PHILIPPINE COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

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Materials Testing

Materials testing offers assurance that components used in your infrastructure or products are fit for
purpose and capable of performing over their expected lifespan. Materials testing is a diligent approach
to ensuring that your infrastructure and vital equipment will provide continued production, undergo
minimal degradation and are designed with optimal performance in mind. Materials testing can also
supply a wealth of information about the materials you are developing or incorporating into products to
ensure they perform within expected specifications.

Ensuring that crucial materials are fit for purpose presents a challenge to developers, operators and
manufacturers across many industries globally. You need assurance that your equipment and
infrastructure will perform to the end of its design life with minimal maintenance, failure mitigation and
with mechanical strength prioritized and planned for. To optimize your R&D program, you will need a
comprehensive understanding of your materials or products under development.
Conducting materials testing for customers for over four decades, we are your ideal partner to provide
the independent and industry-leading services you require. Our expertise covers infrastructure,
aerospace and automotive components, metals, composites, polymers, construction materials and
more.
At Intertek, we also provide a range of Total Quality Assurance services that complement our materials
testing. These services include consultancy, testing and inspection in the areas of non-destructive
testing, corrosion testing, materials analysis, asset integrity management, fatigue testing, oil and gas
corrosion services, metallurgy, failure analysis, physical and mechanical testing, and the provision
of expert witnesses.
With our unique blend of local and global knowledge and internationally renowned experts leading our
teams, we are the ideal provider for your materials testing, giving you the insight you need on material
properties, strength, durability and performance. As well as delivering solutions on a project-by-project
basis, at Intertek we aspire to become your trusted Total Quality Assurance materials testing partner,
enabling you to consolidate your vital services and streamline your processes.
Materials testing, measurement of the characteristics and behavior of such substances as
metals, ceramics, or plastics under various conditions. The data thus obtained can be used in specifying
the suitability of materials for various applications—e.g., building or aircraft construction, machinery,
or packaging.
 A full- or small-scale model of a proposed machine or structure may be tested. Alternatively,
investigators may construct mathematical models that utilize known material characteristics and
behavior to predict capabilities of the structure.

Materials testing breaks down into five major categories: mechanical testing; testing for thermal
properties; testing for electrical properties; testing for resistance to corrosion, radiation, and biological
deterioration; and nondestructive testing. Standard test methods have been established by such
National and international bodies as the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), with
headquarters in Geneva, and the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), Philadelphia.

Tensile tests- are used to determine how materials will behave under tension load. In a
simple tensile test, a sample is typically pulled to its breaking point to determine the ultimate tensile
strength of the material. The amount of force (F) applied to the sample and the elongation (∆L) of the
sample are measured throughout the test. Material properties are often expressed in terms
of stress (force per unit area, σ) and strain (percent change in length, ε). To obtain stress, the force
measurements are divided by the sample’s cross sectional area (σ = F/A). Strain measurements are
obtained by dividing the change in length by the initial length of the sample (ε = ∆L/L). These values are
then presented on an XY plot called a stress-strain curve. Testing and measuring procedures vary based
on the material being tested and its intended application.

ADMET material testing systems perform accurate and reliable tension tests / tensile tests. Our systems
are ideal for measuring the tensile properties of metals, plastics, textiles, adhesives, medical devices
and many other products and components. As they pull materials apart, ADMET testing machines
accurately calculate mechanical properties such as tensile strength, peak load, elongation, tensile
modulus, and yield.

Why is tensile testing important?

Tensile testing is critical for selecting appropriate materials during research and development. Tensile
testing can also be used to verify that materials adhere to minimum strength and elongation
requirements.
From suspension bridge cables to safety harnesses, lives may depend on the quality of your materials
and products so conducting accurate and reliable tensile tests is an absolute necessity.

Consequences of not adhering to high standards can be severe both in monetary and human costs.
Usage of improper materials may result in destruction of property and significant loss of life. The costs
of disasters brought about by utilizing substandard materials usually far exceed the costs of carrying out
regular tensile testing.

Core Concepts of Tensile Testing:

Stress and Strain

These are basic dimensions of material science. Stress is the amount of force per unit cross sectional
area. Strain is the ratio of the change in length to the original length, sometimes expressed as a percent.
Tensile tests use plots of stress vs strain to display results.
Elastic Deformation
Elastic deformation is the region on the stress-strain curve where deformation can be reversed by
removing stress. It is also the region where stress is mostly proportional to strain. It can be identified on
a stress-strain curve as the initial linear section of the graph.
Young’s Modulus
Young’s modulus, also known as the elastic modulus, is the constant which relates the proportion of
stress (σ) to strain (ε) under elastic deformation. On a stress-strain curve, it is the initial slope of the
linear region of the graph. This relation is represented by the equation σ =E•ε. This relation is referred
to as Hooke’s Law, which was developed to represent the behavior of springs.

Proportional Limit
The first instance on the stress-strain curve where the plot begins to deviate from the line marking Young’s
modulus. This deviation is often gradual and is dependent on the material.

Plastic Deformation
Strain beyond the material’s yield point induces strain hardening, which permanently deforms the material
and causes changes to its mechanical properties.

