICAL INTERPRETATION.

Book · November 2020

CITATIONS READS

0 195

1 author:

Khanindra Chowdhury
Gauhati University
102 PUBLICATIONS 34 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Khanindra Chowdhury on 29 November 2020.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Fundamentals of Theory of Numbers
NUMBER SYSTEM

Chapter I

1.1 From Natural numbers to Integers

1.1.1 Introduction: Structure of number system: We start with a few

undefined terms and a few axioms or postulates and deduce from these all
the properties of the number system as a logical consequence. This is the
method same as that of deductive construction successfully employed by
the ancient Greeks in creating a theory of knowledge about geometry. It
was left to G.Peano(1899), an Italian mathematician and logician . He
propounded that all the properties of number system follow from only a
few assumptions (Peano’s axioms) regarding natural numbers.
Peano’s axioms, which involve the association with a given object x, a
unique object called the Successor of x, are stated as follows:

Peano’s axioms:

Suppose ℕ is a nonempty set such that

1. 1∈ ℕ
2. If n ∈ ℕ then n' (=n+1) ∈ ℕ (n' is called successor of n)
3. There is no element in ℕ whose successor is 1.
4. If n'=m' then n=m for n,m ∈ ℕ
5. If K is a set with elements from ℕ such that
(i) 1 ∈K

(ii) k ∈ K, gives k' ∈ K (k′=k+1)

Then K=ℕ

1
 Definition: This set ℕ is called the set of natural numbers
Remark: (4) ensures that no two natural numbers are same.
(3) ensures that 1 is the least number of ℕ
(5) is known as the axiom of induction .

Symbolically, if A ℕ such that 1 ∈ A and n' ∈ A whenever n ∈ A then

A=ℕ.
Definition Peano’s axioms lead us to define ‘+’ (Addition) in ℕ as
follows.:
For n ∈ℕ, we define
(i) n'=n+1
(ii) m+n' =(m+n)' for all m,n ∈ ℕ
Similarly one may define another operation ‘.’ (Multiplication) in ℕ as
follows;
For n∈ ℕ
(i) n.1=n
(ii) m.n' =mn+m for all m,n ∈ ℕ

These two are sufficient to deduce the associative, commutative and

cancellation laws for addition, multiplication and also the distributive law
viz.(m+n)+p= m+(n+p), m+n=n+m, m.n=n.m (m+n).p=m.p+m.p ,.
Note: Reader may note that for the cancellation laws of addition and
multiplication, negative or reciprocal of a number is nowhere necessary.
Peano’s axioms are sufficient for these.

Example1:
n( n  1)
Prove that: 1+2+…+n = (using axiom of induction)
2
Solution:
n( n  1)
Let P={ n| 1+2+3+…+n= }
2
1.(1  1)
Now 1= , so 1 ∈ P
2
Assume k ∈ P.

2
 k .(k  1)
∴ 1+2+…+k=
2
Now
1+2+… +(k+1)
=(1+2+…+k) +(k+1)
k .(k  1)
= +(k+1)
2
k
=(k+1)( +1)
2
( k  1)(k  2)
=
2
∴ k+1 ∈ P
So,by axiom of choice, P=ℕ.
n( n  1)
∴ for all n ∈ ℕ , 1+2+…+n = ∎
2
Definition: For m,n ∈ ℕ we say m is greater than n, written m > n(or n <
m) if for some p∈ ℕ, we have m=n+p .

1.1.2 Properties of addition, multiplication and order in the set of natural

numbers:
If m,n,p are any natural numbers then,
(1) m+n, m.n are natural numbers (Closure property)
(2) m + (n + p) = (m + n) + p 

m.(n.p) = (m.n).p  (Associative property)



(3) m  n  n  m 
 (Commutative property)
m.n  n.m 

(4) If m+p = n+p, then m=n (Law of cancellation for addition in an

equation)
(5) (m+n).p=m.p+m.p (Distributive property)
(i ) if m  p  n  p then m  n 
(6)  (Law of cancellation for addition
(ii ) if mp  np then m  n 
multiplication in an inequation) [ m, n, p ∈ ℕ]

3
Example2: If m,n,p ∈ ℕ then prove that m+(n+p)=(m+n)+p
Proof: First fix m,n
Consider the set P = {p∈ ℕ, | m+(n+p)=(m+n)+p}
Now for k ∈ P, we have m+(n+k) = (m+n)+k
And m+(n+k') = m+(n+k)' = m+((n+k)+1) = (m+n+k)' = ((m+n)+k)' = (m+n)+k'
So, k' ∈ P.
Thus by axiom of induction, P =ℕ
∴ m+(n+p)=(m+n)+p, for all m,n,p ∈ ℕ ∎
Example 3:If m,n,p ∈ ℕ then m.(n+p) = m.n+m.p
Solution:
Consider the set P={ p ∈ ℕ | m.(n+p) = m.n+m.p}
Now, m.(n+1) = m.n' =m.n+m = m.n+m.1
∴1∈P
Let k ∈ P.
So, m.(n+k) = m.n+m.k
Now m.[n+k'] = m.(n+k)' = m(n+k)+m = (mn+mk)+m = mn+(mk+m) =
m.n+mk'
So, by axiom of induction, k' ∈ ℕ

∴P=ℕ ∎

1.1.3:Law of Trichotomy of natural numbers

Given any two natural numbers m and n, one and only one of the following
is true.
(i) m=n, (ii) n > m (iii) m>n
Note: Law of Trichotomy can be proved using the Peano’s axioms
1.1.4:Law of cancellation: If m,n,p ∈ ℕ, such that m.p=n.p then m=n
Proof: It is sufficient if we show that neither m > n nor n > m is true.
Suppose m > n. Then m =n + k for some k ∈ ℕ

4
∴ m.p = (n+k).p = n.p+k.p
∴ m.p > n.p and this is not possible.
∴ m > n.
Similarly, n >m
Hence m=n. ∎

1.1.5: open statement: solution and inverse operation: Although the

system of natural numbers developed affords a good model of a
deductive structure it is incomplete in some respect. It cannot answer all
the questions even with respect to the binary operation defined on it.
This is because with respect to every operation we always think of an
inverse or an opposite operation .If an operation is to be thought of as a
command to do some action the inverse operation is in the nature of
asking a question to do the opposite effect. Thus in mathematics if we
write 9+3 it means add 3 to 9 (to get 12). But the symbol 9-3 means,
‘What is that number which when added to 3 gives 9?’
In the long course of its development mathematicians have developed a
highly symbolic language, which uses only statements, which are either
true or false but not both. Mathematical language does not need to use
other forms of sentences. Questions have no place in the body of proof.
Mathematicians have circumvented this difficulty by allowing sentences
which have the form of statements but which are open with respect to
their truth or falsity. They use variables as a device. Thus the equation 9-
3 is converted into an open statement 9=3+x. The number, which makes
this open statement true, is called our solution of the open statement.
In the given case our solution is 6. We also say that ‘6’ has been
obtained by subtracting 3 from 9. We observe that if we wish to restrict
ourselves to the set of natural numbers then an open sentence 4=13+x
has no solution. In other words subtraction, the inverse operation of
addition, cannot always be carried out in the set of naturals.
What can we say about multiplication? Consider the question 3.x=15.
Obviously its solution is x=5.
But an open statement such as 9.x=4 has no solution in the set of
natural numbers. Inverse operation of that of multiplication is called

5
division. We observe that in this sense division cannot always be carried
out in the set of naturals.
We therefore need a set of numbers in which these inverse operations
can always be carried out .We know that the set of integers fulfils this
need with respect to subtraction. In this sense the set of integers is an
extended set of the set of naturals. For this purpose we have, at this
stage only some limited information about naturals viz., the natural
numbers, order relation in natural numbers, the properties of the two
binary operations defined on natural numbers and use logical reasoning
as the only means to achieve this end.
1.1.6 Relations: Sometimes ordered pairs of A×B (A, B are two sets) may
be further classified according to a specified rule or according to a
relation between elements a of A and elements b of B; only those
elements (ordered pairs) being chosen for which it is true that the said
relation between a and b is satisfied.
For instance A≠B, each a set of positive integers Let the relation
between elements a and b be specified by the rule a2=b. Then some of
the elements of the ordered pairs that must be chosen are (1,1),
(2,4),(3,9)……………An ordered pair of the type (4,2) cannot be chosen ∵
42 ≠ 2
Definition: A relation between any two elements is called a binary
relation. A ‘relation’ may be denoted by a letter such as R. Then aRb
stands for the statement a is R – related to b. Any subset of A × B is
called a relation from A to B. Thus we may that every known relation
gives rise to a specific subset and every subset can be supposed to be
formed in accordance to some relation though not specifically known.
We then identify every subset of A × B with a specific relation. The two
statements xRy and (x,y) ∈ R are then equivalent.
Some class of relations plays a very important role in mathematics.
Amongst these is a class of equivalence relations.
In order that a relation R may be an equivalence relation in a given set A
it has to fulfill the following conditions:
(a) For every x ∈ A, x R x holds (reflexive)
(b) For x,y ∈ A if x R y holds then y R x holds (symmetric).
(c) For x,y,z ∈ A if x R y,y R z hold then x R z holds . (Transitive)

6
 Why are equivalence relations so very important? Because of the three
properties of the equivalence relation all the elements, which are
related to each other, form a class, and elements, which are not related
to each other, belong to distinct classes. Thus every equivalence relation
helps further classification of a set on which it is defined. Collection of
these disjoint classes is known as a partition of the set.
If R is an equivalence relation defined on a set A then R partitions the
set A.
1.1.7 We now see that integers are equivalence classes defined in ℕ×ℕ
Consider the set ℕ ×ℕ and define a relation in ℕ×ℕ such that (m,n) R
(p,q) if and only if m+q=n+p
And it can be seen that R is an equivalence relation in ℕ ×ℕand hence R
partitions
ℕ ×ℕ into mutually disjoint classes called an integer viz.,[(m,n)]

The following are some such equivalence classes representing the

integers

(1,5), (1,4) ,(1,3), (1,2), (1,1), (2,1), (3,1), (4,1),(5,1) →

(2,6), (2,5), (2,4), (2,3), (2,2), (3,2), (4,2), (5,2),(6,2)
(3,7), (3,6), (3,5),(3,4), (3,3), (4,3), (5,3), (6,3), (7,3)
↓

1.1.8 Order in the set of integers

If (p,q) ∈ [(m,n)] and n < m then q < p for,
∵ (p,q)R(m,n) we have p+n = q+m,
∵ n < m, n+t = m, for some t ∈ ℕ. So p+m = q+(n+t) and, p = q+t.
∴q<p

1.1.9 The set ℕ ×ℕ can be arranged into square arrays of rows and
columns such as,
(1,1) (2,1) (3,1) (4,1) (5,1) ……
(1,2) (2,2) (3,2) (4,2) (5,2)…….
(1,3) (2,3) (3,3) (4,3) (5,3) ……
(1,4) (2,4) (3,4) (4,4) (5,4)

7
…………………………………………
…………………………………………

The diagonal of this array is a set of ordered pairs whose components

are equal.
Every ordered pair to the right of this diagonal has the property that its
first component is greater than the second. Every ordered pair to the
left of the diagonal has the property that its first component is less than
the second
If the equivalence classes [(m,n)] is such that m < n then we say [(m,n)]
is a positive integer and if n < m then the corresponding class denote a
negative integer.
The class [(m, m+p)] for some p ∈ ℕ, is the integer p and the class
[(m+q,m)] for some q ∈ ℕ is the integer –q
To denote the diagonal integer we use the symbol 0.
We denote this set of integers by ℤ.
1.1.10 In the set ℤ of integers we define addition and multiplication
as follows;
For any two integers a = [(m,n)] and b = [(p,q)],
a+b = [(m+p, n+q)], and
a.b = [(mp+nq, mq+np)]
and that these are well defined can be seen easily .With these
definitions it is easy to establish the Ring properties viz.,
Closure property: a+b, a.b are integers
Associative property: a+(b+c) = (a+b)+c
a.(b.c)=(a.b).c
Property of zero: a+0=0+a=a( 0 is called the additive identity for the set
of integers and it is unique)
Distributive property: a.(b+c)=a.b+a.c
(b+c).a=b.c+b.a
Additive inverse: For every integer a there is an integer b such that
a+b=b+a=0{for the integer a=[(m,n)] the integer –a= [(n,m)] has this
property]
For the sake of completeness we just state the following properties of
integers;

8
 A. If a, b ∈ ℤ then the equation a+x = b has a unique solution in the set
of integers.
B. Sum and product of two positive integers is positive.
C. Product of two negative integers is positive.
D. Product of a positive and a negative integer is negative.
E. Given two integers a,b one and only one of the following holds.
(i) a-b is positive (ii) a-b is negative,(iii) a-b=0
We write a > b if a-b is positive ,a < b if a-b is negative
F. If a+c=b+c then a=b
G. If a. c=b.c, c ≠ 0 then a=b
H. If a+c > b+c then a > b
I. If a.c > b.c, c > 0 then a >b.
J. If a.c > b.c, c < 0 then b > a.∎
1.1.11 Structure of integers: The correspondence
[(x,x+n)] n,( n ∈ ℕ)
is such that it preserves addition and multiplication, in the following
sense:
(i) [(x, x+n1)]+[(p, p+n2)]= [(x, x+ n1  n2 )]
(ii) ([(x, x+n1)].[(p, p+n2)]=[(x, x+ n1 .n2 )]
Because of these properties positive integers are identified with
corresponding natural numbers
Although the set of integers is much richer in structural properties than
the set of natural numbers an equation of the type a.x=b; a,b ∈ ℤ does
not have always a solution in the set. It therefore requires to be
extended into a larger set (of rational). We shall not undertake to carry
out this extension here.
1.1.12: Geometrical link between the set of natural numbers and that
of integers:

9
 Consider the equivalence classes of the set of ordered pairs of natural
numbers as described :
1) {(1,2), (2,3), (3,4), (1,5), (1,6),…….} as lattice points on the line y=x+1
2) {(1,3), (2,4), (3,5), (4,6), (5,7),…….} as lattice points on the line y=x+2
3) {(1,4), (2,5), (3,6), (4,7), (5,8),…….} as lattice points on the line y=x+3
………. ……… …………
(i) { (1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4), (5,5),…….} as lattice points on the line y=x
(ii) {(2,1), (3,2), (4,3), (5,4), (6,5),…….} as lattice points on the line y=x-1
(iii) {(3,1), (4,2), (5,3), (6,4), (7,5),…….} as lattice points on the line y=x-2
(iv) {(4,1), (5,2), (6,3), (7,4), (8,5),…….} as lattice points on the line y=x-3
….. ….. ………
etc.
It is seen that these lines meet the vertical infinite line on left at the points
shown, representing what we have wanted;
giving thereby the set of representing-points of the equivalence classes
denoting the integers .
Hence these points are in one- one correspondence with the set of
integers.

