THERMOFLUID LABORATORY (BEP2021)

NO. OF EXPERIMENT: 5
TITLE OF EXPERIMENT: IMPACT OF JETS
NAME: ARRIANNA PAULINA PETER 1002162633
ZHOU DAO 1002267122
HAMIZAN 1002165107
AGBO SIMON IFEANYI 1002162783
GROUP: 2
DATE OF EXPERIMENT: 19 FEB 2024
TUTOR: MS. RAFIZAH BINTI ZAITON

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, TECHNOLOGY & BUILT

ENVIRONMENT
Table of Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 3

Hypothesis .............................................................................................................................................. 5

Problem Statement .................................................................................................................................. 5

Objective ................................................................................................................................................. 6

Material and Apparatus ........................................................................................................................... 6

Procedure ................................................................................................................................................ 7

Results and Calculations ......................................................................................................................... 7

Discussion ............................................................................................................................................... 9

Limitations and Precautions .................................................................................................................. 10

Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................ 11

Reference .............................................................................................................................................. 12

Appendix ............................................................................................................................................... 13

Rubrics .................................................................................................................................................. 14
Introduction
A water turbine is a rotary machine that turns water's kinetic and potential energy into
mechanical work by letting fluid under pressure to strike the vanes of a turbine wheel. Water
turbines are primarily used to produce electricity and are commonly seen in dams to harness
the kinetic energy of water. The force produced when the jet impacts the vanes causes rotational
motion.

The Pelton wheel water turbine operates by directing one or more water jets tangentially onto
vanes or buckets mounted on the turbine disc's rim. The water's impact on the vanes creates a
torque on the wheel, causing it to rotate and produce power. To predict the Pelton wheel's
output and determine its optimal rotational speed, it is essential to understand how the
deflection of the water jet produces a force on the buckets and how this force is linked to the
momentum flow rate in the jet. This experiment aims to evaluate the different forces exerted
by a water jet on a flat plate. It involves measuring the force generated by a water jet hitting a
deflector.

Cussons P233 Impact Of Jets Apparatus

Figure 1: Impacts of a Jet Apparatus

The Cussons P6233 Impact of Jets Apparatus allows for conducting experiments to analyse the
reaction force generated on vanes when a jet of water strikes them. Understanding these
reaction forces is a crucial aspect of fluid mechanics and has practical applications in hydraulic
machinery such as the Pelton Wheel and the Impulse Turbine.

The apparatus, as depicted in figure 1, is designed to be used in conjunction with the Cussons
P6100 Hydraulics Bench, which supplies the water and facilitates flow rate measurement. It
primarily comprises a UPVC base assembly housing a vertical nozzle supply pipe within a
transparent acrylic tube, supporting a removable top flange assembly.

The upper part of the vertical shaft is connected to a weight platform, while the lower part
allows for the attachment of the target vane. A spring between the top flange and the weight
platform offers vertical support, maintaining an equilibrium position. Additionally, a weight
carrier and a set of brass weights are included.

Interchangeable Target Vanes

Figure 2: interchangeable target vanes

Three different target vanes are included: one flat, one conical, and one semi-spherical.
However, in this experiment we will only focusing on flat plates as it provides a basic
understanding of the characteristics of impact jet on a simple planar surface before introducing
different geometries. Figure 2 overleaf provides dimensional details for all three target vanes.
The apparatus comes with two plain bore nozzles that can be interchanged: one with a 5mm
diameter and one with an 8mm diameter. The base plate of the apparatus is equipped with
screwed studs for storing the nozzles and target vanes that are not in use. During operation,
water from the Hydraulic Bench emerges vertically from the nozzle and strikes the target vane.
The impact of the jet on the vane generates an impulse force, lifting the vane, shaft, and weight
platform to their equilibrium position.

Hypothesis
The study of these reaction forces is a crucial element in the study of fluid mechanics,
particularly in its practical applications to hydraulic machinery like the impulse turbine. Within
this context, pressure serves to heighten the velocity of water as it converges upon the fan
situated on the pump wheel (turbine) in the form of jets. As a result of this process, the fan is
set into motion by the force derived from the water jet's momentum. In this experiment, when
the diameter of nozzle decreases, the fluid velocity will increase, the rate of delivery of
momentum will increase too.

Problem Statement
In this experiment, we want to study what is the necessary force to maintain a flat plate at a
specified level while being exposed to the impact of a water jet, and how force affects the rate
of momentum flow in the jet? How do the experimentally measured forces compare to the
analytically calculated forces obtained through the control volume representation of the linear
momentum equation? Furthermore, analyze the impact force and momentum by drawing the
graph for a flat plate type of target vane.
Objective
1. To conduct experiments aimed at determining the necessary force to maintain a flat plate
at a specified level while being exposed to the impact of a water jet.
2. To assess and compare the force measured through experimental means with the force
calculated analytically using the control volume representation of the linear momentum
equation.
3. To understand how force affects the rate of momentum flow in the jet.
𝐹
4. To compare the theoretical value of 𝜌𝑄𝑣, with the experimental value.