Yield Point
The yield point marks the end of the elastic deformation region and the beginning of the plastic
deformation region. It is characterized by a sharp bend in the stress-strain curve at the end of the elastic
region. Materials that exhibit no definitive end to the elastic region do not have a yield point. In those
cases, yield is approximated by the offset method. However, it can only be determined experimentally
by loading and unloading, gradually increasing stresses to find where plastic deformation begins.

Offset Method
For materials that do not have a clear end to the initial linear region, the offset method is used to
approximate yield. The offset method uses the stress-strain curve of the material and overlays a line
with a slope equal to the initial slope of the stress-strain curve. The line is offset along the strain axis,
usually by 0.2% (the line crosses the strain axis at ε = 0.002). The offset yield point is determined as the
point of intersection between this line and the stress-strain curve.

Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)

The ultimate tensile strength is the maximum amount of stress a material can withstand before failure.
This is the maximum value on the stress-strain curve.
Tangent Modulus
Tangent modulus is used to approximate the slope at a given point on the stress-strain curve. The graph
shows an exaggerated example. Refer to ASTM standards when selecting points for a tangent modulus.

Chord Modulus
Chord modulus is used to approximate the slope between two specific points on the stress-strain curve.
The graph shows an exaggerated example. Refer to ASTM standards when selecting points for a chord
modulus.

Secant Modulus
Some materials do not have a linear region to their stress-strain curve, therefore Young’s modulus
cannot be determined directly from the curve. The secant modulus is used in its place as an
approximation. Secant modulus takes the slope of a line which intersects the origin of the stress strain
curve, and a point on the curve. One example is described in ASTM D5323, which calls for the point to
be placed at 2% strain (ε = 0.02), but the position of this point can vary by material and procedure. This
method is most useful for material comparison. This graph shows an exaggerated example. Refer to
ASTM standards when selecting points for a secant modulus.

How to Perform a Tensile Test:

Generally speaking, to perform tension testing, you will need the following equipment:
 Universal test machine frame
 Load cell
 Controller and/or indicator
 Proper grips and fixture to hold your sample

The universal test machine frame

Provides the structure and rigidity needed to pull the sample apart at the desired rate. Frames are
available in both electromechanical and servo-hydraulic configurations with a wide range of capacities.
It is important to select a frame which can withstand the amount of force needed to test the sample.

Load cells
Measure the amount of force being applied to the sample. Like frames, these come in a variety of
capacities. Choosing a load cell with a capacity below the required breaking strength will result in the
load cell breaking before the sample does. Conversely, a load cell with too high a capacity will lead to
test results that may lack the precision desired as resolution of load cells typically goes down to 1%. For
example, a 1,000 lbs load cell would be far too high a capacity for a sample that breaks under 1 lb of
force.

Controller or an indicator
Depending on your system setup, you may need a controller or an indicator. Controllers, as the name
implies, control how the test frame behaves during testing, including test speed and displacement. In
some situations, an indicator may be all that is required. Indicators capture and display the test data but
do not control the machine.

Grips and Fixtures

There are many types of grips and fixtures available for tension testing. Different materials require
different fixturing to properly hold them. For instance, a sample made of metal requires different grips
than a stretchy piece of rubber due to how the materials behave as tensile forces are applied. Selecting
the correct grips for your application is crucial in achieving accurate results.
ASTM D412- covers the testing of tensile properties of thermoset rubbers and thermoplastic
elastomers. The specification describes two test methods: A and B. Method A is common and can be
performed on a universal testing machine. The testing systems recommended for this test include
the eXpert 2600 Dual Column Testing Machine and the eXpert 7600 Single Column Testing Machine. If
you are going to perform this test, you should read the entire specification from ASTM. This is a quick
summary to decide if ASTM D412 is right for you and to point out what equipment you need to perform
the test.

MTESTQuattro Controller & Software-is an advanced materials testing system for servo-
hydraulic and electromechanical testing machines. Its unique design consists of a PC-based application
program and an easy-to-install external interface box which makes MTESTQuattro well suited for new
and retrofit installations. It features a state-of-the-art digital controller for performing accurate and
repeatable tests according to ASTM and ISO standards. MTESTQuattro is capable of performing all types
of tests including tension, compression, creep, fatigue, friction, flexure, relaxation, peel, shear and tear
tests. Additionally, the software includes a “go home” feature, allowing the testing machine to easily
return to its original positioning after a break. Being a comprehensive program, users can easily create
and recall ASTM compatible and user-definable test procedures and generate test reports that include a
stress vs. strain curve and a summary of calculated mechanical properties. MTESTQuattro’s base
configuration consists of load, crosshead position, axial strain, transverse strain and auxiliary input
channels with options for three additional auxiliary input channels and servo control. The input
channels are compatible with all force measuring; contacting and non-contacting strain measuring
devices which make it possible to measure key mechanical properties such as elastic modulus, yield
strength, ultimate strength and elongation.