10
 In above we have seen that there is a one -one correspondence between
the set of positive integers and the set of natural numbers which preserves
addition and multiplication; the terms “natural numbers “ and “positive
integers ‘ will hereafter mean one and the same thing. So the axiom of
induction can then be restated as:
If a set of positive integers (i) contains 1 (ii) contains the positive integer
n+1 whenever it contains the positive integer n; then this set contains all
the positive integers.”

Definition:If a,b,c are positive integers such that a<b<c or c<b<a we

say that b is in between a and c

Theorem1.1: There is no integer between a and a+1

Proof: If possible, let m be an integer such that a< m< a+1. ………(1)
∵ a < m, there exists a positive integer p such that a+p=m
If p=1, a+1=m. But from (1), m < a+1; so that, p ≠ 1. If p > 1, let p= γ +1
for some positive integer γ.
Then, a+( γ +1)=m
ie., (a+1)+ γ =m
So, a+1 < m
This contradicts m < a+1
∴ there is no positive integer p such that a+p=m and a<m<a+1
Hence there is no integer m such that a < m < a+1∎
The axiom of induction gives rise two methods of proof known as the
fist and the second Principle of mathematical induction

1.1.13 First principle of mathematical induction

Theorem1.2: Let P (n) be a statement defined for any positive integer. If
(i) P (1) is true, and (ii) P (n+1) is true whenever P (n) is true, then
P (n) is true for all positive integral values of n.
Proof: Let M be the set of positive integers for which P (n) is true.
Then 1 ∈ M, ∵ P (1) is true
Let n ∈ M. It follows that P(n) is true. But then P (n+1) is also true, so
that n+1 ∈ M
∴ by the axiom of induction M contains all the positive integers.

11
 ∴ P (n) is true for all positive integers n∎

1.1.14 Second principle of mathematical induction:

Theorem1.3: Let P (n) be a statement defined for any positive integer n.

If (i) P (1) is true, and P (n+1) is true whenever P (k) is true for all k ≤ n,
then P (n) is true for all positive values of n.
Proof: Let M be the set of positive integers n such that P(k) is true for all
positive integers k ≤ n.
Now 1 ∈ M , ∵ P(1) is true.
Let n ∈ M. ∴ P (k) is true for all positive integers k ≤ n .
But then P(n+1) is true. It follows that P(k) is true for all positive integers
k ≤ n+1.
So, n+1 ∈ M
∴ M is the set of all positive integers Hence; P(n) is true for all positive
integers n. ∎

Definition: Least element of a set of positive integers:

An element a of a set A of positive integers is said to be “a least
element” of A if for every element b of A (b≠a), a < b (one can show
easily that this element is unique)

We now create a problem as follows:

Observe!

11 1  2  1  21  1
1 2  3 3  4 1  22  1
1  2  22  7 and 7  8  1  23  1
1 2  2 2
2 3
 15 15  16  1  2 4  1
1  2  22  23  2 4  31 31  32  1  2 5  1
1  2  22  23  2 4  2 5  43 43  44  1  2 6  1
1  2  22  23  2 4  2 5  2 6  107 107  108  1  2 7  1
1  2  22  23  2 4  2 5  2 6  2 7  235 235  236  1  2 8  1

[For the moment let us forget about the sum of a geometric series!]

12
And we note the following :( just an observation!)

1  21  1
1  2  22  1
1  2  2 2  23  1
1  2  2 2  23  2 4  1
1  2  2 2  23  2 4  25  1
1  2  2 2  23  2 4  25  2 6  1
1  2  2 2  23  2 4  25  26  27  1
1  2  2 2  23  2 4  25  2 6  27  28  1

 Thus we guess ! :
1  2  2 2  2 3  ...  2 n  2 n 1  1

We now prove this by induction:

Let S  N and PS   t  N | 1  2  2 2  2 3  ...  2 t  2 t 1  1
 1  2 0  2 01  1 , 1  2  2 2  1 , it follows that 0,1  S .
Suppose s  S . Then 1  2  2 2  ...  2 s  2 s 1  1 . And
1  2  2 2  ...  2 s  2 s 1  (2 s 1  1)  2 s 1  2.2 s 1  1 = 2 s  2  1  2 ( s 1) 1  1 .
 s  1  S . Thus 1  S , s  S  s   S . Hence by principle of induction S  N .
Hence 1  2  2 2  2 3  ...  2 n  2 n 1  1 , n  N .∎

Note: In the proof of a proposition P(n) by principle of induction, the base

step and the induction hypothesis both are equally important.
For if we take the case of
P(n)  1  3  5  ...  (2n  1)  n 2  3 .
We suppose that for s  N , P(s) is true. Then 1  3  5  ...  (2s  1)  s 2  3
And
1  3  5  ...  (2s  1)  (2s  1)  ( s 2  3)  (2 s  1)  ( s  1) 2  3

But yet the result is not true for all n  N such as for 1, 2, 3 etc,

13
Mathematical induction is often used as a method of definition as well as a
proof. for example, a common way of introducing the symbol n! is by
means of the inductive definition. .
(a) 1!=1,
(b) n!= n.(n-1)!, for n>1.
This pair of conditions provides a rule whereby the meaning of n! is
specified for each positive integer n. thus by
(a)1!=1;
(a) and (b) yield 21=2.1
While by
(b) again 3!=3.2!=3.2.1
Continuing in this manner using condition (b) repeatedly, the
numbers 1!,2!,3!,…n! are defined in succession up to any chosen n.
In fact
n!=n(n-1)….3.2.1

Induction enters in showing that n! as a function on the positive integers,

exists and is unique. We shall make no attempt to give the argument.

Example 4 . Using principle of mathematical induction prove:

nn  1n  2 
1.2  2.3  .....n.n  1  for all n  1
3
Solution:
We take P(n)  1.2  2.3  ....  n.n  1
11  11  2  1.2.3
Base step: for n=1, LHS= 1.2  2 and RHS=  2
3 3
and P(1) true is verified.
Induction hypothesis: Assume for k  N , P(k ) is true.
k k  1k  2 
i.e., 1.2  2.3  .....k k  1  . Now to prove P(k  1) is true.
3
(k  1)k  2k  3
i.e, 1.2  2.3  .......  (k  1)k  2  .
3
Now 1.2  2.3  .......  (k  1)k  2  1.2  2.3  ...k (k  1)  k  1k  2
k k  1k  2 k  1k  2 k  3  k  1k  2k  3 and thus
=  k  1k  2  
3 3 3
P (k  1) is true and by principle of mathematical induction
P(n)  1.2  2.3  ....  n.n  1 is true for all n  N ∎
Example 5. Using second principles of mathematical induction prove:

14
  
a n  1  a  1 a n 1  a n 2  ..  a  1 for all n  1
Solution: We write
   
P(n) ' ' a n  1  a  1 a n 1  a n 2  ...  a  1 ' '
Now the
Base step: n=1, LHS= 11  1  0 11-1=0 and RHS= 1  1)11   0.1  0 . Thus
P1 true is verified.
Induction hypothesis: Pk  is true for all k  n
Now to show that Pn  1 is true.
Now a  1  a  1a n  1  aa n 1  1
n 1

= a  1a n  1  aa n1  1

= a  1a  1a n1  a n 2  ...  a  1  aa  1a n 2  a n 3  ....  a  1
[ Pn , Pn  1 true]
= a  1a  1a n 1  a n 2  ...  a  1  a  1a n 1  a n  2  ...  a 2  a 
= a  1[a n  (a n 1  ...  a 2  a)  a n 1  a n  2  ...  a  1  a n 1  a n 2  ...  a 2  a ]
= a  1a n  a n 1  ...  a  1 .
Thus a n 1  1  a  1a n  a n 1  ....  a  1. i.e., Pn  1 is true. Hence by Second
principle of mathematical induction Pn  is true for all n  N .

 A case of induction:
consider the primes as follows:
p1  2, p 2  3, p3  5, p 4  7, p5  11,..... p n  n th prime .
Observation
Now pi ∤ p1 . p 2 ..... p n  1 , for i  1,2,.., n .
So the n  1th prime p n 1 is contained in p1 . p 2 ..... p n  1 as a prime factor.
n 1
Therefore, p n 1  p1 . p 2 ..... pn  1  2.2 2.2 4.28.....2 2  1
2 3 n 1 n
 21 2 2  2 ... 2  1  2 2 1  1
n 1
Thus p n1  21 2 2  2 ... 2  1  2 2 1  1 .
2 3 n

i.e., p n 1  2 2 1  1 .
n

Thus we get the following problem as an application of principle of finite

induction:
 If pn stands for the nth prime p n1  2 2 1  1 .//
n

Definition: A number is a triangular number if it is the sum of consecutive

integers. For example-

15
1=1, 21  1  2  3  4  5  6
3  1 2 , 28  1  2  3  4  5  6  7
6 1 2  3, 36  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8
10  1  2  3  4 , 45  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9
15  1  2  3  4  5 55  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10
66  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10  11
78  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10  11  12

91  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10  11  12  13
105  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10  11  12  13  14
231  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10  11  12  13  14  15  16  ...  21

etc .similarly each of 21,28,and 35 is a triangular number.

 [such numbers can be arranged evenly along the sides of an
equilateral triangle]

1 is an odd and this odd multiple of 3 is 1.3=3 and its square

32 = 9=10-1 =difference of two triangular numbers.
3 is odd and this odd multiple of 3 is 3.3 and its square
3.32  9 2  81  91  10 =difference of two triangular numbers
Similarly, 5 is odd and this odd multiple of 3 is 5.3 and its square

5.32  225  231  6 ==difference of two triangular numbers

We observe:
 square of any odd multiple of 3 is difference of two triangular
numbers.

1.1.15 Well Ordering Property of (WOP) of positive integers.

Theorem1.4: Every non-empty subset of ℕ contains a least element.

Proof: Let S be a non-empty subset of ℕ.
Suppose S does not contain least number. Then 1 ∉ S
Let A={m∣m∈ ℕ, m < k(every k∈S)}

Observation :

16
(i) 1 ∈ A
(ii)If a ∈ A then a′ ∈A, because a ∈ A gives k › a
or k  a′(=a+1).
But k=a′ gives that a′ is the least element of S. So,k ≠ a
And
∴ k › a′ or a′< k. Thus, a′ ∈ A and by axiom of induction it follows that A=
ℕℕ and
∴ S= Φ which is not true. And hence the theorem is proved.∎

The fact that every non-empty subset of positive integers has a least
element is known as :

Well ordering principle of (WOP) of positive integers

Example 6 : Assuming the WOP of positive integers, prove the axiom of

induction.
Solution: Suppose S ≠ ℕ
∴ there exists an s ∈ ℕ, such that s ∉ S.
Let T ={ m∣m ∈ ℕ ,m ∉ S}
Observation: T≠φ and T∩S= φ, T⊆ℕ and so by WOP, T contains a least
element (say) t.
By hypothesis,
S ⊆ ℕ such that
i) 1 ∈ S
ii) if k ∈ S
then k' ∈ S.
So, 1 ∈ S gives 1 ∉ T
∴t≠1
Or t > 1 or t > t-1 >0.
∵ t is the least element of T, t-1 ∉ T. So, t-1∈ S. And
∴ by (ii) (t-1)+1=t ∈ S and also, t ∈ T which is a contradiction. Hence S=
ℕ.∎

17
Theorem 1.5: The well ordering principle and the axiom of induction are
equivalent (from above it follows).

Example7: Prove that there is no natural number in between 0 and 1.

Solution;
Let S={x ∣ x ∈ ℕ, 0 < x <1}

We show that S= φ. Suppose S ≠ φ.

∴ S is a nonempty set of positive integers. So, by WOP of positive
integer, S contains a least number a (say).
∴ 0 < a <1 or, 0 < a2 < a < 1 or, 0 < a2 < 1 or, a2 ∈ S and a2 < a
And it contradicts the assumption that a is the least element of S.
Hence S ≠ φ is wrong.
∴ S= φ .∎

Property1.6: If b is an integer >1 then for any integer r ≥ 0, br> r

Proof: Proof is by induction. For r=0 this is trivially true. We therefore
assume r ≥ 1
Let P(r) be the statement:”br >r for all integers r ≥1”
P (1) is true.
Assume that P(r) is true, so that br > r
We show that P(r+1) is true.
Now, br+1 =br.b
∵ b ≥ 2, br+1 ≥ br.2
∴ br+1 ≥ br(1+1)
≥br+br
≥ br+1(1 is the least positive integer)
≥ r+1
It follows that P(r) is true for all r ≥ 0. Otherwise we may proceed as
follows:
∵ b-1> 0, we have b-1≥1
Multiplying both sides by the positive integer (1+b+…..+br),
We get, (b-1)(1+b+b2+…..+br) ≥ 1+b+…..+br
ie.,br+1≥ 1+b+……+br ≥ r+1,
∵ br >1 for every r.

