Printed Pages:02 Sub Code: KCA-104

MCA
(SEM I) THEORY EXAMINATION 2022-23
DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
Time: 3 Hours Total Marks: 100
Note: Attempt all Sections. If require any missing data; then choose
suitably.

SECTION A
Question 1. Attempt all questions in brief. 2 x 10 = 20
(a) State the Distributive and Associative laws of set theory.
(b) Write down the properties of Equivalence Relation.
(c) Define the Hasse diagram with example.
(d) What do you mean by Normal Form in Boolean algebra?
(e) Define the term Proposition.
(f) Negate the statement “He is poor and laborious”
(g) Define Monoid with example.
(h) Define the Commutative Ring with unity.
(i) Solve the recurrence relation: an - 3an-1 + 2an-2 = 0
(j) Write down the properties of Generating function.
 Answer .1
(a) Distributive Law of Set Theory: The Distributive Law of Set
Theory states that the union and intersection of sets distribute
over each other. Mathematically, it can be expressed as follows:

For any sets A, B, and C:

 A (B∩C)=(A B)∩(A C)
 A∩(B C)=(A∩B) (A∩C)
(b) Properties of Equivalence Relation:
 Reflexivity: a a for all a in the set.
 Symmetry: If a b, then b a for all a,b in the set.
 Transitivity: If a b and b c, then a c for all a,b,c in the set.
(c) Hasse Diagram:
 A Hasse diagram is a graphical representation of a partially ordered set
(poset) showing the elements and the relations among them without
showing all possible relations.
 Example: Consider a set {a,b,c,d} with a partial order relation ≤≤ such
that a≤b, a≤c, and c≤d. The Hasse diagram for this poset will have
nodes for each element connected by directed edges representing the
partial order relation.
(d) Normal Form in Boolean Algebra:
 Normal form refers to a standard form expression in Boolean algebra.
 Examples include disjunctive normal form (DNF) and conjunctive
normal form (CNF), where expressions are represented as a series of
AND and OR operations on variables or their complements.
 (e) Proposition:
 A proposition is a statement that is either true or false, but not both.
 Example: "The sky is blue" is a proposition because it can be
evaluated as either true or false.
(f) Negation of Statement:
 The negation of "He is poor and laborious" is "He is not poor or not
laborious."
(g) Monoid:
 A monoid is a mathematical structure consisting of a set equipped with
a binary operation and satisfying the following properties:
1. Closure: The binary operation combines two elements of the set
to produce another element in the set.
2. Associativity: The binary operation is associative.
3. Identity Element: There exists an identity element that, when
combined with any element of the set using the binary operation,
yields the same element.
 Example: The set of non-negative integers under addition forms a
monoid, with 0 as the identity element.
(h) Commutative Ring with Unity:
 A commutative ring with unity is a mathematical structure consisting
of a set equipped with two binary operations (addition and
multiplication) and satisfying certain properties, including
commutativity and the existence of a multiplicative identity element.
 Example: The set of integers with addition and multiplication forms a
commutative ring with unity, with 0 as the additive identity and 1 as
the multiplicative identity.
( i ) To solve the recurrence relation an−3an−1+2an−2=0, we can first
find the characteristic equation associated with it. The characteristic
equation is obtained by replacing an with rn in the recurrence relation,
leading to:
 rn−3rn−1+2rn−2=0
 Dividing through by rn−2, we get:
 r2−3r+2=0
 This quadratic equation can be factored as (r−1)(r−2)=0, giving
us the roots r=1 and r=2.
 Therefore, the general solution to the recurrence relation is of the
form:
 an=A×1n+B×2n
 where A and B are constants determined by the initial conditions
of the sequence.
 Since we have two roots, we need two initial conditions to
determine the values of A and B. Let's say a0=c1 and a1=c2.
 Substituting n=0 and n=1 into the general solution:
 a0=A+B=c1 a1=A×11+B×21=A+2B=c2
 Solving these equations simultaneously:
 From the first equation, we have A=c1−B.
 Substituting A=c1−B into the second equation:
 c1−B+2B=c2 c1+B=c2
  B=c2−c1
 Substituting B=c2−c1 back into the first equation:
 A=c1−(c2−c1) 2A=2c1−c2
 Therefore, the particular solution is:
 an=(2c1−c2)+(c2−c1)×2n

