Lecture 1

Defining Politics:
The activity through which people make, preserve and amend general rules under
which they live. (an activity by people) These rules should apply to everyone.

A necessary activity.

Involves the creation of rules to create the best possible social order.

It involves more than one person (”It is always a dialogue, and never a monologue”)

It is not easy to define. (there’s great disagreement among scholars)

It is an essentially contested concept. Humans and human conduct are not easy to
define. It does not, however, mean that everything goes.

1. Politics as (a sophisticated) human activity.

2. Politics as what government does.

3. Politics as public affairs.

4. Politics as compromise and consensus.

5. Politics as power.

As human activity:
based on the work of Michael Oakeshott (British political theorist)
There are many kinds of human activities - but they can all be divided into two groups.
(1) Primordial = present in all historical ages (sleeping, eating)
(2) More sophisticated = curing diseases, tool making, writing poetry
Poitics fall under the more sophisticated forms of activity. This means that it was not
always there. It is an acquired activity. Every acquired activity requires the fulfilment of
certain needs.

Conditions:

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 1. Plurality of human beings. One person on their own cannot engage in politics.
There must be an association of human beings. This is a group of people who
recognise common customs and rules. There must however be diversity in the
group - different beliefs, attitudes etc. Without these differences political activity
will not emerge. Politics, to a large measure, is the activity by which a society
deals with its diversities.

An association of humans = a group of people who recognize common customs and

rules (these customs & rules give a unity or singleness to the group). Here people
feel that somehow their lives are interlinked with the lives of the other people in the
group.

2. The presence in such a society of a ruling authority. One point of view -

political activity is concerned with the government and their instruments.
(government however does not equate to politics). Politics is the deliberation on
how, and upon what, to set these instruments to work (it is by means of the
instruments of government that society deals with its diversity.) It is possible to
have a government without having politics in a society, but it is not possible to
have politics without a government.

3. It must be recognised that the government and public policy is

susceptible to human choice and action. The belief must be there that
people can make a difference to the current state of their association through
their choices and actions. This is the most important condition necessary for the
emergence of political activity. It is an activity between human beings who are
capable of determining their own actions in relation to ruling. Politics
presupposes the possibility of alternative courses of action, and the possibility
of change. It is thus concerned with deciding between alternative courses of
action and with instituting change. Politics is not ruling, it is thinking of what
should be done and convincing those who have the authority to act to make
certain choices and not others.

Art of the Government:

It is about the exercise of control in a society through making and enforcing of collective
decisions.

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 Origin of the definition = the classical definition. Drawn from life in ancient Greek city-
states (polis). It is seen as the affairs of the polis. The focus is thus on the personnel
Politics is that which concerns the state. It is the authoritative allocation of values.
(David Easton)

How the government responds to social pressures in allocating resources or benefits.. It

is about that which the government does.

Narrow definition - it is a restrictive definition of politics. It limits politics to what happens

within a government. And therefore to study politics is to study the government. There is
an even more restrictive view, limits politics to only party politics. It tends to paint politics
in a negative light, as it is now equated with the actions of politicians. Can lead
to/encourage anti-politics view.

Politics as public affairs:

It is public life/private life divide. (origins in Aristotle’s conception of politics)

Public = state, collective organisation, public funding

Private = civil society, funded by individuals, pursue particular interests.

Public is seen as a much larger area of life. It is institutions operating in public,

public access, politics, commerce, art, work, culture.

What remains is the personal. Home life and domestic affairs. (politics tends to
operate in the public sphere)

Private space is the space of constraint and public the place of freedom - was the
common manner in viewing politics.
Positive image - but the Greeks contested this. They saw politics as a noble pursuit
and had a positive view of the public space - they saw it as a place to meet as equals
and engage with each other. They could live a life of self-forgetfullness and live a life for
the common good. (however only some people were seen as citizens of the state)
Arendt said that politics gives meaning to life and affirms individuals. To them, politicical
participation lead to moral, personal and intellectual development.

Negative image of politics - liberal view. Private life, here, is the realm of choice,
freedom and responsibility. They state should not decide people’s life choices. It (the
state) should stay small and effective.

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 Compromise and Consensus:

It is how decisions are made. It is the means of resolving conflict through compromise,
negotiation and concilliation.
It can be contrasted to naked power and force.

The ‘Realm of Possibility’ is peaceful debate and arbitration.

Main proponents - Aristotle, his idea of an ideal system of government combined

aristrocratic and democratic features. He is making a compromise, he believes there’s
value in a mixed system that accomodates difference. Next, is Bernard Crick. He viewed
politics as the dispersal of power. Through concilliation, groups can attain a share of
power. He saw politics as the solution to a problem of order, he wanted to achieve
stability.. (we want to avoid chaos- a society where people’s lives are constantly at
threat)
Liberal - rational belief. People are thinking creatures. This understanding of politics is
very optimistic. It is the belief that through conversing with the opponent, an
understanding and compromise might be reached.

