Curriculum Development Models

Introduction

This section exposes all models upon which effective construction of a curriculum lie. It
considers benchmarks of selection of instructional: goals, content, learning experiences,
methods and evaluation.

Objectives:
By the end of this reading, students should be able to:

 Analyze all the ten Technical/Scientific development models

 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of all Technical /Scientific models.
 Analyze the Non-Technical/Non-Scientific curriculum development models
 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of all the Non-technical/Non-
Scientific models given in this handout.
 This lesson exposes all models for effective construction of a curriculum. It considers
benchmarks of selection of goals, content, learning experiences, methods and
evaluation.
 Most models can be classified as either:
i. technical or scientific models and
ii. non-technical or non-scientific.

i. Technical-Scientific Models.
 also called modernist perspective
 stresses students’ learning specific subject matter with specific outputs.
 Curriculum development is a plan for structuring the learning environment and
coordinating personnel, materials, and equipment.
 The approach applies scientific principles and involves detailed monitoring of the
components of curriculum design
 regards curriculum as a plan for structuring the environment to coordinate the
elements of time, space, materials, equipment and personnel efficiently.
 The technical-scientific models rely more heavily on the view of experts and
demands of subject matter, while considering learner's needs.
 The curriculum can be comprehended from a macro or broad point of view and
its prime objective is the education of the individual learner.
 It enables the educationists to work with a plan in mind.
 Curricula can thus be planned to achieve optimal student learning, through a
scientific organization of its components into a complex unit.
 Technical-Scientific Models includes:
a) Taba's Model
b) Tyler’s Model
c) Goodlad's Model
d) Hunkins's Developmental Model
e) the objectives model,
f) process model,
g) Wheeler’s model, and
h) Kerr’s model.
i) The Backward-design Model
j) The Task-Analysis Model

a) Taba's Model
 States that those who use curriculum should be the curriculum designers
as well.
 Taba believed that teachers should create specific teaching-learning
situations for their students.
 She advocated that an inductive approach to teaching is ideal i.e.
teaching from specific to general rather than the traditional deductive
approach, starting from general and building to the specifics.
 Taba’s model is considered the grassroots model.
 The model has seven steps as listed below, advocating a major role for
teachers.
 The following are the steps.
 i. Diagnosis of needs - Identify needs of the students for whom
curriculum is to be planned.
ii. Formulation of Objectives- Specify the objectives by which needs
will be fulfilled.
iii. Selection of Content- Select subject matter based on objectives
and determine validity of the chosen content.
iv. Organisation of content - Arrange the content in a particular
sequence keeping in mind the maturity of learners, academic
achievement, interests etc.
v. Selection of learning experiences- Facilitate interaction of
learners with content through appropriate instructional
methodology.
vi. Organization of learning activities - The learning activities be
organized in a sequence depending both on content sequence and
learner characteristics.
vii. Evaluation - To assess the achievement of learning objectives,
evaluation procedures need to be devised.
 Taba’s model is the base of all curriculum development models.
Weakness of Taba’s model
 The model has employed the concept of participatory democracy to a highly
technical, complex and specialized process, and this will not guarantee effective
curricula.
 It takes for granted that teachers have the time and expertise to engage in such
extensive curricular activities.(Hunkins and Omstein, 1988)

b) Tyler’s model
 Tyler’s model for curriculum designing is based on the following
questions:
i. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
 ii. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to
attain these purposes?
iii. How can these educational experiences be effectively
organised?
iv. How can we determine whether these purposes are being
attained?

Figure 1: Tyler's Curriculum development Model

Adapted from Urevbu, A. O. (1985: 20). Curriculum Studies.

 The Tyler model is linear in nature, starting from objectives and ending
with evaluation.
 In this model, evaluation is terminal. Results of evaluation are not fed
back to refine the curriculum
 To Tyler, evaluation is a process by which one matches the initial
expectation with the outcomes.
  Objectives form the basis for the selection and organisation of learning
experiences.
 Objectives form the basis for assessing the curriculum.
 Objectives are derived from the learner, contemporary life and subject
specialist.

c) Wheeler’s Model
 Wheeler’s model for curriculum design is an improvement upon Tyler’s
model. Instead of a linear model, Wheeler developed a cyclical model.
 Evaluation in Wheeler’s model is not terminal. Findings from the
evaluation are fed back into the objectives and the goals, which influence
other stages.

Figure 2: Wheeler's model of curriculum development

Adapted from Urevbu, A. O. (1985: 22). Curriculum Studies.

 Wheeler states that:

- Aims should be discussed as behaviours referring to the end product
of learning which yields the ultimate goals. One can think of these
ultimate goals as outcomes.
- Aims are formulated from the general to the specific in curriculum
planning. This results in the formulation of objectives at both an
enabling and a terminal level.
- Content is distinguished from the learning experiences which
determine that content.
d) Kerr’s Model
 looks like Wheeler’s and Tyler’s models. However, Kerr divided the domains
into four areas:
i. objectives,
ii. knowledge,
iii. evaluation, and
iv. school learning experiences.