18
∴ br > r for every r.∎
Example8: Let b be an integer greater than 1 and let c0,c1,c2,…………..cr
be integers between 0 and b-1 inclusive , with cr > 0. Put
2 r r r+1
n=c0+c1b+c2b +…..+crb . Then show that b ≤ n ≤ b
Solution: We have c0+c1b+c2b2+………….+cr-1br-1 ≥ 0,
∵ every number in this expression is non-negative, it follows that
n ≥ crbr.
By assumption, cr ≥ 1.
∴ n ≥ br.
Also 0 ≤ ci≤ b-1 for each , 0 ≤i≤r
∴ c0≤ b-1,
c1b ≤(b-1)b
c2b2 ≤ (b-1)b2
…… …. ……
….. …. …..
crb ≤ (b-1)br
r

∴ c0+c1+c2b2+……+crbr
≤ (b-1) (1+b+b2+………+br)
= br+1 -1
≤ br+1
∴ br ≤ n ≤ br+1
∎
Example9: 2 is irrational
Solution: Suppose that 2 is rational. Then there would exist positive
a
integers a and b with 2 = .
b
Consequently the set S={k 2 |k and k 2 are positive integers }(≠)ℤ+
( S≠, because a=b 2 ∈ S}).
∴ by WOP S has a smallest element, say s=t 2 .
We have s 2 -s=s 2 -t 2 =(s-t) 2 .
Since s 2 =2t and s are both integers, s 2 --s=(s-t) 2 - must also be an
integer.
Furthermore, it is positive since s 2 --s=s( 2 -1) and 2 >1.
It is less than s since s=t 2 ,s 2 =2t, and 2 <2.
This contradicts the choice of s as the smallest positive integer in S.

19
 It follows that 2 is irrational. ∎
Example 10. If an integer is simultaneously a square and a cube, then it is
of the type 7 k or 7 k  1 .
We verify this and the proof is left to the reader.
64  8 2  4 3 = 7.9  1 , and 7 6  7 2   7 3  i.e.,
3 2

117649  7  16807  343 2  49 3 . Students may try for other such numbers.
Note. The square of an odd integer is of the form 8k  1 and hence easily we
get the following:
For any odd integer m , clearly 3 | m  1mm  1 , and 8 | m 2  1 , 3,8  1 and so
a) 24 | mm 2  1 ,. And therefore for any odd integers m and n 8 | m 2  n 2
b) For any m  Z , m  6k  r , r  0,1,2,...,5 and choose m so that 2, 3 ∤m ,
and we get m  6k  1,6k  5 . Now m 2  23  36k 2  12k  24  12k 3k  1  24 or,
m 2  23  36k 2  60k  25  23  12k 3k  5  48 . Now in both the cases
24 | m 2  23 if 24 | 12k 3k  1 and 24 | 12k 3k  5 ,i.e. if 2 | k 3k  1 and 2 | k 3k  5 .
Whether k is odd or even , in both the cases, 2 | k 3k  1 and 2 | k 3k  5 .
Hence it is true that 24 | m 2  23 .

c) Next we consider any integer m  Z and

  
m 2 m 2  1 m 2  4  m  2 m  1mm  1m  2m and therefore, , 2,3,4,5,6 | LHS
and therefore 60, .

Example 11. Sum of squares of two odd numbers cannot be a perfect

square.
If it is, then it is an even number square. i.e. we then have
2k  12  2l  12  2t 2 or, (4k 2  4k  1)  (4l 2  4l  1) 2  4t 2 or,
4k 2  l 2   4k  l   2  4t 2 or, 2  4t 2  k 2  l 2  k  l  or,
1  2t 2  k 2  l 2  k  l  ,and is not possible.

1.2 Divisibility Theory

1.2.1 Division Algorithm.:

20
Theorem1.7: Given a,b∈ ℤ, b>0, then there exists q,r ∈ ℤ, such that
a=bq+r,o≤r<b
Proof: Let S={bx ∣ x ∈ ℤ,bx ≤ a}
Obviously S ⊆ ℤ. Again, for given a,b ∈ ℤ, there exists an n ∈ ℤ such
that bn> -a
or, -bn < a
or, b(-n) < a
or, b(-n) ∈S
∴ S ≠ φ . Thus, S is a non-empty subset of ℤ, which is bounded above (bx
≤ a).
∴ S contains a largest element, (say) bq (q ∈ ℤ). So, bq ≤ a. Hence, a=bq
+r(r ≥ 0).
Now we prove : r < b. If not, suppose r ≥ b (and ∴ r-b ≥0)
Then, a=bq+r= bq+b+r-b= b(q+1)+s , [s=(r-b)≥0]
=bq'+s, s ≥ 0
∴ a=bq+r=bq'+s, (s≥ 0)
Or, bq' ≤a
or bq' ∈S and
∴ bq' ≤ bq
or b≤ 0 and is a contradiction with b > o.
Hence r < b.
∴ a=bq+r where o ≤ r < b.∎

Now we prove:
Theorem1.8
Given a,b ∈ ℤ, b≠0, then there exists q,r ∈ ℤ, o≤ r <∣ b∣ such that
a=bq+r
Proof: ∵ 0≠ b ∈ ℤ, ∣ b∣ > 0 ,
∴ by Theorem 1.7,
a=∣ b∣q1+r , for q1,r ∈ ℤ, 0≤ r <∣ b∣
= (b)q1+r
= b( q1)+r
= bq+r

21
 Thus, a=bq+r, 0 ≤ r <∣ b∣, q1=q ∈ ℤ
Remark: q and r are unique
If possible let a=bq1+r1, 0 ≤ r1 < b
and a=bq2 +r2, 0 ≤ r2 < b
or, 0=b(q1-q2)+(r1-r2)
or, ∣b ∣∣ q1-q2∣= ∣ r1-r2∣ ……… (*)
Again, 0 ≤ r1 <| b| ……. (i)
0≤r2 < | b|
or, - | b| ≤ -r2 < 0 …….. (ii)
Adding (i) and (ii),
0–∣b∣ < r1-r2 < ∣b∣
or, ∣r1-r2∣ < ∣b∣
or,|b|∣q1-q2∣ < ∣b∣ [by (*)]
or, ∣q1-q2∣ < 1
or, ∣q1-q2∣ ≤ 0
And the only possibility is ∣q1-q2∣=0.
∴ q1=q2 and from (*) r1=r2 ∎

Definition:
(1) a=bq+r is called the principle of division identity of integer .
(2) q is called the quotient of division
(3) r is called the remainder of division.
We now look the above mentioned division algorithm from another
angle.

Consider a=17, b=59

Clearly a does not divide b (in symbol a ∤ b). We understood that division is
repeated subtraction. This way, each time the subtraction is being repeated
if the remainder b-a > a. After a finite number of steps, at a certain stage
remainder will be less than a. In this process we get the following multiple
of a viz. a, 2a, 3a, 4a,….qa, (q+1)a
And we get either b=one of these positive integers for some q,
Or, qa < b < (q+1) a and this gives, qa ≤ b < (q+1)a which gives b-aq < a . If
b-aq =r then, b=aq+r where, 0 ≤ r < a

22
This is what is known as Division Algorithm [observe that this is not a
proof.]
We now give another proof of division algorithm

Theorem1.9: To an integer a ≥ o and an integer b ≥ 1 there exist two unique

integers q and r such that a=qb+r with 0 ≤ r < b
Proof: Now, If b=1,then a=a.1+0 and the result is true.
So we now assume: b>1
If a=0, we take q=0,r=0
If a<b we have q=0, r=a
If a=b, take q=1 and r=0
We have a-b<a if a>b
Consider the case, a > b. Then 0 < a-b < a.
Suppose P(a) a=bq+r, 0 ≤ r< b, for all integers a > 0, b ≥ 1
P(1) is true, for 1=0.b+1
Assume that P(k) is true for all k ≤ a .
∵ 0 < a-b<a, there are integers q1,r
0 ≤ r < b, such that a-b=bq1+r 0≤r<b
So, a=b(q1+1)+r =bq+r 0 ≤ r < b ( q=q1+1)
Hence P(a) is true. Thus P(a) is true ∀ a > 0.∎
Uniqueness part is same as in the previous method.∎
The theorem can be extended to include the case of all integer a where a is
negative.

Note 1: If r=0 we say that b divides a (or a is a divisor of b, or b is a factor

of a) and is written as a ∣b; otherwise a ∤ b.
Note 2: b ∣ a gives a=bq, q ∈ ℤ and

b ∤ a gives a=bq +r, 0 < r < b

a  bq  r
To illustrate division algorithm when the divisor is a negative integer,
say b  7, a  1,2,61,59 . Then

1  0 7   1 ,  2  1 7   5 , 61   8 7   5 ,  59  9 7   4 etc.

23
Example 12. Using division algorithms prove that the square of any odd
integer is of the form 8k  1 , for some integer k.
Solution: by division algorithm any integer is of the forms
4k , 4k  1 , 4k  2 , 4k  3 . Since the integer chosen is an odd one, the
number should be of the form 4k  1 and 4k  3 .
Now 4k  i 2  16k 2  8ki  i 2  8(8k 2  ki)  i 2 = 8t  i 2 [ i 2  1,9  1,8  1 ]
= 8t  1,8(t  1)  1  8m  1 . Thus it is of the form 8k  1 , for some integer
k.∎

Example 13: 1∣a a ∈ ℤ

If 1 ∤ a, then a=1.q+r when 0 < r < 1. But there is no integer in between 0
and 1 . Thus , 1∣ a , ∀ a ∈ ℤ.∎
Example 14: (Similarly) -1 ∣ a, ∀ a ∈ ℤ.∎
Example15 : if a ∣ b then ±a ∣ ±b ; ∀ a,b ∈ ℤ
Solution: ∵a ∣ b , we have b=aq, (q ∈ ℤ ) =(-a)(- q) =(-a)q1,( q1 ∈ ℤ ) ∴ -
a ∣ b.
Example16: if a ∣ b, b ∣ c then a ∣ c
Solution; ∵a∣b, we have b=aq1 ,(q1 ∈ ℤ) ,b| c
∴ c=bq2,(q2 ∈ ℤ) or, c=bq2=(aq1)q2 =a(q1q2) =aq3 where q3 = q1(q2 ∈ ℤ) or,
a|c ∎
Example17 a ∣ b gives a ∣k b , k ∈ ℤ.
Example18: if a ∣ b, a ∣ c then a ∣ kb+ lc, k,l ∈ ℤ
Example19: a∣b, b > 0 gives b > a
Proof: (i)if a < 0 then (obviously) b > a
(ii) and a > 0, a ∣ b gives b=aq, q ∈ ℤ
Now , q > 1⇒ aq > a
Or, b=aq > a or, b> a.∎
Example20: ac ∣ bc, c ≠ 0 gives a ∣b
Proof: if ac ∣ bc then bc= (ac) q, (q ∈ ℤ)
Or, c(b-aq)=0
Or, b-aq=0(∵c ≠ 0)

24
Or, b=aq
Or, a | b.∎
Example21: If a ∣ b, b ∣ a, a,b ∈ ℤ then a=±b
Example22: If a∣ b then ∣a∣∣ ∣ b∣

Some results 1.10:

1. if a|b then ± a|±b
2. if a|b, b|c then a|c
3. if ac|bc then a|b , if c ≠ 0
4. if a|b then a|bx for every x
5. a|b, a|c give a|(b+c) and a|(b-c)
6. a|b, a|c give a|(bx ± cy)

1. 2.2: Greatest Common divisor(gcd): Let a,b ∈ ℤ, b ≠ 0

Then, obviously ∣a∣ +∣b∣ > 0. Let S={ x ∣ x is a common positive divisor of a
and b}
We have , 1 ∣ n, ∀ n ∈ ℤ
∴ 1 ∣ a, 1 ∣ b and 1 ∈S
∴ S≠φ
Now if x ∣ a then x ∣∣ a∣ and if x ∣ b then x ∣∣ b ∣
Then, x ∣∣ a∣ + ∣ b∣ gives x ≤ ∣a ∣ +∣b∣
∴ S is a non empty set of positive integers which is bounded above
∴ S has a largest element, (say) g.

Definition: This g is called the greatest common divisor (GCD) of a and b.

Note: (i) g exists and g ≥1
(ii) we write (a,b)=g.

Theorem 1.11: Let a,b ∈ ℤ , b ≠ 0[or, a∈ℤ, b ∈ ℤ* (=ℤ -{0}] (a,b)=g, then,

(i)there exists x0,y0 ∈ ℤ such that ax0+by0=g

(ii)for d ∈ ℤ, if d ∣ a, d ∣ b then d ∣g

25
Proof; Consider S={ax+by| x,y ∈ ℤ, ax+by > 0}
Now, ∣ a∣ +∣b∣ > 0 ⇒ ±a ±b > 0 or, a.( ± 1)+b.( ±1) > 0 or,∣a∣+∣b∣ ∈ S.
S (≠φ ) ⊆ N and so by WOP , S contains a least element (say)m which is of
the form ax+by (say), m=ax0+by0 , x0,y0 ∈ ℤ
Assert, m=g
To prove our assertion we are to show that
(A) m is a com mon divisor of a and b (m ∣ a and m ∣ b)
(B) If d ∣ a and d ∣b then d∣ m.
Proof: Suppose, m ∤ a
∴ a=mq+r , 0 < r < m…(i)
or, r =a-mq=a-q(ax0+by0)=a(1-qx0)+b(-qy0)=ax' +by' ; x' ,y' ∈ ℤ
gives r ∈ S ,
∴ r ≥ m…….(ii)
which is a contradiction to(i).
Hence m ∣ a and similarly m∣ b
(B) Again ,d ∣a , d∣ b
gives d ∣ax0, d∣ by0
or, d∣ ax0 +by0 =m
or,d≤ m
or, m =g=ax0+by0.∎

Note: Incidentally we have proved here that d∣ m=g,

i.e.If d ∣a, d∣ b
then d ∣ (a,b)
And g is the least positive integer of the form ax+by
[The greatest common divisor can be characterized in the following two
ways:
1. it is the least positive value of ax+by where x and y range over all
integers
2. it is the positive common divisor of a and b which is divisible by any
common divisor.