(j) Properties of Generating Function:

 Generating functions are used in combinatorics to represent sequences
of numbers as formal power series.
 Some properties of generating functions include linearity,
multiplication, and inversion.
 SECTION B

Question 2. Attempt any three of the following: 10x3=30

(a) If ={1,2,3}, ={ , } and ={ , } and the functions f and g are
define as
: → be ={(1, ,(2, ) ,(3, )} ,
→ be ={( , ) ,( , )} then find .
(b) Let L be the set of all factor of 12 and let ‘/’ be the divisibility
relation on L.
Then show that (L, ‘/’) is a lattice.
(c) Show that: (p ) ( ) ( ) is a Tautology.
(d) What do mean by Order of an element in a group? Find the order
of each element of the multiplicative group g= {1,-1,i,-i}.
(e) Solve the recurrence n+2- 4 n+1 4 n = 2 n

Answer .2
Attempt (a)

Given:

 X={1,2,3}
 Y={p,q}
 Z={a,b}
 Functions f:X→Y and g:Y→Z defined as:
 f={(1,p),(2,p),(3,q)}

 g={(p,q),(q,b)}

To find f g (composition of functions f and g) and g f, we need

to perform function composition.
 Composition f g: To compute f g, we apply g to the elements
of X and then apply f to the result.

1. Apply g to each element of X:

 (p)=q
 g(q)=b

2. Apply f to the results:

 f(g(p))=f(q)=?

 f(g(q))=f(b)=?

Since f is defined only for the elements of X, we cannot find

f(g(p)) and f(g(q)). Therefore, f g is undefined for a and b.
Composition g f: To compute g f, we apply f to the elements
of X and then apply g to the result.

1. Apply f to each element of X:

 f(1)=p
 f(2)=p

 f(3)=q

2. Apply g to the results:

 g(f(1))=g(p)=q

 g(f(2))=g(p)=q

 g(f(3))=g(q)=b

Therefore,

g f={(1,q),(2,q),(3,b)}.
So, f g is undefined, and g f is {(1,q),(2,q),(3,b)}.
 Attempt (c)

Given proposition: (p↔q) (q↔r)→(p↔r)

To show that this proposition is a tautology, we can use truth
tables.

Attempt (d)

The order of an element g in a group is the smallest positive

integer n such that gn=e, where e is the identity element of the
group.

Given the multiplicative group g={1,−1,i,−i}, where i is the

imaginary unit.

1. For 11: 11=111=1, so the order of 11 is 11.

2. For −1−1: (−1)1=−1(−1)1=−1, (−1)2=1(−1)2=1, so the order
of −1−1 is 22.
3. For i1=i, i2=−1, i3=−i, i4=1, so the order of i is 44.
4. For −i:
(−i)1=−i, (−i)2=−1, (−i)3=i, (−i)4=1, so the order of −i is 44.
Attempt (e)

To solve the recurrence relation an+2−4an+1+4an=2n, we can

first find the characteristic equation associated with it.

The characteristic equation is r2−4r+4=0, which factors as

(r−2)2=0. So, the characteristic roots are r=2.
Since the characteristic equation has a repeated root, the
general solution to the homogeneous part of the recurrence
relation is:

an=(A+Bn)2n
where A and B are constants determined by initial conditions.