Pneumatic Grips- recommended to run ASTM D412 testing are available as either wedge or vise
types. They allow for rapid sample changes and constant clamping force. Plastics, metals, fabrics, films,
ceramics, and many other types of samples can be held in a pneumatic grip. Once the pressure is set,
the air pressure will remain constant throughout the test. This prevents slippage while allowing testing
of thinner materials that might break in the grip faces if the inserts were clamped too tight. Test
specimens can be inserted in the grips positioned symmetrically and in axial alignment with the
direction of testing. This removes the bending strains that can skew data and is particularly useful when
tests are performed in high or low temperatures using an environmental chamber where internal
temperature changes need to be avoided while setting up specimens in the grips. In addition, compared
to hydraulic grips, the use of pneumatics is cleaner as pneumatics transmits power using air pressure
instead of using a liquid. Consequently, setting up tests using pneumatic grips is much quicker.

Long Travel Extensometer- ADMET offers long travel extensometers up to 1,100mm (43.3in)
travel range that allow for easy travel directly on the specimen. Axial extensometers provide strain data
by clamping onto the specimen with their knife edges and measuring the displacement in length as load
is applied and the specimen is pulled. Stress vs. strain graphs are among the most common analyses on
a tensile test report as they can be used to study multiple mechanical properties based on the
specimen’s deformation profile and its reaction under applied load. EX-700CT and EX-
110CT extensometer clamps move freely with the specimen and are counterbalanced in order to ensure
that the weight of the clamps has no effect on the displacement of the specimen. ADMET long travel
extensometers are recommended for use with ASTM D412 specimens and have the ability to extend to
gauge lengths adjustable between 20 to 80mm (0.79in to 3.15in).

Environmental Chamber- Specimens tested under the D412 requirements often require specific
environmental conditions. Changing the temperature in the testing space is made feasible by adding an
environmental chamber to a universal testing machine.
ADMET offers standard and custom environmental chambers, which come with their own controller
and can also be set up to communicate with MTESTQuattro. Chambers come with slide rack rails that
allow the chamber to be pulled out of the machine when not in use. Grips and fixtures are
manufactured with special materials that can withstand custom temperatures. The specimen is secured
in place to minimize contact with the sides of the chamber, and the chamber contains vents to remove
fumes from the system. Extensometers, deflectometers, and other accessories can also be added at the
customer disposal. Various designs of extensometers exist for high or low temperature testing
applications. Special extensometers measuring strain through the walls of the chamber can withstand
temperatures up to 1200°. The 4-glass-layered door window is heated to reduce icing and condensation
during low temperature testing. This feature also acts as a viewing door, and grips may be oriented so
that the specimen can be observed in the proper manner.

Compression Test: Universal Testing Systems

ADMET material testing systems are ideal for performing compression tests on a variety of products and
materials including concrete, metal, cardboard and plastic packaging, ceramics, and composites. The
most common measurement obtained from a compression test is the compressive strength which is the
maximum stress a material can withstand before it yields or breaks. It is also possible to measure
modulus of elasticity, yield stress, and deformation when performing compression tests. Examples of
common tests include measuring the point at which a concrete cylinder breaks under a compressive
load, or determining the load at various displacements when compressing a block of polyurethane
foam.

Common compression testing definitions and keywords include:

 Compressive strength: The maximum compressive stress a material can withstand before it
yields or breaks after gradual compression. Compressive strength measurements are expressed
in force per unit area.
 Compressive stress: The compressive load per unit area of minimum original cross section.
Compressive strength and compressive stress may or may not be the same values. Compressive
stress measurements are expressed in force per unit area.
 Compressive deformation: The decrease in the gauge length area of a test specimen
resulting from the applied compressive force. Deformation measurements are expressed in units
of length.
 Compressive strain: The ratio of compressive deformation to the gauge length of the test
specimen, or the change in length per unit of original length along the y-axis. Strain is a ratio,
thus is unit-less.
 Compressive yield point: The first point on a material’s compressive stress-strain curve
where an increase in the strain value occurs without an increase in the stress
value. Compressive yield strength is the stress at the yield point, expressed as force per unit
area.
 Modulus of Elasticity: The ratio of the nominal stress to the corresponding strain below the
proportional limit of a material. Modulus measurements are expressed in force per unit area.
 Poisson’s ratio: The ratio of the transverse strain to the axial strain. Poisson’s ratio is a
dimensionless ratio.

Common compression testing standards include:

 ASTM C109 | Concrete | Compression Testing
Hydraulic Cement Mortars are typically formed by a combination of cement, sand, and water,
but may include a variety of other materials in the mix. The strength of the final mortar is
strongly dependent on the type of materials and the ratio of the components, and testing is
required to determine the correct proportions for each application. ASTM C109 describes the
methodology for testing the compression strength of mortars using cubes of material that are 2
inches on a side.

A mechanical testing machine equipped with the appropriate compression platens is used for
the test. One of the platens must be spherically seated to allow slight tilt adjustment if the faces
of the specimen are not perfectly parallel. The test machine operates in compression at slow
test speeds in a load rate range indicated by the specification. Once the appropriate load rate is
achieved a constant rate of movement is maintained through sample break. Accurate speed
control is required in order to maintain the rate of motion once the sample begins to yield and
ultimately break. Hydraulic compression testers are preferred for these tests due to their high
force capacity. The results of the test may be recorded manually or electronically, depending on
the system being used for the test.

STM D575 | Plastics and Elastomers | Compression Testing

ASTM D575 is a testing specification that determines the compression-deflection characteristics of
rubber compounds. This test method is applicable to all rubber compounds other than hard rubber
and sponge rubber.