26
Corollary 1.12: If (a,b)=1 then there exist x,y ∈ ℤ such that ax+by=1 [Put
g=1]
Conversely, if a,b ∈ ℤ+ and for x,y ∈ ℤ ,ax+by=1 then (a,b)=1
Proof; Suppose, (a,b)=d
Then, for some x,y ∈ ℤ we have ax+by=d. And, given that ax+by =1.
∵ 1 is the least positive integer, but d is the least positive integer of the
form ax+by.
∴ d=1. ∎

Definition: If (a,b)=1, then a,b are said to be relatively prime

Theorem 1.13: Any non-void set of integers closed under addition and
subtraction consists of zero alone or else consists of the least positive
elements and all the multiples of this element.
Proof: Let S be any non empty set of integers closed under addition and
subtraction.
Let an integer a ∈ S. Then a-a ∈ S.
∴ 0 ∈ S. Also 0-a ∈ S
∵ a, –a ∈S, of these two, at least one is positive.
By WOP, the set of all positive elements of S will contains a least element,
say d. we wish to show that every element of S is an integral multiple of d
and conversely.
It is clear that if n is any positive integer,
and nd=d+d+……….+d ( n times), ∴ nd ∈ S
∴ any integral multiple of d is in S. Suppose now that k ∈S
If d does not divide k , then by division algorithm
k=q.d+r, k,r∈ ℤ and 0 ≤ r < d
Now,
∵ k and qd are elements of S and S is closed under subtraction, r=k-q.d is
also a member of S.
∴ we must have r=0.
Thus, every element of S is a multiple of d.
Example23: (4,9)=1 ∴ 4 and 9 are rela vely prime
(16,15)=1∴16 and 15 are rela vely prime
Example24: If a,b,k ∈ ℤ , then (a+kb, b)=(a,b)

27
Solution: Let (a,b)=d,(a+ kb,b)=d1
Now d ∣ a, d ∣ b
gives d ∣ a+kb.
And, d ∣ a+kb, d∣ b
gives d ∣ d1(= (a+kb, b)……….(i)
Again, ( a+kb, b) =d1
gives d1∣ a+kb , d1 ∣ b
or, d1∣ ( a+kb ) -kb=a
or, d1∣a, also d1∣ b
or, d1 ∣ ( a,b )=d………..(ii)
So,from (i) and (ii), we get d=d1.∎

Example 25: a∣ bc, ( a,b )=1, a,b,c ∈ ℤ . Then a ∣c

Solution: (a,b)=1 ⇒ ax + by=1 for some x,y ∈ ℤ.

Then, acx + bcy =c and a ∣ bc

⇒ a∣ acx + bcy

or, a∣ c.∎

Example 26: Show that for any positive integer m and a,b (not both zero)
(ma, mb)=m(a,b)

Solution: If x,y are two integers then by above (ma,mb)=least positive value
of x.ma+y.mb=m(least positive value of xa+yb)=m(a,b) ∎

Definition:
The greatest common divisor can be calculated by successive division and
this process is known as Euclidean Algorithm

For suppose a0 and a1 are two positive integers; then by division algorithm
we have integers q1 and a2 such that

a0=q1.a1+a2, 0 ≤ a2 < a1

28
If a2=0, then d=a1

If a2 ≠ 0 then divide a1 by a2. there exist integers q2 and a3 such that

a1 =q2.a2+a3 with 0 ≤ a3 < a2.

If a3=0 then d=a2

If a3 ≠ 0 then we divide a2 by a3. There are integers q3 and a4

Such that a2=q2a3+a4, 0 ≤ a4 < a3.

Proceeding in this way , we observe that the remainders are getting

reduced successively since a2 > a3 > a4 ……..etc. After a finite number of
steps say k, the remainder ak would be such that ak-1 is a multiple of ak, so
that the remainder for the k th division is zero. We write this as follows:

a0 = q1.a1 + a2

a1 = q2.a2 + a3

a2 = q3.a3 + a4

.. ….. ..

…. …. ….

ak-2 = qk-1.ak-1 + ak

ak-1 = qk.ak

Now we show that ak is the g.c.d. of a0 and a1

From above we see that ak|ak-1. From the equation preceding the last, we
get ak|ak-2, since ak divides both the terms on the right. From the equations
that precedes it, we conclude similarly that ak|ak-3. Continuing up the list in
this way, we find that ak|a0 and ak|a1. We now show that if b|a0 and b|a1
then b|ak.

∵ b|a0 and b|a1, the first equation above shows that b|a2.

29
∵ b|a1and b|a2 the second equation above shows that b|a3. Continuing
down the list we see that b|ak

∴ ak=(a0,a1).∎
Definition: If d| a1,a2,……,an such that d is the greatest among the common
divisors of a1,a2,……,an then d is called the gcd of a1,a2,……,an and is denoted
d= (a1,a2,……,an)

Theorem1.14:If d=(a1,a2,…….,an), there are integers x1,x2,…,xn such that

d=a1x1+a2x2+…+anxn (Extension)

Proof:Let S={ a1x1+a2x2+………+anxn,| x1,x2,…,xn ∈ ℤ}

Now here |a1| ∈ S, |a1| = a1 sgna1 here, x1=sgn a1, x2=x3=…=xn=0.

[sgn stands for the word ‘sign’]

Thus S has a least positive member, d0 say. We show that every member is
divisible by d0. By division algorithm, if m is any member of S, we have
m=d0q+ r, 0 ≤ r < d0

Then r=m-d0q. Now d0=a1x1+a2x2+.+anxn and m=a1y1+a2y2+ …..+anyn, for

some integers x1,x2,..xn and y1,y2,……...yn.

Thus r =a1(y1-qx1)+ a2(y2-qx2)+…………..+ an(yn-qxn) ∈ S

∴ by the definition of d0 and by 0 ≤ r < d0 it follows that that d0 is a positive

common divisor of a1, a2,……an. Hence d0 | d, by the definition of d.

But d|ai (i=1,2,…n) and d0=a1x1+a2x2+.+anxn; thus d| d0.

∴ d ≤ d0. Hence d=d0 and the result follows∎

Illustration: Euclidean Algorithm
Two expressions of linear combination.
Two find the gcd 12378,3054
12378  4.3054  162
3054  18.162  138
162  1.138  24
138  5.24  18

30
24  1.18  6
18  3.6  0 thus 12378,3054  6

Now we look at the following:

6  24  18  24  138  5.24
 6.24  138
 6162  138  138
 6.162  7.138
 6.162  73054  18.162
 132.162  7.3054
 13212378  4.3054  7.3054
 132.12378   5353054
Thus 12378,3054  6  132.12378   5353054  12378x  3054 y where
x  132, y  535
and appears as a linear combination of 12378 and 3054 .
Also 12378  4.3054  162
3054  19.162  24
162  7.24  6
24   4  6   0
Note: it is to be worth mentioning here Lame’s remark: the number of steps
required in the Euclidean Algorithm is at most five times the number of
digits I the smaller integer. In the above example the smaller integer has
four digits. So the total number of divisions cannot be greater than twenty.
In actuality, thee only six divisions were needed.

Theorem1.15: If d=(a1,a2,……an) , then an integer d1 is a common divisor of

a1,a2,…..an if and only if d1|d

Proof: If d1|d, then,

∵ d is a common divisor of a1,a2,….an, it follows that d1|ai(i=1,2,…n).Thus d1

is a common divisor of a1,a2,…an.

Conversely, suppose that d1 is a common divisor of a1,a2,….,an. By the above

theorem, there are integers x1,x2,….,xn such that d=a1x1+a2x2+…+amxm.
Hence d1|d ∎

31
Theorem1.16: If a1,a2,…an are nonzero integers and if d1=a1, d2=(d1,a2),
d3=(d2,a3)…..,dn=(dn-1,an), then dn=(a1,a2,…..,an)

Proof: (is left as an exercise.)

Example 27: Express (726,275) in the form m.726+n.275

Solution: 1 275 726 2 ∴ 726=275.2+176

176 550 275 = 176.1 + 99

1 99 176 1 176 = 99.1 + 77

77 99 99 = 77.1 + 22

2 22 77 3 77 = 22.3 + 11

22 66 22 = 11.2

+ 11 Thus 11 is g.c.d

∴ 11 = 77 – 22.3 = 77-(99-77.1)3

= 77.4 - 99.3 = (176 – 99.1)4 – 99.3 = 176.4 – 99.7= 176.4-(275

-176.1).7

= 176.11 – 275.7 = (726 – 275.2)11- 275.7

= 726.11-275.29

Thus 11=m.726+n.275, where m=11, n=-29.∎

Example28: Prove that 4 ∤ (n2+2) for any integer n

Solution: (i) Let n be an odd number. Then n2 is also odd and

∴ n2+2 is d also odd number. Hence 4∤ (n2+2)

(iii) Let n be an even number, then 4|n2. Hence when 4 divide n2+2, a
remainder 2 is left.

∴ 4∤ (n2+2) ∎

32
 Example 29: Show that g.c.d. of a+b and a-b is either 1 or 2 if (a,b)=1

Solution:

CaseI. Let f=(a+b,a-b). Then f=m(a+b)+n(a-b)= (m+n)a+(m-n)b=ma + n

b. But (a,b)=1 , f=1

CaseII. If a=b , then (a,a)=1 gives a=1. Then (a+b,a-b)=(2,0)=2.

∴ The g.c.d. is either 1 or 2.∎

Example 30: If (a,4)=2 and (b,4)=2, prove that (a+b,4)=4

Solution: From hypothesis, a=2a1, where a1 is an odd number

b=2b1, where b1 is an odd number

But a1+ b1 is an even number, as the sum of two odd numbers is always
even.

∴ a1+ b1=2m(say)

So, (a+b,4)=2(a1+ b1,2) =2(2m,2)=4(m,1)=4 ( as (m,1)=1). ∎

Example31: If x-y is even, then show that x2-y2 is divisible by 4, x and y being
positive integers.

Solution: ∵ x-y is even x and y should either be both odd and both even.

∴ x+y is also even

Hence, x2-y2=(x+y)(x-y)=(Multiple of 2).(Multiple of 2)=Multiple of 4=an

expression divisible by 4. ∎

Example32: Show that the difference between any number and its square is
even.

Solution: n2-n=n(n-1)= Product of two consecutive numbers. Hence one of

the two must be even.

∴ this number is divisible by 2∎

33
Example33: If 4x-y is M(3), show that 4x2+7xy-2y2 is M(9),

[M(n) denotes a multiple of n.]

Solution: 4x2+7xy-2y2

=(4x-y)(x+2y)

=(4x-y){(4x-y)-3(x-y)}

=M(3){M(3)-M(3)}

=M(9).∎

Example 34: Show that the square of any integer b is of the form 4k or
8k+1.

Solution: By division algorithm, any integer b is represent able as 2q or

2q+1. If b=2q, then b2=4q2. Thus b2 is of the form 4k.

If b=2q+1, then b2=4q2+4q+1=4q(q+1)+1.

∵ q(q+1) is divisible by 2, we get that b2 is of the form 8k+1.∎

Example35: Find all integers n such that n2+1 is divisible by n+1

Solution: Let n be an integer such that n+1|n2+1.

Note that n+1|(n+1)(n-1) ie., n+1|n2-1.

Hence, n+1|(n2+1)-(n2-1) i.e., n+1|2.

∴ n+1= +1, +2. So, n= -3,-2,0,1 ∎

Some properties1.17:
a b
1.If (a,b)=d then, ( , )=1
d d

2. If a|bc and (a,b)=1 then, a|c

a b
3.If c ≠0, c|a, c|b, ( , )=1 then c=(a,b)
c c

34
 21n  4
Example 36: Prove that the fraction is irreducible for every natural
14n  3
number n.

Solution: It is sufficient if we show that 21n  4.14n  3  1

Now ,

21n+4=1(14n+3)+(7n+1)

14n+3=2(7n+1)+1

7n+1=1.(7n+1)
21  n
Hence by Euclidean algorithm, (21n+4,14n+3)=1. Hence, the fraction
14n  3
is irreducible for every natural numbers.∎

1.2.3: Lowest Common Multiple (L.C.M)

Consider a,b ∈ ℤ . Let S={x ∣ x ∈ ℤ+ and x is a common multiple of a and
b}( or, = { x ∣ x ∈ ℤ+ , a ∣ x and b ∣ x})

Now a ∣ a gives a ∣ | a∣ or,, a∣ ∣ a∣∣ b∣ or, a∣∣ab∣ Similarly b∣∣ab∣ and ∣ab∣
∈ ℤ+ . So, ∣ ab∣ ∈ S.

∴S ≠φ.
Thus, S is a non-empty set of positive integers .
Hence by WOP , S has a least element(say)m.