Now, we need to find a particular solution for the non-

n
homogeneous part 2 . A particular solution can be guessed as
C2n.
Substituting an=C2n into the recurrence relation, we get:
C2n+2−4C2n+1+4C2n=2n
4C2n+1−4C2n+1+4C2n=2n
4C2n=2n
C=1/2
 So, the particular solution is an=1/2 2n=2n-1

Therefore, the general solution to the recurrence relation is:

an=(A+Bn)2n+2n-1

SECTION C
Question . 3. Attempt any one part of the following: 10x1=10
(a) Define the function and explain the difference between function
and relation with example
(b) For any set A and B, Prove that ( ∩ ) = ( ) ∩ ( ).
Answer .3
(a)
Definition of a Function: A function f from a set X to a set Y is a rule
that assigns to each element x in X exactly one element y in Y. We
denote this as f:X→Y, where X is the domain of the function and Y is
the codomain. Formally, for every x in X, there exists a unique y in Y
such that f(x)=y.
Difference between Function and Relation:
Function:
 A function is a special type of relation where each input has exactly
one output.
 In a function, each element in the domain maps to exactly one element
in the codomain.
 Example: Let f:R→R be defined as f(x)=x2. For each real number x,
there exists a unique real number y such that 2y=x2. So, f is a function.
 Relation:
 A relation is a set of ordered pairs representing the relationship
between elements of two sets.
 In a relation, an element in the domain may map to one or more
elements in the codomain.
 Example: Let R be a relation from set A to set B such that
R={(1,2),(1,3),(2,3)}. Here, element 11 in set A maps to both elements
22 and 33 in set B. So, R is a relation.
In summary, while both functions and relations describe how elements
from one set relate to elements in another set, a function has the
additional property that each input has exactly one output, whereas a
relation may have multiple outputs for a single input.
(b)
To prove that P(A∩B)=P(A)∩P(B), where P denotes the power set (set
of all subsets) of a set, we need to show that each set is a subset of the
other.
Proof:
Let X P(A∩B), this means X is a subset of A∩B.
By definition of intersection, X A and X B. This implies that X P(A)
and X P(B).
Therefore, X P(A)∩P(B).
Conversely, let Y P(A)∩P(B), this means Y is a subset of both A and
B.
By definition of intersection, Y A and Y B. This implies that
Y A∩B.
Therefore, Y P(A∩B).
Since every element of P(A∩B) is in P(A)∩P(B) and vice versa, we
conclude that P(A∩B)=P(A)∩P(B).
This completes the proof.

Question .4 . Attempt any one part of the following: 10x1=10

(a) Define Modular Lattice. Also Prove that: Every Distributive lattice
is Modular.
(b) Solve using K-map: ( , , , ) = ∑(0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,11 )
Answer .4
(a)
Definition of Modular Lattice: A lattice L is called a modular lattice
if, for any elements a, b, and c in L, the following modular identity
holds: a≤c a (b c)=(a b) c
Proof that Every Distributive Lattice is Modular:
Let L be a distributive lattice. We want to prove that L is modular.
Consider any elements a, b, and c in L. We need to show that if a≤c,
then a (b c)=(a b) c.
Since L is a distributive lattice, it satisfies the distributive law:
a (b c)=(a b) (a c)
Since a≤c, we can write c=a c. Substituting this into the distributive
law, we get: a (b c)=(a b) c
Therefore, every distributive lattice is modular.
 (b)
To solve the Boolean function F(A,B,C,D)=∑(0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,11)
using K-map:

D\ABC 00 01 11 10

0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1

Grouping adjacent 1's in the K-map:

 For A=0:
 Grouping 11 at (0,0), (0,1), (1,0), (1,1).

 This results in the term B′C′+BC.

 For A=1:
 Grouping 11 at (1,0), (1,1), (1,2), (1,3).

 This results in the term B′C′D+BCD.

So, the simplified expression for F(A,B,C,D) is:

F(A,B,C,D)=B′C′+BC+B′C′D+BCD

Question .5 Attempt any one part of the following: 10x1=10

(a) Show that s is a valid conclusion from the premises:
→ , → , ( ) .
 (b) If ( ) , ( ): , ( )
.
Express the following using quantifiers:
(i) There exists a student
(ii) Some students are clever
(iii) Some students are not successful.