Figure 3: Kerr's Model of curriculum development

Adapted from Urevbu, A. O. (1985: 22). Curriculum Studies.
  the model is cyclical since evaluations results are fed back into the four
domains that are interrelated directly or indirectly and everything influences
everything else and that it is possible to start an analysis at any point.
 objectives are derived from school learning experiences and knowledge.
 The objectives are divided into three groups affective, cognitive and
psychomotor.
 The knowledge must be organized, integrated, sequenced, and reinforced.
 Evaluation helps in making decisions about the curriculum.

e) The Process Model

 this model states that:
- Content has its own value. Therefore, it should not be selected on the
basis of the achievement of objectives.
- Content involves procedures, concepts and criteria that can be used to
appraise the curriculum.
- Translating content into objectives may result in knowledge being
distorted.
- Learning activities have their own value and can be measured in terms of
their own standard. For this reason, learning activities can stand on their
own. (Gatawa, 1990: 31)
Figure 4: The Process Model of Curriculum development
Adapted from Gatawa, B. S. M. (1990: 31). The Politics of the School Curriculum: An
Introduction. Harare: Jong

 Content and methodology are derived from the goals.

 Each of them has outcomes that can be evaluated.
 The evaluation results from the outcome are fed into the goals, which will later
influence the content and
methodologies.
 Unlike the objectives model, there is no direct evaluation of the content and
methodologies.

f) The Objectives Model

 States that content is based on specific objectives.
 These objectives should specify expected learning outcomes in terms of specific
measurable behaviours.
 This model comprises four main steps:
i. agreeing on broad aims which are analysed into objectives,
 ii. constructing a curriculum to achieve these objectives,
iii. refining the curriculum in practice by testing its capacity to achieve its
objectives, and
iv. communicating the curriculum to the teachers through the conceptual
framework of the objectives. (Gatawa, 1990: 30)

Figure 5: The objectives model of curriculum development

Adapted from Gatawa, B. S. M. (1990: 31). The Politics of the School Curriculum: An
Introduction. Harare: Jong

g) Goodlad Model
 the basis of formulating educational aims is based on the analysis of values of
the existing culture.
 These aims are translated into educational objectives, which are stated in
behavioral terms.
 Goodlad model follows the following steps:
i. Identify learning objectives
ii. Select learning opportunities in each general objective
 iii. From objectives, design and/or select organizing centers: which
provide learning opportunities for a group of students or a student. From
these objectives, the curriculum planners
iv. Feedback and adjustment: analyze the students’ performances and
relating them to the values of the general society. (John L. Goodlad and
Maurice N. Richter, 1966; in Ornstein and Hunkins, 1988)
- The model is characterized as a technical-scientific one because its various
parts are inter-connected.
- This is to say all the component point to the learning objectives and learning
opportunities.

h) Hunkin's Developmental Model

- This model allows curriculum developer to re-think and adjust their decision
making about curricular actions.
- For instance, at the content selection stage if the curricularist finds that no
content exists for a particular student, they can go back to the beginning and
rethink the curriculum or go to the curriculum diagnosis stage to recreate the
learning objectives.
- This model has seven major stages:
i. Curriculum conceptualization and legitimization
ii. Diagnosis
iii. Contents election
iv. experience selection
v. implementation
vi. evaluation
vii. maintenance
Figure 6: Hunkins curriculum development model
Adapted from Urevbu, A. O. (1985: 22). Curriculum Studies.

 the weakness is if curriculum is found successful the designers of this stops

maintenance they consider all is well until problems occurs in the curriculum.
 But curricular programs have to be maintained for continuation of the progmme
even when seem perfect.

i) Saylor and Alexander's Model

 Saylor and Alexander have presented a systematic approach to curriculum

development. The model is illustrated in Figure 3.2.
 The components of the model are suggestive of the stages involved in curriculum
planning. The figure is self-explanatory.
Figure 7: Saylor and Alexander's curriculum development Model