5. To plot the graph of Impact Force, F against Impact momentum for 90-degree
vane

Material and Apparatus

Cussons P6233 Impact of Jets Apparatus, Cussons P6100 Hydraulic Bench, ruler, and
stopwatch

Figure 3: Illustrative figure of Impact of Jet Apparatus

Procedure

1. One of the distinct target surfaces were tested, which are: flat.
2. The flat target was inserted into the interchangeable target vane.
3. 200g of weight was placed on top of the vane.
4. The pump was activated, and water flow was initiated by gradually opening the bench
regulating valve until fully open.
5. Random adjustments were made to the suitable pressure for the water jet, and the
distance between the interchangeable target vane and nozzle was measured and
recorded.
6. Following the recording of the distance between the interchangeable target vane and
nozzle, the time taken for the water level to increase by 5 litres was recorded and used
to calculate the flow rate.
7. Steps 3 to 6 were repeated for carrier weights of 300g and 400g.
8. Repeat step 1 to 6 using different exit diameter of nozzle.

Results and Calculations

Table 1: results for flat, 90˚ vane, Diameter :_______ mm

Total weight on carrier (g) 200 300 400

Quantity of water collected (L) 5 5 5
Time to collect water (s)
Flow rate, Q (L/s)
Nozzle velocity, Vn (m/s)
Height of target above nozzle, h
(m)
Impact velocity, Vi (m/s)
Impact force, F (N)
Impact momentum, ρQVi (N)
𝐹
Slope, 𝜌𝑄𝑣𝑖
Table 2: results for flat, different flow rate, 90-degree vane , Diameter: _____mm
Total weight on carrier (g) 200 300 400
Quantity of water collected (L) 5 5 5
Time to collect water (s)
Flow rate, Q (L/s)
Nozzle velocity, Vn (m/s)
Height of target above nozzle, h
(m)
Impact velocity, Vi (m/s)
Impact force, F (N)
Impact momentum, ρQVi (N)
𝐹
Slope, 𝜌𝑄𝑣𝑖

Table 4: comparison between theoretical and experimental slope

Flat 90 ˚
Flow rate Experimental Theoretical Percentage of error

Sample calculations.

For flat vane, 90 ˚, total weight on carrier= 200g

𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑

𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑄 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒,𝑄
𝑁𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑉𝑛 = 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑉𝑖 = √(𝑉𝑛2 − 2𝑔ℎ)

𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹 = (𝑀𝑛 − 𝑀0 )𝑔; 𝑀0 = 200𝑔 = 0.2𝑘𝑔

𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚, 𝐹 = 𝜌𝑄𝑉𝑖

𝐹
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝜌𝑄𝑣𝑖

𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100%

Discussion

The Cussons P6233 Impact of Jets apparatus was utilized in this experiment to analyse the
reaction force generated on a flat target vanes.

Initially, the flat target was placed within the interchangeable target vane, and a 200g weight
was placed on top of the vane. Subsequently, the pump was activated, and the water flow was
initiated by gradually opening the bench regulating valve until it was fully open. The pressure
for the water jet was then randomly adjusted, and the height between the interchangeable target
vane and nozzle was measured and recorded. After measuring the distance between the
interchangeable target vane and nozzle, the time taken for the water level to rise by 5L was
recorded, and the flow rate was calculated. These steps were repeated for various total weights
on the carrier: 300g, 400g, and 500g. The experiment was then repeated, replacing the nozzle
with smaller diameter.
When a jet encounters a plate, it imparts a force on the plate. This force is determined using
the impulse-momentum equation. The experiment applies the theory of momentum, which is
based on Newton's Second Law of motion. According to this law, the total external forces
acting on the fluid within the control volume equal the rate of momentum change in that
direction. These external forces comprise the fluid's weight components and the externally
applied forces on the control volume's boundary surface. To compute the force resulting from
a jet's impact on a flat plate or curved vane, the principle of momentum change is employed.
The formula for force is given by F = ρQVi, where F represents force and ρ, Q, and Vi are
related parameters.