Definition: This m is called the lowest common multiple (LCM) of a and b,

written as [a,b] or {a,b}
Definition: The integers a1,a2,……,an, all different from zero, have a
common multiple b if ai|b for i=1,2,….,n.The least of the positive common
multiple is called the least common multiple of of a1,a2,…..an and is denoted
by [a1,a2,..,an]

35
 Theorem1.18: If m=[a1,a2,…an] then there exists ℓ such that ai | ℓ, i=1,2,..n
if and only if m| ℓ

Proof; Let m | ℓ
Now, ai | m, for i=1,2,..n
And, m | ℓ givesai | ℓ, ( i=1,2,..,n.)
Conversely, let ai | ℓ (i=1,2,..,n.) .
Suppose, m∤ℓ.
Then ℓ=mq+r ( 0 < r < m)
or, r=ℓ-mq
Now, ai | ℓ, ai | m ai | r,( i=1,2,..,n)
But m is least such that ai | m, (i=1,2,..,n).
Hence m | ℓ. ∎

Theorem1.19: If m=[a,b] and a |x , b|x, then m|x (i.e. m divides every

common multiple of a and b.)
Proof: Follows from Theorem 1.18
∎
Theorem1.20: If (a,b)=1 ,then [a,b] =|ab|
Proof: Given that 1=(a,b)=(|a|,|b|)
Let m=[a,b]=[|a|,|b|]
Now m=[|a|,|b|]
gives |a| | m, |b| | m

or, m=|a|q,|b|| |a|q

or, |b| | q (∴ (|a|,|b|)=1)
or, |a| |b| | |a|q(=m)
or, |ab| ≤ m
But m is the least common multiple of a and b
∴ m=|ab| ∎

Example37 :For a,b ∈ ℤ* ,d=ax0+by0 is the smallest positive integer of the

form ax+by, (x,y,x0,y0 ∈ ℤ ) .Prove that d=(a,b) .
Solution : For, ax+by and d, by Division Algorithm
we get q,r ∈ ℤ such that ax+by=dq+r, (0≤ r< d)
=q(ax0+by0)+r

36
 or, r =a(xqx0)+b(y-qy0) =ax'+by', x',y' ∈ ℤ

As d is the smallest positive integer of this type,

∴ r=0 .
Thus ax+by=dq , for x,y ∈ℤ and so d|ax+by. In particular, d|a,d|b (x=0,y=1,
x=1,y=0)
If d1|a, d1|b then d1|ax0+by0=d or, d1|d. Hence d = (a,b).∎
Theorem1.21: If b is any common multiple of a1,a2,.an, then [a1,a2,…..,an]
|b.(In other words, if h= [a1,a2,…,an] then 0, +h, +2h,,+3h,… comprise all the
multiples of a1,a2,.,an ..
Proof: Let a1,a2,…..,an | m and m∤ h
. Then by division algorithm, m=qh+r, for 0 ≤ r < h. We now prove that r=0.
If r ≠ 0 then for each I as we have , ai|h, and also ai|m so we have ai|r. Thus
r is a positive common multiple of a1,a2,….,an and this a contradiction to the
fact that h is the least positive of all common multiples∎

Theorem1.22: for m > 0, [ma ,m b] =m[a ,b]

Proof: Let M=[ma ,m b]. Then ma | M and m b | M. So we have M= m x. If
[a ,b]=x1 we note that a|x1, b|x1,am|mx1, bm|mx1 and so mx|mx1. Thus
x|x1. Also, am| mx, bm |mx, a|x, b |x and so x1|x. Hence x=x1
∴ M=mx=mx1=m[a,b].
∴ [ma,mb]=m[a,b].∎
Theorem1.23: [a ,b].(a ,b)=|a b| ….(∗)
Proof: It is sufficient if we prove the result for positive integers only (why?)
First we consider the case: (a ,b)=1
Suppose [a ,b]=M Then, M =ma for some m. Then b| ma and (a ,b)=1.
So b |m. Hence, b≤ m, ba ≤ ma. But ba, being a positive common multiple
of b and a , cannot be less than the least common multiple , and so b
a=ma=[a ,b]
Now we come to the general case:
a b
Let (a ,b)=g(>1).Then ( , ) =1.
g g
a b a b
So by the above result we have[ , ] = . .
g g g g

37
And this gives , [a, b] (a ,b)=ab.∎
Example38: If (a,b)=1 then a!b!|(a+b-1)!

(a  b  1)! (a  b  1)!
Solution: Let =c and =d
(a  1)!b! a!(b  1)!
Then (a+b-1)!=(a-1)!b!c=a!(b-1)!d
And so bc=ad. ∵ (a,b)=1, then a|c, that is , c=ar.
Thus (a+b-1)!=a!b!r, which implies that a!b!|(a+b-1)!.
Hence the result follows.∎

Example 39: prove that the product of r consecutive integers is divisible by

r!

Proof: Let Pn =n(n+1) (n+2)……..(n+r-1).

Then, Pn+1=n(n+1)(n+2)…………..(n+r)

∴ Pn+1 –Pn =(n+1)(n+2)….(n+r-1){(n+r)-n}

Pn
=(n+1)(n+2)…(n+r-1)r = r
n

= r times the product of (r-1) consecutive integers.

We now use induction as follows: Assume that the product of (r-1)

consecutive integers is divisible by (r-1)!,

Therefore, Pn+1 –Pn=r. M({(r-1)!}=M(r!)

∴ P2 –P1 =M(r!); But P1 =r!; So, P==M(r!)

∴ by induction P3, P4, …..,Pn are all multiples of r!

Again the product of any two consecutive integers is divisible by 2!. Hence
conclude that the product of any three consecutive integers is divisible by
3!, and so on ∎

1.3: Theory of scales of numeration:

38
In the decimal system of numeration then digits 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 and 0 are
used. Can we think of any other system using some or all of these digits?
We have a few such system viz., The decimal system and the binary system
We observe the following :
13=1.23+1.22+0.2+1=(1101)2

31=1.24+1.23+1.22+1.2+1=(11111)2

387=1.28+0.27+1.26+1.25+1.24+0.23+1.22+1.2+1=( 101110111)2 the binary

representation of the number 387.
On the other hand 13=1.10+3; 31=3.10+1;387=3.102 +8.10+7
We now observe the following:
The ordinary decimal notation uses the representation of integers in in the
scale of 10 in the binary system the same is in the scale of 2 etc.,
We now discuss some general result in this regard

Theorem1.24: Let S be a positive integer. If n is a positive integer such that

bnSn + bn-1Sn-1+………+b1S+b0 = 0 where the integers bi are such that |bi| ≤ S-
1, then bi = 0 (i=1,2,…,n)
Proof: From bnSn+bn-1Sn-1+………+b1S+b0 = 0 we have b0=k0S for some integr
k0

Thus |b0| ≥ S unless k0=0 and so b0=0

Then we have bnSn+bn-1Sn-1+………+b1S = 0 and so for some integer k1we
have b1=k1S and in the same way we have b1=0 and so on. Hence finally we
have bi=0 for all i∎

Theorem1.25: Suppose S is a positive integer. Then each positive integer a

can be expressed uniquely in the form
a= cnSn+cn-1Sn-1+………+c1S+c 0, where 0 ≤ ci ≤ S-1 (i=0,1,2,….,n-1) and
0 < cn ≤ S-1
Proof: Let a be a given integer and B ={ k ∈ ℤ+| Sk+1 > a}
∵ S > 1, Sk+1 tend to infinity as k tends to infinity. Thus B is a non-empty
subset of positive integers and therefore it contains a least element say n.
Then Sn ≤ a < Sn+1 ………….(*)
and n is uniquely determined. By division algorithm we have,

39
a=cnSn+a1.........(**), where 0 ≤ a1<Sn ……….(***)
Also from (*) 0 < cn ≤ S-1.
Again using division algorithm we have
a1=cn-1 Sn-1+a2, …………(****) ,where 0 ≤ a2 < Sn-1.
Also by (**) 0 ≤ cn-1 ≤ S-1.
Thus from (**) and (****) a=cnSn+cn-1Sn-1+a2.
Similarly we can deduce that there are ci(i=0,1,2,…,n) integers ci such that
a= cnSn+cn-1Sn-1+………+c1S+c0, where 0 ≤ ci ≤ S-1 (i=0,1,2,….,n-1) and
0< cn ≤ S-1 hold.( that the expression is unique is left as an exercise).∎
The above stated expression is called the representation of a in the scale of
S. The integer S is called the base of the scale.
Example40: To illustrate base b notation, note that (236)7=2.72+3.7+6 and
(10010011)2=1.27+1.24+1.21+1=147
Computers use base 8 or base 16 for display purposes. In base 16, or,
hexadecimal, notation there are 16 digits, usually denoted by
0, 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A, B, C, D, E, F. The letters A, B, C, D, E and F are used
to represent the digits that correspond to 10,11 12,13,14and 15(written
in decimal notation)
Example41: To convert (A35B0F)16 from hexadecimal notation to decimal
notation we write
(A35B0F)16=10.165+3.164+5.163+11.162+0.16+15=(10705679)10

A simple conversion is possible between binary and hexadecimal

notation. We can write each hex digit as a block of four binary digits
according to the corresponding given in the following table
Hex digit Binary digit Hex digit Binary digit
0 0000 8 1000
1 0001 9 1001
2 0010 A 1010
3 0011 B 1011
4 0100 C 1100
5 0101 D 1101
6 0110 E 1110
7 0111 F 1111

Convert (2FB3)16 from hex to binary

40
Here each hex digit is converted to a block of four binary digits (the
initial zero in the initial block (0010)2 corresponding to the digit(2)16 are
omitted).And thus the corresponding binary representation is
(10111110110011)2
And to convert from binary to hex , if we take(11110111101001)2 then
we break this into blocks of four starting from the right . The blocks are
from right to left , 1001,1110,1101,and 0011. And thus we get in hex as
(3DE9)16

When performing base r addition, subtraction and multiplication by

hand, we can use the same familiar technique as use in decimal addition
Example42: To add (1101)2 and (1001)2 we write
1 1
11 01
+ 10 01
1 01 10

Where we have indicated carries by 1’s in italics written above the

appropriate column. We found the binary digits of the sum by noting
that 1+1=1.2+0,0+0+1=0.2+1,1+0+0=0.2+1,and 1+1+0=1.2+0.

To subtract (101110)2 from (11011)2 we have

-1
1 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 0
1 0 1

Where –1 in italics above a column indicates a borrow. We found the

binary digits of the difference by noting that 1-0=0.2+1,1-1+0=0.2+0,
0-1+0=-1.2+1.1-0-1=0.2+0, and 1-1+0=0.2+0.
To multiply (1101)2 and (1110)2 we write

41
 1 1 0 1
x 1 1 1 0
0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
We first multiplied (1101)2 by each of (1110)2 , shifting each time by the
appropriate number of places , and then we added the appropriate
integers to find our product.
To divide (11101)2 by (111)2 , we let q=(q2q1q0)2. We subtract
22(111)2=(11100)2 once from (11101)2 to obtain (1)2, and once more to
obtain a negative result, so that q2=1. Now R1=(111010)2-(11100)2=(1)2.
We find that q1=0,since R1-2(111)2 is less than zero, and likewise q0=0.
Hence, the quotient of the division is (100)2 and the remainder is (1)2.

1.4: Prime numbers:

If a =1 then a has only one positive divisor viz.1.If |a| ≠ 1, then a has at
least two positive divisors viz, 1 and |a|.
The numbers of positive divisors of a is 1 if a=1 and >1 if |a| ≠1.

Definition: If a>0 and a has exactly two positive divisors then a is called a
prime number.

Definition: If a >0 and a has more than two positive divisors, then a is called
a composite number.
Remark: (i) 1 is not a prime number for, it has only ‘one’ positive divisor.
(ii) If p is a prime number then, 1 and p are the only positive
divisors of p.

Lemma1.26: If p is a prime, then (p,a)=1 or p|a.

Proof: Suppose (a,p)=d

42
Then, d|p, d|a and p being a prime, it therefore follows that d=1 or d=p
If d=1 then we are done and if d=p then from above it follows that p|a.
Hence either d=1 or d|a ie., (a,p)=1 or (a,p)|a. ∎

Properties1.27: If p is a prime and p|ab then, p|a or, p|b, where a,b ∈ ℤ

Proof: Let p∤a, then (p,a)=1

∴ ∃ x,y such that px+ay=1
And this gives, pbx+aby=b…(i)
Now p|ab
gives ab=pk, k ∈ ℤ ,
∴ from (i) we get, pbx+pky=b
⇒ or, p(bx+ky)=b
or, pq=b, q ∈ℤ
or, p|b
Similarly if p ∤ b, then p|a.∎

Extension1.28:If p|a1.a2….an then, p|a1,or p|a2 ,or ..p|an

( proof is repeated application of the above result.)

Corollary1.29: If p|p1.p2... pn ( p’s are primes) then, p is one of p1,p2,..,pn

Proof: By one preceding theorem p|p1p2…pn gives either p|p1or, p|p2p3
….pn . If p∤p1,then again by the same result we have p|p2 or p|p3p4..pn .
Hence with a finite number of application of the same result we get that
p|pi , for some i. And
∵ p is a prime we must have p = pi∎

Converse of the theorem1.30: Let p > 1 and p has the property that if for
any a,b∈ℤ p|ab gives p|a or p|b, then is a prime.

[Note: Both the theorems can be combined as for a,b ∈ ℤ , p|ab gives
p|a or p|b if and only if p is a prime.]
Proof: Suppose p is not a prime. Then it is composite..

43
∴ q ∈ ℤ+ such that q | p and q ≠1,p ie. 1 < q < p.
∴ p=qr, 1 < r < p
Now p|p=qr, p|q or p|r. But both q and r are positive integers (< p) .
∴ p < q or r. So we meet a contradiction.
∴ our assumption is wrong. So, p is prime∎
Example43: If n=ab, then at least one of a and b must be less than n

Theorem1.31: If a ≠ 1, a ∈ Z, a must have a prime factor.