Answer .5
(a)
To show that s is a valid conclusion from the premises:
1. p→q
2. p→r
3. ¬(q r)
4. s p
We need to derive s using these premises.
From premise 1 and 4 (using Modus Ponens):
 Since p→q and s p, we can infer s q.
From premise 2 and 4 (using Modus Ponens):
 Since p→r and s p, we can infer s r.
Now, we know that s q and s r.
From premise 3 (using De Morgan's Law):
 ¬(q r) is equivalent to ¬q ¬r.
 Combining ¬q ¬r with s q and s r (using Disjunctive Syllogism):
 We get s, as s must be true if q and r are both false.
Therefore, s is a valid conclusion from the premises.
Attempt (b)
Given predicates:
 K(x): x is a student.
 M(x): x is clever.
 N(x): x is not successful.
Expressing the following using quantifiers:
(i) There exists a student: xK(x)
(ii) Some students are clever: x(K(x) M(x))
(iii) Some students are not successful: x(K(x) N(x))
In each case, we use the existential quantifier to denote the
existence of at least one object that satisfies the given predicate.

Question .6 Attempt any one part of the following: 10x1=10

(a) Define the permutation group. If A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} then
find: (1 3) 0 (2 4 5) 0 (2 3).
(b) Show that G= {0,1,2,3,4} is a cyclic group under addition
modulo 5.
 Answer .6
(a)
Definition of Permutation Group: A permutation group G on a set A
is a group whose elements are permutations of the elements of A. Each
element of G is a bijective function from A to itself, preserving the
structure of the set.
Example: Let A={1,2,3,4,5}.
To find the permutation specified:
(1 3) 0 (2 4 5) 0 (2 3)(13)0(245)0(23)
Here, (1 3)(13) represents a permutation that swaps 11 and 33,
(2 4 5)(245) represents a permutation that cycles 22, 44, and 55, and
(2 3)(23) represents a permutation that swaps 22 and 33.
Applying these permutations to the set A:
1. Applying (1 3)(13) to A swaps 11 and 33, leaving other elements
unchanged. So, 11 becomes 33 and 33 becomes 11. A={3,2,1,4,5}.
2. Applying (2 4 5)(245) to A cycles 22, 44, and 55, leaving other
elements unchanged. So, 22 becomes 44, 44 becomes 55, and 55
becomes 22. A={3,4,1,5,2}.
3. Applying (2 3)(23) to A swaps 22 and 33, leaving other elements
unchanged. So, 22 becomes 33 and 33 becomes 22. A={3,3,1,5,2}.
Therefore, the resulting permutation is {3,3,1,5,2}{3,3,1,5,2}.
(b)
To show that G={0,1,2,3,4} is a cyclic group under addition modulo
55, we need to demonstrate that it has a generator.
In a cyclic group, every element is a power of a single generator
element.
Let's check if G has a generator. We can find the generator by
checking if each element, when added to itself repeatedly modulo 55,
generates all the elements of G.
Starting with 11, we add 11 to itself repeatedly:
1→1+1=2→2+1=3→3+1=4→4+1=0→0+1=11→1+1=2→2+1=3→3
+1=4→4+1=0→0+1=1
Repeating the process with other elements:
2→2+2=4→4+2=1→1+2=3→3+2=0→0+2=22→2+2=4→4+2=1→1
+2=3→3+2=0→0+2=2
3→3+3=1→1+3=4→4+3=2→2+3=0→0+3=33→3+3=1→1+3=4→4
+3=2→2+3=0→0+3=3
4→4+4=3→3+4=2→2+4=1→1+4=0→0+4=44→4+4=3→3+4=2→2
+4=1→1+4=0→0+4=4
We see that every element in G is generated by 11.
Therefore, G is a cyclic group under addition modulo 55, with 11 as
its generator.

Question .7 Attempt any one part of the following: 10x1=10

(a) Determine the numeric function corresponding to the following
Generating function: ( ) =7z2/(1-2z)(1+3z)
 2
(b) Prove by mathematical induction that + 2 is divisible by 3 for
each positive

(b)
Answer .7 (a)