💡 What about non-democratic systems?

Advantages:

Preferable way to manage and live with differences in society.

Civilising force

Generates respect for politics as an activity

People should be encouraged to participate in politics.

Disadvantages:

Bias to democracy

Politics is seen as frustrating and difficult

Entails trade-offs which can leave people unsastisfied

Having to listen to others is frustrating - makes people dislike democracy

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 ‘Politics is designed to disappoint, with outcomes messy, ambiguous and never
final’

Politics as Power:

Politics is everywhere - in all social relations. (even inside the home)

Here the key is power: the ability to achieve the desired outcomes through whatever
means necessary.

Scarcity of resources leads to struggle. (politics can be seen as the production,

distribution and use of resources) People compete over these limited resources. Politics
is thus the struggle over scarce resources, conducted through power. Therefore politics
is everywhere.

Marxism

It is a narrower view - the apparatus of the state. Here, the state is used by one class to
oppress the other. His view - society is like a house, the base/foundation provides the
solidity of the structure. Society works the same, the foundation of society is class
relations (the substructure) and their relationship with each other. It is economic
determinism. The superstructure reflects the base. The world thus consists of an
economic base and superstructure (politics, law, culture). He believed that you have to
destroy the foundation in order to rebuild. He believed the economic base in capitalist
systems is characterised by exploitation.

Politics is rooted in class struggle. The economic is the political. Thus, class struggle in
civil society is at the heart of politics.

Feminism

Society is patriarchal. Thus there is a need to expand the arena of politics: ‘the personal
is political’. Therefore politics is the process of exercising power over others, it is seen
as domination. It is ‘power-structured relationships, arrangements whereby one group of
persons is controlled by another’ It (relationship between men and women) is thus a
conflictual relationship.

Critique: Both feminists and Marxists suggest a negative view of politics, that it is about
oppression and subjegation. The ideal, for them, would be the destruction of the state
and therefore the elimination of politics. They also see politics as an emancipating force
- a means to end injustice and domination. There is thus a possible contradiction. A

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 politics of power tends to lack a clear distinction between ‘power’ and ‘authority’ and
thus ‘illegitimate power’ and ‘legitimate power’.

Approaches to the study of Politics:

(see in textbook)(12-24)

Spheres of intellectual tradition:

1. The philosophical tradition (the normative approach)

How should things work? (trying to understand human conduct)

The ‘traditional’ approach - analysis of the ideas and doctrine that have been central
to the great thinkers in the history of political thought.

2. The empirical tradition

What is happening? (studies the work of other philosophers)(great focus on

institutions)

Sense experience the only basis for knowledge – only observation. Science is the
only reliable means of discovering truth – a science of politics.

3. Behaviouralism

Why do people behave the way they do?

Focus on aspects of political behavior suitable for quantitative research methods.

Interest in normative questions like justice, freedom, rights, etc. have revived since
the 1970s and is now again a key focus area in political analysis.

4. Rational-choice theory

What will benefit me? (explains how people make choices)

Draws heavily on economic theories related to the rationally self-interested behavior

of individuals. Game theory – used to understand problems of cooperation and
conflict and how one person’s choices impacts those of others.

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 5. New institutionalism

Focus on rules and procedures that guides or constrains behaviour of people.

(social groupings - from movements to institutions)(long-term prosperity and stability
in society)
Effective governance-rule of law-accountable governing

6. Critical approaches (post-Marxism)

Liberal ideologies - New approaches emerged, such as feminism, ecologism,

constructivism etc.

This is critical of the status quo in that they align themselves with the marginalised
and oppressed. (exposes inequalities and assymetries)(challenges is that it is
deconstructive)(they are also becoming more mainstream)

Tools as poltical analysis:

(1) Concepts help us to classify objects by recognizing that they have similar forms or
similar properties.

(2) Models include a network of relationships that highlight the meaning and significance
of relevant empirical data.
(3) Theories offer a systematic explanation of a body of empirical data.

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 Politics in a global age:
= a distinction has traditionally been made between the domestic and international
realms of politics.

The state-based paradigm of politics has come under pressure as a result of recent
trends and developments, including globalization.

The increase in transnational flows has expanded the parameters and complexity of
political activity.

Concepts:
Power - the ability to achieve a desired outcome, sometimes seen as the ‘power to’ do
something. This includes everything from the ability to keep oneself alive to the ability of
government to promote economic growth. In politics it is often thought of as a

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 relationship; the ability to influence the behaviour of others in a manner not of their
choosing. It is also associated with the ability to punish or reward.
Authority - Most simply defined as ‘legitimate power’. Authority is the right to influence
the beahviour of others. It is based on an acknowledged duty to obey rather than on any
form of coercion or manipulation. Authority is power cloaked in legitimacy or
rightfulness. Weber = traditional authority is rooted in history, charismatic authority
stems from personality, legal authority is grounded in a set of impersonal rules.
Civil society - a ‘political community’. Now more commonly distinguished from the state
and is used to describe institutions that are ‘private’/independent from government. It
refers to a realm of autonomous groups and associations. ‘Global civil society” refers to
NGO’s and transnational social movements.