Proof: case i): If a is a prime then a is itself a prime factor.
Case ii): Let a be not prime. And S={ d|d > 1, d ∈ ℕ, d|a}
Now |a| |a, |a| > 1, |a| ∈ S .
∴ S ≠φ.
∴, S is a non-empty set of positive integers, and by W.O.P it has a least
integer, say, p.
Assert: p is a prime
And for p ∈ S, p >1, p|a. So 1 and p are positive divisors of p. If possible let
q ≠1,p and q|p, q ∈ ℕ.
∴ q < p….(i)
But p|a, q|p ⇒ q|a and so, q ∈ S
∴q ≥ p and this contradicts (i)
Hence p is prime∎

Properties1.32: Every integer n (>1) can be expressed as a product of finite

number of primes.
Proof: If the integer is a prime then it itself stands as a product with a single
factor. Otherwise by above theorem we have a prime factor p1 such that
n=p1n1, 1<n1<n
If n1 is not a prime then again by the same result we have another prime p2
such that n2=p2n3 , 1<n3<n2. Similarly for n3 . This process of writing each
composite number that arises as a product of factors gives us n > n2 > n2 >
n3 > ….., a descending chain of positive integers and it must therefore
terminate after a finite steps.
Thus we can write n as a product of finite number of primes.

44
Remark: Every integer can be expressed as product of primes.
For n= ± [p1n1] , p1 is prime, 1 < p1 < n
= ± [p1,p2.n2] 1 < p2 < n1
=………
=± [p1,p2,p3,..,pn]; p’s need not be all different.
[ n=100=2. ×50=2×2×25=2×2×5 ×5]
Note: Disregarding the order in which the primes are written, every natural
number can be expressed as a product of primes and this is the result that
we are going to prove below. Before giving the proof of the theorem we not
the following
Does the fundamental theorem need a proof at all? As Prof. H R Gupta says
“Has any one ever come across an example where the theorem has failed?
The following example will convince the reader about the necessity of a
proof.[Selected Topics in Number Theory;H Gupta:ABACUS PRESS,1980]
Take the set
{1,4,7,10,13, 22,25,28,31,…} of natural numbers. It is easy to see that the
set is closed under multiplication. Call an element of the set a ‘prime’ if it
has exactly two divisors in the set. Thus, the primes of the set are
4,7,10,19,22,25,31,..
We observe that 100 belongs to the set and it cam be written as a product
of the primes of the set in two distinct ways:
100=4.25; also 100=10.10.

Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic (also known as unique factorization

theorem) 1.33:

The presentation of n(> 1),as a product of primes is unique apart from the
order of factors
Proof :
Suppose that n=p1p2..pr=q1q2…qs, where p1,p2,…pr, q1,q2,…qs are primes and
suppose that the primes are ordered so that p1 ≤ p2≤…..≤ pr and q1≤q2 ≤
…..≤ qs. We now prove that r=s and pi=qi(i=1,2,….r)
The proof will be by induction.

45
 The result is true for n=2. Suppose that it is true for 2,3,..,n-1 and consider
the number n.
If n is a prime the result is true. Suppose n is not a prime . Then in the
expression n= p1p2…pr=q1q2…qs we have r >1 and s > 1. Then p1=qj and
q1=pi for some i and j (by corollary1.29) ∵ p1 ≤ pi =q1 ≤ qj=p1, it follows
that p1=q1
Then the integer n/p1 is such that 1 < n/p1 < n, and we have n/p1
=p2….pr=q2…q2. Thus from the inductive hypothesis r=s and pi=qi(i=2
,,,….r)Hence r=s and pi=qi(i=1,2,…r)
And the result follows by induction. ∎
In the application of the fundamental theorem we frequently write any
integer (> 1) in the form, sometimes called the “ fundamental form”
ak
n= p1 1 . p2 … pk
a a2

One may prove the above result if this form is used to write
ak bj
Proof: Suppose n= p1 1 p2 . … pk = q1 1 q2 . …. qj ,
2a a 2 b b
p’s and q’s are
primes…………..(*)
Assume that, p1 < p2 <p3 < . .…<pk and also q1< q2< q3<.. …<qj
ak
Now p1| p1 1 . p2 … pk (obviously).
a a2

∴ p1|q1q2…qj So, p1|qibi , for some i ∈ {1,2,..j} so, p1|qi ,

Hence, p1=qi.
∴ every p is some q.
Similarly, starting from right p’s and q’s are arranged in ascending order, so
follows that p1=q1, p2=q2. and k=j.
Now to prove that ai=bi.
If not, say bi > ai. Dividing (*) by piai ,we get
b ai b
a a a
p1 1 p2 2 . pi1 i1 pi1 … pk =
a i1 k a b
p1 1 p2b . …. pi i
2
… . pk k .
Hence pi∤ LHS.
But pi | RHS and is a contradiction.. Thus, aj=bj.
a a
Corollary1.34: If n ∈ ℤ then n= ± p1 1 p2 2 . … pk , p1 < p2< …<pk
ak

Note:
i) Pythagoreans deserve the credit for being the first to classify numbers
into odd, even prime, and composite.

46
ii) a prime p is of the form 3n  1 . Now if n is odd , then n  2k  1 and then
p  32k  1  1  6k  4  23k  2 and is an even that is not prime. Hence n
must be even i.e. of the type n  2k . And so p  3.2k  1  6k  1 . Thus the
prime is also the form 6k  1
As 3n  23m  2  3k  1 , 3n  23m  1  3k  2 , 3n  13m  1  3k  1 , it
therefre follows that
iii) Each integer of the form 3n  2 has a prime factor of this form.
As n 3  1  n  1n 2  n  1 . Now to be a prime of this form, either n  1 or
n 2  n  1 is unity. And thus the possible case is n  1  1 or, n  2 . Hence
iv) 7 is the only prime of the form n 3  1
Suppose p is a prime . Then if 3 p  1  m 2 for some integer m ,
then 3 p  m  1m  1 and by observation the possible values
are m  1  3 , m  1  p and so p  5 . Thus
v) the only prime p for which 3 p  1 is a perfect square is 5 .
If p is a prime then p  6k  1 or, p  6k  5 , for p  2 and then
6k  12  6m  1 for some m. and 6k  52  6k  1for some k and in both
cases 6m  1  2  6m  3  32m  1 .
Hence
vi) for a prime p  2 , p 2  2 is always composite. It is also easy to see that
vii) for any prime p and any integer a , p | a n  p n | a n . As for an odd
number n a n  b n  a  b a n 1  ...  b n 1  , we can easily see that
viii) any integer of the form 8 n  1 is composite.

Theorem1.35: There are infinitely many primes . `

Proof; Suppose 2,3,5,7,11,………,p be the finite set of primes up to p.Then
let q=2.3.5.7.11…..p+1
Now q is not divisible by any of the primes 2,3,5,7,11,…,p because if q is
divided y any of these primes 1 is left as remainder.
Hence q is either a prime number itself or is divisible by some prim
between p and q in either case there is a prime number greater than p.
∴ the number of primes is not finite.∎

Theorem 1.36: No rational algebraic formula can represent prime numbers

only .
Proof: If possible let the formula
a+bx+cx2+dx3+………+kxn …………(1)

47
represents prime numbers only.
When x = m, let its value be p.
Then p=a+bm+cm2+dm3+……….+kmn
When x=m+np, (1) gives
a+b(m+np)+c(m+np)2+………+k(m+np)n
i.e., a+bm+cm2+dm3+….+kmn+ a multiple of p
= p+a multiple of p
= M(p), where symbol M(p) stands for a multiple of p
= an expression divisible by p
Hence, when x=m+np, (1) does not give a prime number.
This shows that there is no simple general formula for the nth prime p, ie.,
a formula by which we can calculate the value of pn for any given n ∎

Theorem1.37: There are arbitrarily large gaps in the series of primes. ( In

other wise, there exist k consecutive numbers whose length exceeds any
given number k.
(given any positive integer n , there exist n consecutive composite integers.)
Proof: Consider the integers
(k+1)!+2, (k+1)!+3……………(k+1)!+k, (k+1)!+k+1.
Each of these numbers is a composite number because the number n
divides (k+1)!+n
if 2 ≤ n ≤ k+1 and there are the k consecutive integers which are
composite. Hence the theorem.∎
Example44: There are infinitely many primes of the form 4n+3
Solution: Suppose 2,3,5,7,11…p are the primes up to p, and let
q=22.3.5…..p -1,
Now q is of the form 4n+3 and is not divisible by any of the prime 2,3,5…p.
It cannot be a product primes 4n +1 only, because the product of two
numbers of this form is of the same form. It is therefore either a prime or
divisible by a prime of the form 4n+3, greater than p. Hence there are
infinite number of primes of the form 4n+3∎
Example45: Prove that there are an infinite number of composite numbers
among the numbers represented by the polynomial f(x)≡a0xn+a1xn-1+….+an,
where n>0, a0,a1,…..,an are integers and a0 >0
Solution: Suppose m is an integer such that f(x)>1 and f(x)>0 for x ≥m.
Suppose, f(m) =M. Then all the numbers given by
f(x+Mt), t=1,2,….. are composite as they are multiples of M.

48
Thus the result follows ∎

1 1 1 1
Example46: Prove that + + +….+ =Sn is never an integer.
2 3 3 n
Solution: Let k=largest of ki, where 2ki ≤ n
And P= ∏ m, m odd and m ≤ n
Now, 2k-1PSn =2k-1.3.5.7…Sn= 2k-13.5.7…     ...   = a sum all of
1 1 1 1
2 3 4 n
1
whose terms are integers except the term 2k-1 .3.5.7…. which is a
2k
3.5.7...
fraction
2
Thus, 2k-1PSn= a fraction. But 2k-1P is an integer.
Hence Sn is not an integer. ∎
Example47: Let f(x) ∈ ℤ [x] . Then f(x) can not be a prime for any x
Solution: Let f(x)= a0+a1x+a2x2+… +anxn , a’s ∈ℤ
f(x)=0 for at most n values
f(x) =1 for at most n values
f(x) =-1 for at most n values .
Thus f(x) =0,1,-1 for at most 3n values.
∴ ∃ y ∈ℤ ℤsuch that |f(y)| > 1
Let b=|f(y)|

Consider f(br+y)= a0+a1(br+y)+a2(br+y)2+…an(br+y)n=f(y) + b.g(r)

But, b=|f(y)| ⇒ b|f(y) and also b|b.g(r)
∴ b|f(br+y).
f(br+y) is prime ⇒f(br+y)= ± b
∴ f(br+y) = ± b for at most 2n values of r.
∴ for other values of r , it is composite .
∴ f(x) is not a prime for any x.∎
Example48: For what non trivial values of a and k ,ak+1 will be prime?
Solution:
Cases
(I) : a=1, ak+1=1k+1=1+1=2, a prime
(II) k=1, ak+1=a+1 is a prime if a=p-1, p is a prime.
(III) a ≠1, k≠ 1
Let a >1,k >1.
If a is odd, ak is odd then ak+1 is even.

49
∴ ak+1 is not a prime, if a is odd.
(IV) a > 1 , k > 1, a is even , k is odd , a+1|ak+1 ⇒ak+1 is not prime

(V) a >1, k > 1, a is even and k is even.

Let k= 2k1.k2, k2 is odd, k1 ≥ 1.

∴ ak+1= a2
k1
.k2
  +1 = b
+1= a
2k1
k2
k2
+1 ;
k2
∴ b+1| b 2 +1 gives b +1 is not prime
k

and k2 is odd and ≠ 1 gives ak+1 is not a prime.

∴ ak+1 is may be prime if k2=1
k
(vi) a> 1,k >1, a is even , k is even and of the form 2 1 and then ak+1=
2k1 2r
a +1 is prime for some k1.In particular, 2 +1 is prime for some r.
m
2
Definition: Fm= a +1 are called Fermat number
Fermat’s conjectured that Fm is prime for all m ∈ ℤ.
25
F0=3,F1=5,F3=257, F4=65537 , that F5= 2 +1=4,294,967,297 is not a prime
was shown by Euler in 171
At the beginning Fermat conjectured that all the Fermat numbers are
primes. In 1732, Euler pointed out that F5 is a composite. This negated the
Fermat conjecture. So, there are some primes and others are composite in
Fermat numbers.
Up to now , we know only that the first five Fermat numbers are
F0=3,F1=5,F2=17,F3=257,F4=65537 are primes and other 49 numbers Fn
are composite; their respective n’s are:
5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,18,
19,20,21,23,25,26,27,30,32,36,38,
39,42,52,55,58,63,73,77,81,117,
125,144,150,207,226,228,250,267
, 268,284,426,452,556,744,1945,

Besides these we do not know whether or not there are infinitely many
Fermat primes. No new Fermat prime has been discovered for the last
30 years(since 1995), so many people conjecture that there are no more

50
 Fermat primes. This is still one of the unsolved problems in the theory of
numbers.

The following elementary proof that 641|F5 is due to G.Bennett(which does

not explicitly involve division)
Example 49 :The Fermat number F5 is divisible by 641
Proof: We put a=27 and b=5, so that
1+ab=1+27.5=641
it is easily seen that
1+ab-b4=1+(a-b3)b=1+3b=24
But this implies that
25
F5= 2 +1 =232+1
=24a4+1
=(1+ab-b4)a4+1
=(1+ab)a4+(1-a4b4)
= (1+ab)[a4+(1-ab)(1+a2b2)] which gives 641| F5 ∎

Conjecture: Fm is prime for finite number of m: Prove or disprove !