Deflection is the change in thickness of the specimen upon application of a compressive force. This
method involves one kind of compression stiffness measurement and covers two procedures:

Procedure A: Compression Test of Specified Deflection- A compression test in which the force
required to cause a specified deflection is determined.

Procedure B: Compression Test at a Specified Force- A compression test in which the specified force is
placed on the specimen and the resulting deflection is determined

Compression Testing Equipment:

eXpert 2600 | Powerful and Versatile-
The eXpert 2600 series universal testing machines are available in table top or floor standing standard
configurations from 2kN to 600kN. These systems tackle the toughest tests with their superior axial
alignment, stiffness, and crosshead guidance. A simple design allows for lower cost, faster delivery, and
years of maintenance free operation. All eXpert systems are capable of performing reliable and
repeatable tension, compression, peel, and flexure tests. ADMET offers a full line of grips, fixtures, load
cells, extensometers as well as heating and cooling for our systems. As our material testing machines
are engineered and built right here in Norwood Massachusetts, our team can provide engineered to
order products including higher force capacity, extended stroke, increased distance between columns
and more. Need something special, discuss with one of our engineers.
eXpert 5000 | Configurable and Precise-
The eXpert 5000 series testing machines feature modular single and dual column frame components,
base plates and detachable actuators. This set up provides the ability to configure your system in a
variety of vertical or horizontal orientations for a wide range of applications requiring flexibility and
precise control. These systems are perfect for cost conscious users wanting to perform a variety of tests
on a single machine. ADMET offers a full line of grips, fixtures, load cells, extensometers and heating
and cooling systems.

eXpert 7600 | Accurate and Efficient-

The eXpert 7600 series single column testing machines are capable of performing tension, compression,
flexure and peel/adhesion tests in an affordable and compact package. Efficient in design, units fit
within a 431x520mm space with force capacities to 5kN. These machines also feature the industry’s
largest vertical test space, making them ideal for testing high elongation materials. ADMET offers a full
line of grips, fixtures, load cells, extensometers and heating and cooling systems. If your testing requires
more than our standard systems offer, we can modify the stroke, speed or add a torsion actuator for
biaxial tests to meet your needs.

Hydraulic eXpert 1000 | Capable and Reliable-

ADMET’s hydraulic eXpert 1000 Series testing machines are ideal for testing metals, composites,
medical devices and implants, concrete, webbing, and other materials at very high load capacities
without breaking your budget. Each frame employs strain gage load cells for direct measurement of
force. No need to compensate for piston friction and other non-linearities, these frames offer
exceptional accuracy and precision while reducing long-term calibration and service costs. A simple
design based upon off-the-shelf components allows for lower cost, faster delivery, continuous testing to
maximum load, and years of maintenance free operation. The hydraulic power supply and electronics
are integral with the frame thereby saving valuable lab space. eXpert 1600 Series hydraulic testing
frames are capable of performing static tension, compression, and bend tests. eXpert 1900 Series
dynamic fatigue testers are engineered to meet the force-stroke-frequency requirements of your
application. ADMET offers a full line of hydraulic testing grips, fixtures, load cells, extensometers and
heating and cooling systems. All ADMET hydraulic testing machines can be modified to satisfy special
stroke, load, and fixturing requirements.

eXpert 4000 | MicroTester

Many industrial sectors are driving innovations in new materials from biomaterials, bone, fibers,
threads, thin films, wire and more. However, that innovation requires measuring the mechanical
properties of miniature samples. Few materials testing systems are able to measure very low forces and
small displacements on samples that can often be difficult to hold. Furthermore, many researchers also
have a need to record microscopic material behavior while the sample is under load. The line of eXpert
4000 series MicroTest Systems are ideally suited to meet these demanding testing requirements.

Compression Platens
Compression platens are used to determine the compression characteristics of materials. ADMET offers
circular, square, and spherically seated compression platens as well as multi-purpose t-slot platens.
Platens are commonly manufactured from aluminum or steel and attach to the testing machine with an
eye-end connector appropriate for the load capacity. We also offer compression fixture packages
for ASTM C469 and ASTM D695 testing.
WHAT IS THERMAL EXPANSION?
Thermal expansion is the phenomenon where an object or body expands in reaction to being
heated. Thermal expansion is most obvious in gasses and liquids but can still have a substantial effect
on solids.
The thermal properties of a solid are a very important aspect in the design of factories and products. If
thermal expansion is not considered during construction and design the result could be major structural
damage in a machine or building. Countless measures have been taken to prevent this and many
ingenious technologies are developed relying on this phenomenon. The amount that a material expands
can be explained by considering a coefficient corresponding to the fractional growth of the material per
degree change in temperature. This coefficient is called the coefficient of thermal expansion and is used
to predict the growth of materials in response to a known temperature change. The larger this
coefficient is for a material, the more it will expand per degree temperature increase.

Figure 2: diagram of atomic vibrations before and after heating.