j) Millel and Seller's Model

 This is a generalized model.
 It emphasizes that all the models of curriculum development exhibit at least the
following three orientations towards the purpose of curriculum:
i. Transmission position: Curriculum should transmit skills, facts and
values to the students.
ii. Transaction position: Transaction of curriculum can be viewed as a
dialogic process (pedagogic interaction) between the students and the
teacher.
iii. Transformation position: Personal changes and social attitudes can be
influenced through curriculum.
Figure 8: Millel and Seller’s Model of curriculum development
k) The Backward-design Model
 Its roots can be traced back to Bobbitt and Charters. It also draws from the
fields of architecture and engineering.
 Backward design (we prefer to call it backward development) begins with
a statement of desired results.
 first stage involves identifying the school program’s goals.
- an educator considers goals and checks on national, state, and
local content standards.
- curriculum developers (including classroom teachers) select
content—valuable information and skills that might lead students to
the desired results.
- Lastly, involves narrowing the content possibilities on specific
courses will be taught, and what particular content (both declarative
and procedural)
  Stage 2 of the backward-design model involves determining how the
curriculum will be evaluated once it is in place. various assessment
methods that can be considered at this stage, including informal
checks, observations of students, dialogue with students, quizzes and
tests, and performance tasks and projects.
 Stage 3: plan instructional activities. Key questions that curriculum
developers and teachers must raise at this stage include:
- What knowledge and skills do students need to succeed in the
course?
- What activities enable students to master the requisite
knowledge and skills?
- What should be taught, and how should it be taught, for
students to become knowledgeable and skillful in the identified
content realm?
- What materials foster student success in the curriculum?
- Does the overall design of the course or unit fulfill the principles
of curriculum development?
l) The Task-Analysis Model
 Focuses on identifying essential content and skills, which are determined
by analyzing the tasks necessary for school learning or some real-world
tasks.
 Basically, there are two types of task analysis: subject-matter analysis and
learning analysis.
a) Subject-Matter Analysis.
- Subject matter, or content, is the starting point in subject-matter
analysis.
- The key question is, what knowledge is most important for students?
We usually ask this question of subject-matter experts. What subject
matter enables students to perform the tasks of particular jobs within
those professions?
- Subject matter must be broken into parts.
 - The content can be organized chronologically, according to the specific
content’s knowledge structure, in the order in which it might be used,
or according to the manner in which psychologists indicate students
might best learn it.

b) Learning analysis.
- addresses which learning processes are required for students to learn
the selected content.
- Determines activities students need to engage in to learn the content
and master some problem-solving process
- addresses the sequence of the learning activities.
- Stage 1: selects instructional approaches that move students toward
the curriculum’s goals.
- Stage 2: creates a master curriculum plan that synthesizes the
information obtained and organized through the selection of subject
content, learning approaches, objectives and evaluation methods.

i. Non-technical or Non-scientific Models

 also called postmodernist or post-constructivist perspective
 These models may still be systematic and orderly but curriculum development
focuses on the learners’ self-perception of needs and preferences.
 Learners in this approach are fully involved in the curriculum planning process.
 Hence we can say that technical-scientific models primarily focus on subject
matter whereas non-technical non-scientific models, which focus on learner
needs and subject matter and society, become secondary.
 Non-technical includes:
a. Open Classroom Model
 Also called activity curriculum
 The proponents of activity curriculum do not believe in planning any activity for
the children.
 planning in advance could stifle the child's development and encourages learners
to be passive recipients of knowledge.
 According to the activity model, children learn by doing and are free to move
around in the classroom.
 open classroom is a place where learners can make choices and pursue what
interests them.
 The teacher also finds that the things that work best for him are the unplanned
ones, the ones that arise spontaneously because of a student's suggestion or
sudden perception.
 Open classroom model emphasizes freedom of the child from teacher control
and
from a rigid curriculum.
 The child should choose goals as per needs, interests and aptitudes and thus
choose his own curriculum.
 The model places great faith in the child's ability and advocates learner
autonomy.
b. Weinstein and Fantini Model
 This model is based on the belief that teachers generate new content and
techniques by keeping the learner central to the whole process.
 They can assess the relevance of the existing curriculum, content and the
instructional methods employed.
 Based on the assessment the curriculum is modified to meet the learner’s needs.
 Steps in this model are :
i. identify the learner group.
ii. Since learners are taught in groups, their interests and characteristics
form the basis of teaching.
iii. identification of student concerns: concerns are extracted from learner
groups and because of this the model is called non-scientific or non-
technical.
iv. determine organization of content: More than demands of the subject
matter the content is organized and based on learner needs and
concerns. The sources of content could be - Learners' feelings, students'
identity, experiences of a growing person, and students' knowledge of the
social content.
v. determine the skills to be developed by the students: Based on the
type of content
vi. the identification of teaching procedures: The model aims to develop
feelings of self-worth in the learners after interaction with content and
teachers. It emphasizes enhancement of self-image of the learner and
instills in them a confidence and belief in themselves (Ornstein and
Hunkins, 1988).

c. Roger's Model of Interpersonal Relations

 The emphasis is on human experiences rather than content or learning activities.
 Roger’s states that by interacting in a group, learners can solve their problems.
They express themselves honestly and explore each other's feelings.
 Rogers contends that the group experience permits individuals to know
themselves and each other more fully than is possible in the usual social or
working relationships, the climate of openness, risk taking and honesty generates
trust, which permits each participant to "test out and adopt more innovative and
constructive behaviours."
 Roger’s model promotes curriculum change by changing the participants
involved in curriculum development" (Omstein and Hunkins, 1988).