2n
Example50: d=( a +1,
2m
a +1)|2 if m ≠ n

Solution: Given that m≠ n. suppose m < n

2mk
=X say. Then, a = a
m k m k
2m 2 .2 2 2 2
=a
2n
∴ n=m+k,say. Then, a =( a ) =x
k

2mk
2k
Now x+1| x -1, k ≥1 .Now d=( a +1,
2m
a 2k 2k
+1=(x+1, x +1)| x -1, x+1 .
k k
2 2
∴ d| x -1, x +1 ⇒d|2.∎

Corollary1.38: (Fm,Fn)=1
Proof: (left as an exercise)

Let us consider ak-1

(1) a-1|ak-1 ak-1 may be a prime if a=2

51
 (2) a=2, let k=lm(ie. We are assuming 1 < l < k; 1< m < k ,that k is
composite)
∴ 2k-1=(2l)m-1⇒2l-1| (2l)m-1. ∵ l >1, 2k-1 is not a prime if k is composite.
(3) ak-1 may be a prime if a=2, k >1and k is a prime.

Numbers of the form Mn =2n-1 n>1 are called Mersenne numbers after
a French monk Marin Mersenne who made an incorrect but
provocoative assertion concerning their primality.Those Mersenne
numbers which happen to be prime are said to be Mersenne primes.
In 1644, Marin Mersenne stated without proof that the number
2251 –1 is composite. In the 19th century, mathematicians finally proved
Mersenne correct when they discovered that this number was divisible by
both 503 and 54,217. However the issue still remained –what are the
prime factors of Mersenne number? In February 1984, two researchers
finally settled the matter using a 32 hour search on a Cray super computer
. The astonishing truth is this:

2251 –1 =
503Х54217Х178230287214063289511Х61676882198695257501367Х12
070396178249893039969681

Definition: If p is a prime then Mp =2p-1 is called a Mersenne prime.

(4) Mersenne said that Mp is a prime for p ≤257. Subsequently it is
found that Mp is a prime for p=2,3,5,7,13,17,19,31,67,257
(5) There are also mistakes as, p=61 gives Mp a prime.
Among the Mersenne numbers, there are some primes and others are
composite s . Up to now (1995) we know only the following 31 Mersenne
primes for which the respective p’s are
2,3,5,7,13,17,19,31,61,81,107,127,
521,601,1279,2203,2281,3217,4253,
4423,9689,9941,11213,19937,21701,
23209,44497,86243,110503,132049,216091

26972593-1 is the 38th known Mersenne prime discovered on June 1,1999 by

one of the 12000 participants in the Great Internet Mersenne Prime search.
It was also the first meagaprime found (prime with more than a million
digits) . Some websites predict that the first bevaprime (prime with more
than a billion digits) will be found by 2006.The complete list of the record

52
primes found since 1951, the first year that an electronic computer found
one, show s that 24 of these 26 record primes are Mersenne primes.

Lemma1.39: The product of the numbers of the form 4m+1 is of the form
4m+1.
Proof: n1=4k+1,n2=4l+1.
Then, n1.n2=(4k+1)(4l+1)=4m+1, for m ∈ N

Lemma1.40: The product of the numbers of the form 4m+3 is of the form
4m+1∎

Lemma1.41: The product of the numbers of the form 4m+1 and 4m+3 is of
the form 4m+3.
( Proofs are left as exercises)∎

Theorem1.42: Show that there are infinite numbers of primes of the form(a)
4m+3,(b) 6m+5.
Proof:
(a) If p≠ 2, then p ≡1(mod 4) or p ≡ 3(mod 4)
Let us assume that there are finite number of primes of the form 4m+3,
viz. p0=3,p1=7,p2=11, p3…,pn.
Consider k=4p1.p2….pn+3=4M+3(say)
Case(i)If k is prime then it is a new prime of the form 4m+3. Similarly we
may get another new prime and so on.
∴ the number of primes of the form 4m+3 is infinite.
Case ii: If k is not a prime , Then k=k1.k2.k3…kq,( ki is a prime) . All the ki’s
cannot be of the form 4m+1 , since their product is of the form 4m+3. ∴ at
least one of them ,say k1 is of the form 4m+3
∴ k1|k But, p1∤ k,p2∤ k, ..pn∤ k. So, k1≠ p1,p2,..pn.
∴ k1 is a new prime.
Similarly , we may get another new prime and so on.
∴ the number of primes of the form 4m+3 is infinite.∎

[ The above problem can be stated in the following way also: The arithmetic
progression:

53
3,7,11,15,19,….and 5 ,11,17, 23, 29,…. contain an infinititude of primes.
A famous theorem in number theory viz.,the theorem due to Dirichlet
reads : the arithmetic progression a,a+b,a+2b,…..contains infinitely many
primes if the integers a and b ( both positive) are relatively prime , that is if
(a,b)=1]

n
th
Theorem1.43:If pn is the n prime number , then pn < 22

2i 2i
Proof: Proof will by induction. It is clear that p1=2< 2 . Assume pi< 2 , i
<k+1, and let N=p1……pk+1. Then
222.....2k 2k1 2k 1
N< 2 = 2 -2 < 2
If p is a prime divisor of N, we get , in consequence of p ≠ pi, pk+1 ≤ p ≤ N
2 k 1
< 2 .∎.
Example 51: F0F1…Fn-1=Fn-2 Where Fn  2 2  1
n

Solution: We prove it by induction

If n=1, then F0=F1-2.
∵ F0=3, F1=5 the formula is valid when n=1. Assuming the formula holds for
n-1, then

F0 F1 ....Fn 1 = ( Fn  2  2) Fn 1 =( 2
2 n 1
-1)(
n1
22  
+1)= 2
2n  2
2
2n
-1= 2 -1= Fn -2
Hence the result.∎
Example52: Show that ∃k ∈ℕ for which 1.2.3...(n-2)(n-1) +1 = nk is true
when n >5….(*)
Solution:
Case(i): Let n be composite. Let d|n,d ≠1
∴ d| RHS(=nk) of (*)
But, d ∤LHS, a contradiction, n cannot be composite.
Case(ii): Let n be a prime.
(*) gives ,1.2.3…(n-2)(n-1)=nk-1=(n-1){nk-1+…n+1}
Dividing by (n-1) ,1.2.3…(n-2)= nk-1+nk-2+..+
When n >5, the product on the left contains a factor 2 and ½(n-1).
∴ LHS is divisible by 2 ½(n-1).But, RHS is not .{ ∵ when we put n=1, the RHS
1+1+ +1 =k ≠0.∎

54
Example53: If p is a prime greater than 3 then show that 2p+1 and 4p+1
cannot be primes simultaneously.
Solution: ∵ p is a prime greater than 3, p is either of the type 3k+1 or 3k+2.
If p is of the type 3k+1 then 2p+1 = 2(3k+1)+1=6k+3=3(2k+1). Hence,
3|2p+1 and 2p+1 cannot be a prime. Similarly, if p is of the type 3k+2 then
3 | 4p+1 and it cannot be a prime. ∎
Example54: If a is a composite integer , and q is its least positive divisor,
then q ≤ √a
Solution: ∵ q is a divisor of a , we have a=qa1. So here, a1 ≥ q. hence a ≥ q2
that is , q ≤√a .∎
Example55: If m is a composite integer , prove that the following integer is
so too:
nm = 11
.....
 11
mtimes
Proof; let m=ab. Then
10m -1=(10a)b=(10a-1)(10a(b-1)+…+10a+1),
or, 9( 11
 11)=9( 11
...  11)(10a(b-1)+…+10a+1)
...
mtimes atimes

or, 11
 11=( 11
...  11)(10a(b-1)+…+10a+1)
...
mtimes atimes

Thus na|nm. Hence if nm is a prime integer then so is m.

Note:
(i) But the converse is not true. For n3=111=3.37 and n5=11111=41.271 are
both composite
(ii)We know that n2, n19,n23,n317 are prime integers. 50 years after the
discovery of n23, n317 in 1978 using the computer, it was the next such prime
would be n1031 but the conjecture has not yet been proved.
Example 56: If p is a prime then prove that there exist no positive integers a
and b such that a2=pb2

Solution: Suppose there are two positive integers a and b such that
a2=pb2and let (a,b)=d. Then a=da1, b=db1, (a1,b1)=1. Substituting this in
above we get
a12=pb12. Obviously p|a12 and then p|a1
Putting a1=pa2, we have a22p=b12. Clearly p|b12 and then p|b1.
∴ p is a common divisor of a1and b1. And this is a contradiction with the
fact that (a1,b1)=1 Hence the result. ∎

55
Example57:If a,b are relatively primes , and d|ab, then there exist unique d1
and d2 with d1|a,d2|b such that d|d1d2
a a b b
Solution: Suppose a= p1 1.....pr r ,b q1 1...qs s
a a b bs
Then ab= p1 1 .....pr r q1 1 ....qs
We have
t t k k
d= p1 1.....pr r q1 1....qs s ,0 < ti < ai, 0 < ki < bi
t1 tr k1 ks
pr ,d2 q1 ......
Let d1= p1 ...... qs .Then d=d1d2, and clearly d1 ,d2 are unique.
Hence the result follows.∎
Example58: If n is a positive integer and p=4n+3,q=8n+7 are two primes ,
then q|Mp
Solution: (use example 1.3.15)∎
Note: Hence we have
23|M11, 47|M21, 167|M81, 263|M121
359|M17 7, 388|M191, 479|M321, 503|M251
Example: 59: If p is a prime >5 prove that (p-1) ! is divisible by (p-1)2
p 1
Soltuion: ∵ p>5 , p has factors 2,p-1, as p-1 is even. Hence (p-1)! Is
2
divisible by (p-1)2.∎

1.5: Integral part of n: [n]

[n] means the integral part of n or in other words [n] means the largest
integer ≤n
2
[5]=5, [4]=4, [4 ]=4 [-5.79]=-6 etc.
3
The function {n}=n-[n] is called the fractional part of n.

2 2
Thus {4}=0, {4 }= , {5.76}=.76
3 3

56
 40 40 40
Observe: = 13. 333.. , = 4.44…, = 1.481….
3 9 27

∴   +  2  +  3  = 13+4 +1=18
40 40 40
 3  3  3 
Now we prove the following theorem
Theorem1.44:The power with which a given prime number p enters into the
product n! is
n  n   n 
 p  +  2  +  3  +…………
  p  p 
Proof: The number of factors of the product n! which are multiples of p
n
is   ,such numbers are p,2p,3p,….
p
 
 n 
The numbers of factors of the product n! are multiples of p2 is  2 
p 
The number of the factors of the product n! which are multiples of p3 is
 n 
 3  and so on.
p 
Here each factor of the product n! which is a multiple of the maximal pm is
counted m times by the above process as a multiple of p,p2, p3, ….. and
finally pm
Hence the highest power of p contained in n! =
n  n   n 
 p  +  p 2  +  p 3  +…………∎
     

Example60: Find the highest power of 3 which is contained in 1000!

Solution: The required number
= 
1000  1000  1000  1000  1000  1000 
 + + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6
 3   3   3   3   3   3 
2

=333+111+37+12+4+1=498.∎
)
Example 61: Find the number of multiples of 7 among the integers from 200
to 500.

57
Solution: Here   =71 and 
500 1999 
 7   =28 the required number is 71-
 7 
28=43.∎
Example62:If x is a positive real number and n is a positive integer , then
among the integers from 1 to x, the number of multiples of n is   .
x
n
Solution: We know   ≤ <   +1
x x x
n n n
So we have   n ≤ x ≤ {   +1}n
x x
n n
Thus among the integers from 1to x , the multiples of n are only
n,2n,…   n,
x
n
The total of which is   . hence the result.∎
x
n

Now we prove the following theorems

Theorem:1.45:
(a) If m ∈ ℤ, then [m+] =m+[].
(b) For ,∈ℤ, [+] -1[]+[][+][]+[]+1
Proof: (a) Let =[]+ , 01
And m=[m]
Then, [m+]=[[m]+[ ]+]=[m]+[ ]=m+[ ] .//
(b) [+] =[[]++[] +] , 0, 1
=[[]+ [] +(+)] , 0- 1
=[]+ [] +[+] ,by theorem (a)
 [+][]+ []
Again [+ ] -[+] =[]+ []
And [+ ] -1[]+ [] ,( since, greatest value of [+] is 1)
[+ ]-1 []+ [][+ ] ………(*)
Again, [+ ]=[]+ [] +[+][]+ []+1…(**)
Combining (*)and (**) we get
[+ ] -1[]+ [] [+ ][]+ []+1 .//

58
Example 63: For any x, [x]+[-x]=0 or -1 according as x is an integer or a
fraction.
Solution: if x is an integer then [x]=x and [-x]=-x
Therefore , [-x]+[x]=0
Suppose x is not an integer then,
x=[x]+  , 01
Then, -x=-[x]-  =-[x]-1+(1- )= -[x]-1+1 ,( 0 1 1)
Therefore, [-x]=-[x]-1 or, [-x]+[x]=-1∎
Example64:If a be a real number, c an integer >0, prove that
 a  a
 c  =[ c ].
 
Solution:Let a=cq+r+ , 01
a 
Then,   =[q+ ]=q and [ ]=[q+
r a r 
]=q
c  c c c
Hence the result. ∎
Example65: If n is a positive integer then
1 n 1
[x]+[x+ +……+[x+ ]=[nx]
n n
1 n 1
solution: Write f(x) = [x]+[x+ +……+[x+ ]-[nx]
n n
1
then f(x)=f(x+ )
n
1
(hint: Consider the range 0x )
n
Example 66: Suppose that a and b are irrational numbers such that
1 1
 =1. Show that every nonnegative integer can be uniquely expressed as
a b
either [ka] or [kb] for some integer k.
Solution: Reduce to the case 1<a<2, and hence b>2.
Let n be an integer such that [ka]<n<n+1≤[(k+1)a].
b b b b
Since a= , we have (k <n<n+1<k + , from which we get
b 1 b 1 b 1 b 1
0<nb-kb-n<nb-kb-n+b-1<b.
The first inequality implies n<(n-k) b.
The last inequality implies (n-k) b-1<n,
therefore, [(n-k)b]=n.
For uniqueness, suppose [ka]=[kb].
Then, if k>0, then [a]=[b].