When a body is heated, it is accepting and storing energy in its atoms in the form of kinetic energy. This
expose to an increased temperature causes an atom’s natural vibrations to grow stronger and more
pronounced. This increase in vibration pushes against the inter-molecular forces, allowing the atoms or
molecules to become farther apart and the body to grow larger. The amount by which a substance
expands in reaction to a change in temperature is mathematically represented by a coefficient of
thermal expansion. This coefficient is unique to each material and is based on their other physical
properties. The higher a coefficient of thermal expansion a material has, the more it will expand in
reaction to being heated. Crystals tend to have the lowest thermal expansion coefficients because their
structure is extremely uniform and structurally sound. Diamond has the lowest known thermal
expansion coefficient of all naturally occurring materials. The solids with the highest coefficients of
thermal expansion are the ones that have weak inter-molecular bonds, typically polymers, which also
tend to have low melting points. The reason for this is that weaker bonds are overcome with less
vibrational energy. Metals tend to have relatively low coefficients, but they also have very high melting
points, and they are not as perceptible to a material failure caused by the stress of expansion. This
makes metals ideal candidates to use when measuring thermal expansion.
Measurements of a change in volume caused by a physical or chemical process is called dilatometry. An
instrument designed to measure the change in volume of some substance is called a dilatometer. The
most common example of a dilatometer is a mercury thermometer, which measures the volume and
the change in volume of the trapped mercury which is used to determine the temperature of the
surrounding environment.
 Dilatometers can also be used to calculate the coefficient of thermal expansion. To determine the
coefficient, the volume of the material is carefully measured as the temperature rises from one known
value to another. There are a few examples of dilatometers that are designed to measure the volume of
solid metal pieces to determine thermal expansion. One design is the capacitance dilatometers. In this
design, one plate of a capacitor is movable, and the sample is placed behind it, so when it expands it
pushes the movable plate closer to the other plate. A more modern and accurate example would be the
laser dilatometer, which constantly measures the dimensions of the sample with lasers. One of the
most versatile designs is the optical dilatometer which is simply a digital camera using an optical group
to measure the variations in the sample’s size.

Figure 3: diagram showing the effect of linear thermal expansion.

Gases and liquids always expand volumetrically, expanding within the confines of their containers. In
theory, solids always expand volumetrically as well but because they hold their shape it makes them
appear to expand differently. For example, when a long metal rod is heated its atoms travel farther
apart in all three dimensions. During this expansion, the rods cross-sectional growth will hardly be
noticeable compared to its growth lengthwise. Since the rod is initially very thin there is a relatively
small number of atoms pushing against each other in the cross-sectional direction.
In the lengthwise direction however, there is a larger number of atoms lined up, and when they all
push against each other it forms a chain reaction that pushes the total length of the rod to be much
larger than it was.
Objects with dimensions like this can be regarded as only expanding in the one dimension. They are
thought to have a coefficient of linear thermal expansion instead of a coefficient of volume thermal
expansion. This coefficient acts the same as the three-dimensional coefficient of expansion, except it
corresponds to the fractional increase in length (instead of volume) per degree temperature. The same
is true about coefficients of area expansion in two dimensions for flat plates. From this observation it
can be determined that the amount that a body expands in response to a rise in temperature is linearly
dependent on the original size of the body.

An observational approach can be adopted to find a useful equation to predict the resulting size of a
body after a temperature change. As explained above, the amount that a linear substance expands is
linearly related to the original length, (L0). Observation shows that the expansion is also approximately
linearly related to the change in temperature (dT). It is also obvious through observation that all
materials expand differently. Due to this variation in expansion patterns, it can be determined that
other physical aspects influence thermal expansion. A coefficient is used to account for a substance’s
additional physical properties. This coefficient is known as the coefficient of linear thermal expansion,
COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR thermal expansion (CTE, a, or a1) is a material property that is indicative of the
extent to which a material expands upon heating. Different substances expand by different amounts.
Over small temperature ranges, the thermal expansion of uniform linear objects is proportional to
temperature change. Thermal expansion finds useful application in bimetallic strips for the construction
of thermometers but can generate detrimental internal stress when a structural part is heated and kept
at constant length.
For a more detailed discussion of thermal expansion including theory and the effect of crystal
symmetry, the reader is referred to the CINDAS Data Series on Material Properties, Volumes 1 to
4, Thermal Expansion of Solids (Ref 1).
Definition of Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

Most solid materials expand upon heating and contract when cooled. The change in length with
temperature for a solid material can be expressed as:

where l0 and lf represent, respectively, the original and final lengths with the temperature change
from T0 toTf. The parameter a1 CTE and has units of reciprocal temperature (K–1) such as µm/m · K or
10–6/K.

The coefficient of thermal expansion is also often defined as the fractional increase in length per unit
rise in temperature. The exact definition varies, depending on whether it is specified at a precise
temperature (true coefficient of thermal expansion or a-bar or over a temperature range (mean
coefficient of thermal expansion or a). The true coefficient is related to the slope of the tangent of the
length versus temperature plot, while the mean coefficient is governed by the slope of the chord
between two points on the curve. Variation in CTE values can occur according to the definition used.
When a is constant over the temperature range then a= a-bar. Finite-element analysis (FEA) software
such as NASTRAN (MSC Software) requires that a be input, not a-bar.
Heating or cooling affects all the dimensions of a body of material, with a resultant change in volume.
Volume changes may be determined from:

where delta V and V0 are the volume change and original volume, respectively, and aV represents the
volume coefficient of thermal expansion. In many materials, the value of aV is anisotropic; that is, it
depends on the crystallographic direction along which it is measured. For materials in which the thermal
expansion is isotropic, aV is approximately 3a1.
How To Measure Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
To determine the thermal expansion coefficient, two physical quantities (displacement and
temperature) must be measured on a sample that is undergoing a thermal cycle. Three of the main
techniques used for CTE measurement are dilatometry, interferometry, and thermomechanical analysis.
Optical imaging can also be used at extreme temperatures. X-ray diffraction can be used to study
changes in the lattice parameter but may not correspond to bulk thermal expansion.
Dilatometry
Mechanical dilatometry techniques are widely used. With this technique, a specimen is heated in a
furnace and displacement of the ends of the specimen are transmitted to a sensor by means of push
rods. The precision of the test is lower than that of interferometry, and the test is generally applicable
to materials with CTE above 5×10–6/K (2.8×10–6/°F) over the temperature range of –180 to 900 °C (–290
to1650°F). Push rods may be of the vitreous silica type, the high-purity alumina type, or the isotropic
graphite type. Alumina systems can extend the temperature range up to 1600 °C (2900 °F) and graphite
systems up to 2500 °C (4500 °F). ASTM Test Method E228 (Ref 2) cove the determination of linear
thermal expansion of rigid solid materials using vitreous silica push rod or tube dilatometers.
Interferometry
With optical interference techniques, displacement of the specimen ends is measured in terms of the
number of wave lengths of monochromatic light. Precision is significantly greater than with
thermomechanical dilatometry.
Thermomechanical analysis
Measurements are made with a thermomechanical analyzer consisting of a specimen holder and a
probe that transmits changes in length to a transducer that translates movements of the probe into an
electrical signal. The apparatus also consists of a furnace for uniform heating, a temperature-sensing
element, calipers, and a means of recording results.
ASTM Test Method E831 (Ref 4) describes the standard test method for linear thermal expansion of
solid materials by thermomechanical analysis.
The lower limit for CTE with this method is 5 × 10–6/K (2.8 × 10–6/°F), but it may be used at lower or
negative expansion levels with decreased accuracy and precision. The applicable temperature range is –
120 to 600 °C (–185 to 1110 °F), but the temperature range may be extended depending on
instrumentation and calibration materials.
Application Considerations
With respect to temperature, the magnitude of the CTE increases with rising temperature. Thermal
expansion of pure metals has been well characterized up to their melting points, but data for
engineering alloys at very high temperatures may be limited. In general, CTE values for metals fall
between those of ceramics (lower values) and polymers (higher values). Common values for metals and
alloys are in the range of 10 to 30×10–6/K (5.5 to 16.5×10–6/°F). The lowest expansion is found in the
iron-nickel alloys such as Invar. Increasing expansion occurs with silicon, tungsten, titanium, silver, iron,
nickel, steel, gold, copper, tin, magnesium, aluminum, zinc, lead, potassium, sodium, and lithium.
Low-Expansion Alloys
Low-expansion allows are materials with dimensions that do not change appreciably with temperature.
Alloys included in this category are various binary iron-nickel alloys and several ternary alloys of iron
combined with nickel-chromium, nickel-cobalt, or cobalt-chromium alloying. Low-expansion alloys are
used in applications such as rods and tapes for geodetic surveying, compensating pendulums and
balance wheels for clocks and watches, moving parts that require control of expansion (such as pistons
for some internal-combustion engines),
 bimetal strip, glass-to-metal seals, thermostatic strip, vessels and piping for storage and transportation
of liquefied natural gas, superconducting systems in power transmissions, integrated-circuit lead
frames, components for radios and other electronic devices, and structural components in optical and
laser measuring systems.
Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys
The dimensional change of aluminum and its alloys with a change of temperature is roughly twice that
of the ferrous metals. The average CTE for commercially pure metal is 24×10 –6/K (13×10–6/°F).
Aluminum alloys are affected by the presence of silicon and copper, which reduce expansion, and
magnesium, which increases it. Its high expansion should be considered when aluminum is used with
other materials, especially in rigid structures, although the stresses developed are moderated by the
low elastic modulus of aluminum. If dimensions are very large, as for example in a light alloy
superstructure on a steel ship or where large pieces of aluminum are set on a steel framework or in
masonry, then slip joints, plastic caulking, and other stress-relieving devices are usually needed. In the
aluminum internal-combustion engine piston that works in an iron or steel cylinder, differential
expansion is countered by the employment of low-expansion iron cylinder linings, or by split piston
skirts and non-expanding struts cast into the piston.
Steels
Plain chromium stainless steel grades have an expansion coefficient similar to carbon (mild) steels, but
that of the austenitic grades is about 11⁄2 times higher. The combination of high expansion and low
thermal conductivity means that precautions must be taken to avoid adverse effects. For example,
during welding of austenitic grades use low heat input, dissipate heat by use of copper backing bars,
and use adequate jigging. Coefficient of thermal expansion must be considered in components that use
a mixture of materials such as heat exchangers with mild steel shells and austenitic grade tubes.
Welding
The coefficient of thermal expansion is an important factor when welding two dissimilar base metals.
Large differences in the CTE values of adjacent metals during cooling will induce tensile stress in one
metal and compressive stress in the other. The metal subject to tensile stress may hot crack during
welding, or it may cold crack in service unless the stresses are relieved thermally or mechanically. This
factor is particularly important in joints that will operate at elevated temperatures in acyclic
temperature mode. A common example of this is austenitic stainless steel/ferritic steel pipe butt joints
used in energy-conversion plants.