Limitations and Precautions

Important precautions were taken during the experiment to ensure safety and to obtain
accurate results. Namely, wearing proper safety equipment such as lab coat, goggles, and shoes.
The weights that were placed on the weight pan must be placed properly to ensure the weight
is evenly distributed. Moreover, the level gauge must be aligned with the weight pan when
recording the time taken to reach 10 Liters of water unless the pressure is set to a constant.
However, in this case, the pressure was set to a constant of 1 bar. The scale measuring the
volume should be read perpendicular to the eye level to avoid parallax error. Furthermore, the
eye level should be perpendicular to the ruler when measuring the diameter of the nozzle. The
hydraulic bench may be faulty because the water sometimes stops moving.

In this experiment, certain errors and limitations were encountered, possibly leading to
inaccurate results. The theoretical slope was calculated based on an assumed ideal condition
without any viscosity present in the experiment. However, in real conditions, the fluids
exhibited viscosity, which introduces internal resistance and frictional forces when flowing
through the pipe. Consequently, a discrepancy is expected between the theoretical and
experimental values. Additionally, parallax error may have influenced the observation of the
height between the interchangeable target vane and interchangeable nozzle by the students. To
mitigate this, observers must ensure that their eye level is perpendicular to the scale.
Additionally, manually timing the flow rate with a stopwatch can result in inaccuracies due to
human reaction time. To ensure more precise results, the experiment can be repeated several
times to obtain an average reading. Furthermore, it's important to consider that water jets hitting
the vane may flow downward and collide with the jet from the nozzle, creating momentum in
the opposite direction and potentially yielding a false value for impact momentum. Another
factor to account for is non-uniform flow rate, which can arise from fluctuations in the power
supply to the pump, adding a further limitation to the experiment.

Conclusion
The Impact of Jet Experiment is a well-known fluid mechanics experiment that has been widely
used to demonstrate momentum and impulse principles. The experiment measures the force
created by a water jet as it impacts a flat plate at a specified distance from the nozzle. Typically,
the experiment involves blasting a jet of water from a nozzle at a target plate or cup and
measuring the force created when the jet strikes the target. The waterflow through the nozzle
is modified to control the jet's velocity, and the distance between the nozzle and the target is
varied to examine how it influences the force created.

The results of the experiment show that the force produced by a jet is inversely proportional to
its velocity and fluid density. The force is also influenced by the jet's angle, plate area, and the
distance between the nozzle and the plate. According to the concept of momentum conservation,
the jet's impact generates a force equal to and opposite to the force delivered to the target. The
experiment has practical applications in a few areas, including fluid dynamics, engineering,
and hydraulics. It may also be used to investigate fluid behaviour in a variety of applications,
as well as to design and optimise hydraulic turbines, pumps, and nozzles.

The experiment's findings may be used to quantify the force that a jet of water will create in
various scenarios, allowing hydraulic systems to be built that are both effective and efficient.
The Impact of Jet Experiment has contributed to the theoretical understanding of fluid
mechanics as well as its practical applications. The experiment was used to evaluate theoretical
fluid flow models and develop new fluid behaviour theories. We can learn a lot about how
fluids behave and interact with solid objects by doing the experiment and analysing the results.
To optimise the experiment, we need utilise a constant and reliable water source. The
experiment's accuracy is determined by how regularly and correctly the water is delivered.
Ensure that the water supply is dependable and constant, and that the water is pure and
uncontaminated. Aside from that, we can minimise the consequences of friction. Friction
between the jet and the surfaces may have an impact on the experiment's accuracy. To decrease
friction on the impact plate and nozzle, employ polished, slippery surfaces. Furthermore, we
can assure proper alignment. The precision of the experiment is dependent on the nozzle and
impact plate being properly aligned. Ensure that the impact plate and nozzle are correctly
aligned, and that the jet is perpendicular to the impact plate. In conclusion, the Impact of Jet
Experiment is an excellent tool for understanding the concepts of momentum and impulse in
fluid dynamics. We can learn a lot about how fluids behave and interact with solid objects by
doing the experiment and analysing the results. The experiment has contributed to the
development of theoretical models of fluid flow and has practical applications in a range of
fields, including hydraulics, fluid dynamics, and engineering.

Reference

1. The Physics Classroom (2016) Momentum and Impulse Connection. Available at:
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/momentum/Lesson-1/Momentum-and-
Impulse-Connection [Accessed 14 Feb 2024]
2. Roy Beardmore (2013) Forces resulting from fluid momentum and Thrust by
reaction. Available at: http://www.roymech.co.uk/Related/Fluids/Fluids_Jets.html
[ A c c e s s e d 14 Feb 2024]
3. E n g . M o h a m m e d Y . M o u s a . I m p a c t o f J e t . Hydraulics Lab:
Islamic University-Gaza (IUG). Available at:
http://site.iugaza.edu.ps/mymousa/files/Experiment-3-hydraulics-lab-.pdf [Accessed
14 Feb 2024]
Appendix
Raw data
Rubrics