59
 1 1
But since  =1, one of a and b must be greater than 2, and the other
a b
less than 2. //

Definition: Highly composite integer: A highly composite integer is an

integer n (>1) if it has more divisors than any preceding integer; in other
words, the divisor function t(m) satisfies t(m) < t(n) for all m<n. The first 10
highly composite numbers are 2, 4, 6, 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 120 and 180
It was known that highly composite numbers could be expressed as

kr
n  2 k1 3 k 2 5 k3 ... p r , Where k1  k 2  k 3 ...  k r

1.5 Ramanujan’s surprisingly accurate information:

What Ramanujan showed was that the beginning exponents from a strictly
decreasing sequence
k1> k2> k3 >…, but that later groups of equal exponents occur; and that the
final exponents kr=1, except when n=4 or n=36, in which case kr=2.
As an example,
6,746,328,888,8000= 26.34.52.72.11.13.17.19.23

 Four important conjectures about primes:

Conjecture 1: (Goldbach’s Conjecture) Every even integer  4 can be

written as the sum of two odd primes.

n
Conjecture 2: (Fermat): There are infinitely primes of the form Fn= 22
Conjecture 3(Mersenne): There are only finitely many primes of the form
Mp =2p-1, where p is a prime.

Conjecture 4(Twin primes Conjecture): There are infinitely many pairs of

primes of the form (p,p+2).

60
 Exercises:1.1

1. Prove by axiom of induction that

i. 2n › n , for all n ∈ ℕ
ii. 4 divides n(n+1)(n+2)(n+3) for all n ∈ ℕ
iii. 12+22+…+n2 = (n(n+1))2
2: By the principle of mathematical induction prove that:
i. na+nb=n(a+b)
ii. 1 ≤ n
iii.. ma+na=(m+n)a
iv. 1.2+2.22+3.23+… +n.2n=(n-1) n+1+2
1 1 1 1 n
v. + + +……+ =
1.2 2.3 3.4 n.( n  1) n  1
vi. 3.1.2+3.2.3=3.3.4=…+3.n.(n+1)=n.(n+1)(n+2)

n(n  1)
vii. 12-22+32-42+……..+(-1)n-1n2=(-1)n-1
2
viii. For all integers n ≥ 2, the product of n odd integers is odd
ix. 32n -1 is divisible by 8
x. xn-yn is divisible by x-y
xi. Prove by induction the permutation formula
P(n,m)=m(m-1)(m-2)……………..(m-n+1)
xii. Show that in the proposition P(n): 2n > 2n+1, n ∈ N, although P(k) ⇒
P(k+1), yet the proposition is not true in ℕ:

(xiii) Using mathematical induction derive the formula

11!  22!  33!  ...  nn!  n  1!1 ,for all n  1 .

(xiv) Prove that n! n 2 for all integers n  4 , while n! n 3 for every
integer n  6 ,

(xv) A sequence is defined as follows:

n
7
a1  1 a 2  3 a n  a n 1  a n 2 f or all n  3 . Prove that for all n, a n   
4

61
3. Prove the commutative law of addition and multiplication for the
positive integers
4. For m,n,p ∈ ℕ , prove the following;
(i) If m+p =n+p then m=n
(ii) If m=p < n+p then m < n
(iii) If m.p < n.p then m < n
(iv)m.(n.p)=(m.n).p
5. Prove the law of Trichotomy for natural numbers (using Peano’s
Axioms)
6. Using properties of integers , prove that for any two integers a,b
(i) a-0=a
(ii) –(a-b)=-a+b
(iii) (-a)(-b)=ab
(iv) a(-b)= -(ab)
(v) a(-b)= -(ab)
(vi) If ab=0 then a=0 or b=0

7.Prove that -0=0

8. Use the well ordering property to show that 3 is irrational number
9.
i) A number is triangular if and only if it is of the form
nn  1
tn  , for some n  1 [ t n  n 1 C 2 , the nth triangular number]
2
ii) The integer is a triangular number if and only if it is of the form 8n  1
iii) The sum any two triangular number is a perfect square.
iv) If n is a triangular number then 9n  1 , 25n  3 , 49n  6 are also
triangular numbers.
nn  1n  2 
v) t1  t 2  ..  t n 
6
vi) 92n  1  t 9 n  4  t 3n 1 [ t n denotes the nth triangular number]
2

vii) Find k and l such that t k  t l  t m for some m

viii) Find k and l such that t k  t l  t p for some p
ix) Find k such that t k .t k 1 .t k  2  p 2 for some integer p
x) Find k such that t k .t k 1 .t k  2  p 2 for some integer p
xi) Find k such that t k  t k 1  t k  2  p 2 for some integer p

62
xii) If for some integers m and n 2n 2  1  m 2 and 2n 2  1  p 2 ,the nm 2  t k
for some k.
xiii) Prove that no integer in the sequence 11,111,1111,11111,….is a
perfect square.[observe: 111…1111=111….108+3=4k+3]

Exercises1.2

1. For m ∈ ℕ, prove that (ma,mb)=m(a,b), a,b ∈ ℕ.

a b 1
2. Prove that d∣a,d ∣b ⇒ ( , )= (a,b)
d d d

a b
3.Prove that (a,b)=d ⇒ ( , )=1
d d

4.Prove that (a,b) = (a,b± a) = (a,b+na) = (a+nb,b)

5.Find the greatest common divisor d of the numbers 963,657 and find
the integers m and n such that d = m.657+ n.963

6 Find the values of m,n to satisfy

(a)198.m+243.n=9

(b)71.m-50.n=1

(c)93.m-81,n=3

7.If x,y are integers, find the least positive value of

(i) 963x+99y (ii) 121x+891y

8. prove that if (a,b)=1 and (b,c)=1 then (ac,b)=1

9. Show that if ad-bc=1 then (a+b,c+d)=1

10. If a+b≠ 0 , (a,b)=1, and p is an odd prime, then prove that

 ap bp 
 a  b,  =1 or p.
 ab 

63
11. Prove that (a+b,a-b) ≥| (a,b)

12. Prove that, if a ∣ m , b ∣ m and if (a,b)=1 then ab∣ m

13. Determine whether the following assertions concerning integers are

true or false. If true, prove the result , and if false , give a counter
example

(i) If b ∣ a2+1 then b ∣ a4+1

(ii) If b ∣ a2-1 then b ∣ a4-1

(iii) If p is a prime and p ∣ a, p ∣a2+b2 then p ∣ b

(i) If p is a prime and p ∣ a,p ∣ a2+6b2 then p∣ b

14. If a and b are integers, b being non-zero, then prove that there are
1 1
unique integers q and r such that a=qb+r where - ∣ b∣ ≤ r ≤ ∣ b∣ [ In
2 2
this case , r is called the least absolute remainders of a with respect to b]

15. If (a,b)=1 then show that (a+b, a-b)=1 or 2

16. Prove: 4 ∤ n2+2 for any integer n.

17. If (a,4)=(b,4) =2, then prove that (a+b,4)=4

18. If for k ∈ ℤ, M(k) stands for multiple of k then

4x-y is M(3) ⇒4x2+7xy-2y2 is M(9) .

19.Using the Euclidean algorithm find the greatest common divisor (gcd)
of

(a) 7468 and 2464; (b) 2689 and 4001;(c) 2947and 3997; (d) 1109 and
4999

20. Find the greatest common divisor g of the numbers 1819 and 3587,
and find integers x and y to satisfy 1819x+3587y=g

21. Find the values of x and y to satisfy

64
(a) 243x+198y=9

(b) 71x+-50y=1

(c) 43x++64y=1

(d) 93x-81y=3

(e) 6x+10y+15z=1

22. Prove that the product of three consecutive integers is divisible by 6;

of four consecutive integers by 24.

23.Two integers are said to be of the same parity if they are both even
or both odd: if one is even and the other is odd , they are said to be of
opposite parity , or of different parity .

Given any two integers , prove that their sum and their difference are of
the same parity.

24.Prove :

(i) that n2-n is divisible by 2 for every integer n;

(ii) that n3-n is divisible by 6;

(iii) that n5-n is divisible by 30.

25.Prove that if x and y are both odd, then x2+y2 is even but not divisible
by 4.

26.Prove that any integer is of the form 3k or of the form 3k+1 or of the
form 3k+2

27.Prove that if an integer is of the form 6k+5 then it is necessarily of

the form 3k-1, but not conversely.

28.Prove that the square of any integer of the form 5k+1 is of the same
form.

29.Prove that the square of any integer is of the form 3k or 3k+1 but not
of the form 3k+2.

65
 30.Prove that no integers x and y exist satisfying x+y=100 and (x,y)=3

31. Prove that there are infinite pairs of integers x and y satisfying
x+y=100 and (x,y)=5

ab
32. Prove that [a,b] =
( a, b)
d b a c ( aD  cB)
33 If D= and B= , then show that + =
(b, d ) (b, d ) b d [b, d ]
{Discuss the relationship between this equation and the addition
of fractions by means of a ‘common denominator’}
34.Prove that (a+b,a-b) | (a,b)
35 .Prove that if a and b are nonzero integers , then (a,b)|[a,b]
36 .Let <m> be the set of all integral multiples of the integer m. Then
prove that
<m>∩<n> = <[m,n]> .
37 .A sequence an is such that a1=a, a2=b and an=can-1+ean-2 if n > 2.
(a) Prove that , if d=(a,b), then d|an for all n ≥ 1
(b) Prove that , if f=(am,am-1) and (f,e)=1 then f|d
38 .Prove that if a and b are positive integers such that (a,b) =[a,b], then
a=b.
39 Evaluate (n,n+1) and [n,n+1] when n is a positive integer.
40. Find the values of (a,b) and [a,b] if a and b are positive integers such
that a|b.
41. Prove that (a,b)=(a+b ,[a,b])
42 .The sum of two positive integers is 5264 and their least common
multiple is 200,340. Determine the two integers.
43. Find the highest power of 2 in (2r-1)!
(n1  n2  ......  nk )!
44. Prove that the number is an integer.
n1!.n2 !....nk !
4
45. If r = , prove that there are infinitely many positive integers n such
3
that [nr] are primes.
46. Prove that if a and b are integers , with b  0 ,then there exist unique
integers q and r satisfying a  bq  r ,where 2b  r  3b
47.Using division algorithm establish that:

66
(a) the square of any integer is either of the form 3k or 3k  1
(b) the cube of any integer either of the form 9k , 9k  1 , or 9k  8 ,

Exercises.1.3
1. Convert (1999) 10 from decimal to base 7 notations. Convert (6105)7
from base 7 to decimal notation.
2. Convert (89156)10 from decimal notation to base 8 notation. Convert
(706113)8 from base 8 notation to decimal notation.
3.Convert (10101111)2 from binary to decimal notation and (999)10 from
decimal to binary notation.(
4. Convert (ABCDEF)16, (DEFACED)16,and 9A0B)16 from hexadecimal to
binary.
5. Add(101111011)2 and (1100111011)2.(
6. Add (100001000111101)2 and (11111101011111)2
7. Subtract (11010111)2 from (1111000011)2.(
8. Subtract (11110101)2from (1101101100)2.
9. Multiply(11101)2 and (110001)2
10. Add(1234321)5 and (2030104)5.33144305
11. Subtract (434421)5from (4434201)5
12. Multiply (1234)5 and (3002)5
13. Add (ABAB)16 and (BABA)16
14. Subtract (CAFÉ)16 from (BAD)16
15. Multiply FACE16 and BAD16

Exercises 1.4
1. Show that there are infinitely many primes of the form 6n-1
2. Show that there are infinitely many primes of the form 4n-1
3. Find the canonical decomposition of of the numbers
(a) 82798848 (b) 8105722663500

4. Show that the product of numbers of the form 6k+1 is of the same
form.

67
 5. Prove that any prime of the form 3k+1 is of the form 6k+1
6. Prove that any positive integer of the form 3k+2 has a prime factor of
the same form ; similarly for each of the form 4k+ 3 and 6k+5.
7. If x and y are prime to 3 , prove that x2+y2 cannot be a perfect square
8. If (a,b)=p, a prime, what are the possible values of (a2,b)? of (a3,b)? of
(a2,b2)?
9. Evaluate (ab,p4) and (a+b,p4) given that (a,p2)=p and (b,p3)=p2 where
p is a prime.
10.If p is a prime and p|(a2+b2) and p|(b2+c2) then prove that p|(a2±c2)
11.If a prime integer p > 3, then prove that 2p+1 and 4p+1 cannot be
prime simultaneously.
12.If a1+a2+……+ar =n and all a’s ≥0, then prove that

n!
is an integer.
a1!a 2 !a3 !........a r !

13. Prove that if a ≥ 3 and n ≥ 2 , then an-1 is composite

14. Show that highest power of 2 contained in (2r-1)! is 2r-r-1

15. Show that the highest power of n which is contained in (nr-1)! is

n r  nr  r  1
nr
1
16.Show that [x]+[x+ ]=[2x] whenever x is any real number.
2

17. Show that [2x]+[2y] ≥ [x]+[y]+[x+y] whenever x and y are real numbers.
18. Show that if x and y are real numbers then [xy] ≥[x][y] . What is the
situation when both x and y are negative? When one of x and y is negative
and the other positive.
1
19. Show that [x+ ]is the integer nearest to x (when there are two integers
2
equidistant from x it is the larger of the two)

n 1
20. Show that  x  j / n  [nx] whenever x is a real number and n is a
j 0

positive integer.

68
21.: The number of primes of the form 4k+1 is infinite
22. The number of primes of the form 6k+5 is infinite
23. (Dirichlet’s Theorem): Let A,B∈N, and suppose that A,B have no
common divisor other than ±1. Then the arithmetic progression Ak+B,
k=0,1,2,… contains an infinite number of primes.
∎∎∎∎

69
View publication stats