What is Deflection?
Beam Deflection: What is it?

Deflection, in structural engineering terms, refers to the movement of a beam or node from its original
position due to the forces and loads being applied to the member. It is also known as displacement and
can occur from externally applied loads or from the weight of the structure itself, and the force of
gravity in which this applies.

Deflection can occur in beams, trusses, frames, and basically any other structure. To define deflection,
let’s take a simple cantilevered beam deflection that has a person with weight (W) standing at the end:
The force of this person standing at the end will cause the beam to bend and deflect from its natural
position. In the below diagram the blue beam is the original position, and the dotted line simulates the
cantilever beam deflection:

As you can see, the beam has bent or moved away from the original position. This distance at each
point along the member is the meaning or definition of deflection.
There are generally 4 main variables that determine how much beam deflections. These include:
 How much loading is on the structure?
 The length of the unsupported member
 The material, specifically the Young’s Modulus
 The Cross Section Size, specifically the Moment of Inertia (I)

Beam Deflection Equations

The deflection of a beam (beam deflection) is calculated based on a variety of factors, including
materials, the moment of inertia of a section, the force applied, and the distance from support. There is
a range of beam deflection formulas and equations that can be used to calculate a basic value for
deflection in different types of beams.
Generally, deflection can be calculated by taking the double integral of the Bending Moment Equation,
M(x) divided by EI (Young’s Modulus x Moment of Inertia).
What is the unit of deflection?
The unit of deflection, or displacement, is a length unit and normally taken as mm (for metric) and in
(for imperial). This number defines the distance in which the beam has deflected from the original
position.
Cantilever Beam Deflection
Cantilever beams are special types of beams that are constrained by only one support, as seen in the
above example. These members would naturally deflect more as they are only supported at one end.
To calculate the deflection of the cantilever beam you can use the below equation, where W is the force
at the endpoint, L is the length of the cantilever beam, E = Young’s Modulus, and I = Moment of Inertia.

Simply Supported Beam Deflection

Another example of deflection is the deflection of a simply supported beam. These beams are
supported at both ends, so the deflection of a beam is generally left and follows a much different shape
to that of the cantilever. Under a uniform distributed load (for instance the self-weight), the beam will
deflect smoothly and toward the midpoint:

Shear Test
A shear test is designed to apply stress to a test sample so that it experiences a sliding failure along a
plane that is parallel to the forces applied. Generally, shear forces cause one surface of a material to
move in one direction and the other surface to move in the opposite direction so that the material is
stressed in a sliding motion. Shear tests differ from tension and compression tests in that the forces
applied are parallel to the two contact surface, whereas, in tension and compression they are
perpendicular to the contact surfaces.
Purpose of shear testing:
The most common use of a shear test is to determine the shear strength, which is the maximum shear
stress that the material can withstand before failure occurs, of a material. This is a very important
design characteristic of many types of fasteners such as bolts and screws. For example, when a bolt is
used to secure two plates together it will experience a shear forces if the plates themselves experience
any forces parallel to their plane that attempt to separate them. If the small fastener fails in shear it
may lead to a chain of failures that could lead to the entire destruction of a much larger structure.
Types of shear tests:
Generally, there are two common types of shear tests. The first requires that the sample be setup in a
modified three-point flexure or four-point bend fixture.
The purpose of this test is to load the sample so that it experiences double shear or so that the sample
has two locations where the forces are applied. Each end of the sample is anchored and the force is
applied over the middle of the sample in an attempt to remove the midsection so that both ends are
left behind. The second test requires that the sample have tapered ends that are each placed into grip
fixtures that have been offset from the vertical axis of the sample. The sample is then pulled so that the
opposite faces are pulled in opposing directions.
Types of materials tested in shear:
Three materials are commonly tested in shear: rigid substrates, adhesives, and layered composites.
Rigid substrates may be composed of metals, plastics, ceramics, composites or woods but usually come
in a solid form and are used as building materials or fasteners. Adhesives are used to bond two
materials together and experience shear stress when the materials are pulled in opposing directions in
an attempt to slide them apart. Layered composites experience shear stress in a similar manner to
adhesives as the shear forces are applied to the glue or laminate used to hold the layers together.
Some of common types of shear test:

ASTM B565 Shear Aluminum Products Test Equipment

ASTM B565 covers shear testing of aluminum and aluminum alloy rivets and cold heading wire and rods.
ASTM B565 is not intended for shear testing of any products aside from aluminum rivets, and cold-
heading wire and rod. To determine the shear strength, the test specimen is subjected to a double-
shear load that is applied by a tension machine. To shear the test specimen a shear testing device is
used that holds the test specimen perpendicularly to the load. The shear testing device must meet the
strength and hardness requirements set by ASTM B565.
By means of our testing expertise and modular product design, we will help find the solution that is
right for you. Give our test engineers a call today for help configuring the best test machine and
accessories according to your standard.
ASTM D1002 recommends that the lap shear specimen is 25.4 mm (1”) wide, with an overlap of 12.7
mm (0.5”). Metal thickness should be 1.62 mm (0.064”) and the entire length of the bonded specimen
should be 177.8 mm (7”). ASTM D1002 requires testing for the following measurements:
 Maximum force
 Maximum shear stress
 Type of failure (adhesive or cohesive)
 Testing procedure
An electromechanical universal testing machine can be used to conduct a lap shear test. First, load each
end of the specimen into the test machine grips and apply a force at a controlled rate of 1,200 to 1,400
psi/min and at a cross head control rate of 1.3 mm/min (0.05 in/min) until you reach a breaking point.
Record the maximum force applied.
The right testing machine and grips are important to consider due to the fact that the grips must align
so that the applied force is sent through the centerline of the specimen. By means of our adhesive
testing expertise and modular product design, we will help find the testing solution that is right for you.
Give one of our application engineers a call today for help with creating the best budget and testing
plan according to ASTM D1002.
ASTM D3163 Lap Shear Rigid Plastic Test Equipment
ASTM D 3163 (D-3163) determines the single-lap shear adhesive joints of rigid plastic adherends. The
test method is useful for generating comparative shear strength data for joints made from a number of
plastics.
 By means of our testing expertise and modular product design, we will help find the solution that is
right for you. Give our test engineers a call today for help configuring the best test machine and
accessories according to your standard.

What is Torsion Testing?

Torsion testing is a type of mechanical testing that evaluates the properties of materials or devices
while under stress from angular displacement. Torsion testing can be split into two distinct categories:
testing raw materials like metal wires or plastic tubing to determine properties such as shear strength
and modulus, or functional testing of finished products subjected to torsion, such as screws,
pharmaceutical bottles, and sheathed cables. The most common mechanical properties measured by
torsion testing are modulus of elasticity in shear, yield shear strength, ultimate shear strength, modulus
of rupture in shear, and ductility.

WHY PERFORM A TORSION TEST?

Many products and components are subjected to torsional forces during their operation. Torsion testing
is necessary when engineers wish to change or update the materials used in these products. For
example, the metal used in vehicle drive trains experiences a complex combined loading when in use,
with torsion being the main component. An engineer trying to design a more fuel-efficient vehicle may
need to change the material of the driveshaft in order to reduce vehicle weight. Torsional testing can
help the engineer identify an appropriate material that will possess the required torsional strength
while also contributing to the goal of light weighting.

Many finished products are also subjected to torsional forces during their operation. Products such as
biomedical tubing, switches, and fasteners are just a few devices subjected to torsional stresses in their
everyday use.By testing their products in torsion, manufacturers are able to simulate real life service
conditions, check product quality, verify designs, and ensure proper manufacturing techniques.

TYPES OF TORSION TESTS

Torsion tests can be performed by applying only a rotational motion or by applying both axial (tension
or compression) and torsional forces. Types of torsion testing vary from product to product but can
usually be classified as failure, proof, or product operation testing.

 Torsion Only: Applying only torsional loads to the test specimen.

 Axial-Torsion: Applying both axial (tension or compression) and torsional forces to the test specimen.
 Failure Testing: Twisting the product, component, or specimen until failure. Failure can be classified as
either a physical break or a kink/defect in the specimen.
 Proof Testing: Applying a torsional load and holding this torque load for a fixed amount of time.
 Functional Testing: Testing complete assemblies or products such as bottle caps, switches, dial pens, or
steering columns to verify that the product performs as expected under torsion loads.

TORSION TESTING EQUIPMENT

Torsion testing can be performed on any one of several different testing systems depending on the
specific application. Some labs prefer a dedicated torsion-only testing system such as Instron's MT
MicroTorsion Series, while others may prefer to adapt their existing universal testing machine with
a Torsion Add-On 3.0 fixture that enables the system to perform biaxial testing. Functional testing of
finished products is often performed on a dynamic fatigue system such as Instron's Electropuls.
CALCULATING RESULTS

The torque vs rotation curve produced by testing raw materials in torsion is in many ways analogous to
the force displacement curve captured during axial testing. Most materials exhibit a similar linear
region, representing the shear modulus, followed by yield and ultimate failure.

Common Test Standards

 ASTM A938 Torsional Test of Wire
 ASTM D1043 Torsion Plastics Test Equipment
 ASTM D5279 Thermoset & Thermoplastic Dynamic Torsion Testing Machine
 ASTM E2207 Axial-Torsional Fatigue Thin-Walled Tubular Materials Test Equipment
 ASTM F383 Static Bend and Torsion Testing of Intramedullary Rods
 ASTM F543 Medical Bone Screw Torsion Test Equipment
 ISO 6475 Bone Screw Torsion Test Methods | Equipment
 ISO 7800 Metal Wire Torsion test
 ISO 80369-1 Axial Torsional Luer Connector Test Equipment

Common Applications
 Torsion Test Equipment for Plastics
 Torsion Testing of Bone Screws | Equipment
 Torsion Testing of Wire | Equipment
 Torsion Tests on Engineered Composite Materials | Equipment
 Torsion Test Machine | Teaching Lab Academic Spotlight
 Torsional Test Machine with Static Axial Load
 Wire Torsion Strength Test | Equipment