Consensus - it refers to the agreement of a particular kind. It implies first, a broad

agreement, the terms of which are accepted by a wide range of groups or individuals.
Second, it implies a agreement about fundamental or underlying principles, as opposed
to an exact or precise agreement. A consensus permits disagreementon matters of
emphasis or detail. A substansive consensus is an overlap of ideological positions that
reflect an agreement about broad policy goals. A procedural consensus is the
willingness to make decisions through bargaining.

Science - a field of study that aims to develop reliable explanation of phenomena

through repeatbale experiments, observation and deduction. It is seen as a means of
disclosing value-free and objective truth.

Comparative politics - refers to both a disciplinary subfield and a method of analysis. As

a disciplinary subfield, it is often taken to mean simply ‘the politics of foreign countries’.
As a method of analysis, it involves identifying and exploring similarities and differences
between political units in order to develop ‘grounded theories’. It is seen as the most
feasible technique for developing scientific knowledge of politics.
Constructivism - an approach to analysis that is based on the belief that there is no
objective social or political reality independent of our understanding of it. The social
world exists only ‘inside’, as a kind of inter-subjective awareness. People, whether they
are acting as individuals or as a social group, ‘construct’ the world according to those
constructions.

Postmodernism - a term first used to describe experimental movements in Western art,

architecture and cultural development in general. As a tool of social and political

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 analysis, it highlights the shift away from societies structured by industrialisation and
class solidarity to increasingle fragmented and pluralistic ‘information’ societies.
Individuals are transformed from producers to consumers and individualism replaces
class, religious and ethnic loyalties. The idea of absolute and universal truth must be
discarded as an arrogant pretence.
Ideal type - a mental construct in which an attempt is made to draw out meaning from
an otherwise almost infinitely complex reality through the presentation of a logical
extreme. It was first used in economics, for instance the notion of perfect competition.
Weber = they are explanatory tools, not approximations of reality; they neither ‘exhaust
reality’ nor offer an ethical ideal. Examples (Weberian) are authority and bureaucracy.

Paradigm - a pattern or model that highlights relevant features of a particular

phenomenon. It refers to an intellectual framework comprimising interrelated values,
theories and assumptions, within which the search for knowledge is conducted. ‘Normal
science’ is therefore conducted within the established paradigm, while ‘revolutionary
science’ attempts to replace the old paradigm with a new one. The implication is that
‘truth’ and ‘falsehood’ are only provisional judgements.

Conflict - compettition between opposing forces, reflecting a diversity of opinions,

preferences, needs or interests.
Cooperation - working together; achieveing goals through collective action.

Polis - (Greeks) city state; classically understood to imply the highest or most desirable
form of social organisation.
Polity - a society organised through the exercise of political authority. Rule by the many
for the interests of all.
Anti-politics - disillusionment with formal or established political processes, reflected in
non-participation, support for the anti-system parties or the use of direct action.

Normative - the prescription of values and standards of conduct; what ‘should be’ rather
than ‘what is’.
Objective - external to the observer, demonstrable; untainted by feelings, values or bias.

Empirical - based on observation and experiment; empirical knowledge is derived from

sense data and experience.

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 Positivism - the theory that social, and indeed all forms of, enquiry should adhere strictly
to the methods of the natural sciences.
Behaviouralism - the belief that social theories should be constructed only on the basis
of observabel behaviour, providing quantifiable data for research.
Game theory - a way of exploring problems of conflict or collaboration by explaining how
one actor’s choice of strategy affects another’s best choice and vice versa.

Institution - a well-established body with a formal role and status; more broadly, a set of
rules that ensure regular and predictable behaviour. The ‘rules of the game’.
Post-positivism - an approach to knowledge that questions the idea of an ‘objective’
reality, emphasising instead the extent to which people conceive or ‘construct’ the world
in which they live in.
Discourse - human interaction, especially communication; discourse may disclose or
illustrate power realtions.
Deconstruction - a close reading of philosophical or other texts with an eye to their
various blind spots and/or contradictions.

Essentially contested concept - a concept about which controversy is so deep that no

settled or neutral definition can ever be developed.
Model - a theoretical representation of empirical data that aims to advance
understanding by highlighting significant realtionships and interactions.
Theory - a systematic explanation of empirical data, usually presented as reliable
knowledge.

Transnational - configuration, which may apply to events, people, groups or

organisations, that takes little or no account for national governments or state borders.

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