UNDERTSANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY, AND POLITICS

UNIT IV: ORGANIZING SOCIETY

INTRODUCTION
Humans are social beings, which means their very nature compels them to live and learn with others.
Human existence revolves around groups bound by common characteristics and shared heritage. These
ties are strengthened through cultural, social, and political institutions that all the more serve as symbols
of social cohesion that allow humans to have unity in diversity and peaceful co-existence amidst
differences.

ORGANIZING SOCIETY THROUGH GROUPS: FROM FAMILIES TO NETWORKS

Society – is organized through groups which can be categorized as primary or secondary.
Groups – are formed by two or more individuals, interacting, and identifying with each other because of
some similar characteristics or shared interests.

TYPICAL BASES FOR GROUP FORMATION

1. COMMON ANCESTRY - (also referred to as common descent) means having descended from
one ancestor. It results in new species forming from one ancestral population due to evolution.
2. TERRITORIAL PROXIMITY - nearness of physical distance between those who form a
group.
International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (Lidenberg, 2015)
- Defines a group as “a bounded collection of interacting individuals who are functionally,
cognitively, and structurally interdependent to various degrees.”
Primary Groups
- refer to those built on the bases of intimate and personal relationships that allow them to thrive
and tend to last, through cooperation and close association.
- Examples are family & group of friends because these groups help shapes the individual’s
personality and identity.
- Endure even when members are no longer physically near each other, as advances in technology
(such as online calls) “provides mechanisms which permit new types of primary groups. Thus,
contacts among extended family kin can be maintained despite breaks in face-to-face contact;
neighborhood can exist despite rapid membership turnover; and friendships can continue despite
both of these problems. This is possible because technology permits rapid communication over
distance…” (Litwak and Szelenyi, 1969).
Secondary Groups
- Tend to be larger and more impersonal in nature.
- Membership in secondary groups depends on shared aspirations or common objectives, rather
than on family ties or personal relationships.
- Members don’t necessarily interact with everyone in the group.
- Instead of intimate relationships, members of a secondary group are bound by their shared social
identities.
- Examples are nations, corporations, and professional associations.
- “a unique form of social group that tends to be formally organized or highly structured and based
on predominantly impersonal or role-based instrumental (task oriented) interactions that are of a
nonpermanent nature. Examples include the impersonal relationship between salesclerk and
customer in a department store; large lecture courses at popular universities; and complex
organizations such as the American Sociological Association.” (McGinty, 2007).

NOTE: Toward forming his/her identity, an individual uses a reference group or a group that serves as a
point of reference in evaluating one’s attitudes and behavior and making decisions related to those.
IN-GROUPS – groups that positively define themselves with members as the point of reference.
OUT-GROUP – those who don’t belong to the in-group, those who are not the same with the in-group,
and those that are different from the in-group.

Social Network
- defined as a group of people who have occasional interactions and who engage in similar or
related tasks while remaining unknown, unfamiliar, or only slightly familiar with each other.
- Example is the community formed by one’s membership in social media sites such as Twitter,
Instagram, and Facebook.

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 - The significance of such networks is explained by the fact that “(t)he indirect links you have to
people through your social networks can help you find a job or even receive better medical care.

FAMILY, KINSHIP, MARRIAGE, AND HOUSEHOLD

Family
- is commonly defined as the most basic social unit composed of one or more parents
and (a) child/children who typically live together.
Nuclear or Conjugal family – is composed of one or two parents and their child or children.
Extended or Consanguine family – is composed of parents and children, plus
other members of their kin (a group with common ancestry or marriage ties).
Blended or Reconstituted family – when its members differ from the typical members of
nuclear or extended family. Example of this is the female-headed transnational family – a
household with “core members living in at least two nation-states and in which the mother
works in another country while some or all of her dependents reside in the Philippines.
(Parreñas, 2001).
Kinship
- formally defined as family ties with “social bond based on common ancestry, marriage, or
adoption” (Macionis, 2012).
- Two types of kinship: KINSHIP BY BLOOD (the relationship is achieved by birth or blood
affinity), and KINSHIP BY MARRIAGE (types of relations develop when marriage occurs. It is
formed by marriage alliances.)
- Can be traced either matrilineally kinship, patrilineally kinship, or bilateral kinship.
1. Matrilineally Kinship – traced when people are considered members of the mother’s group from
birth onward.
2. Patrilineally Kinship – identified when people are considered members of the father’s group
from birth onward.
3. Bilateral Kinship – descent through the study of both parent’s ancestors.

NOTE: When descent is traced only either through matrilineal or patrilineal kinship, tracing is unilineal.
In other words, unilineal descent is traced through a single of ancestor from either male or female line.

Descent refers to biological relationship, individual’s child or offspring or ancestry.

Lineage refers to the line where one’s descent is traced.

Compadre system or compadrazgo – it initiates a godparent-godchild relationship that serves to

strengthen ties between families (who may or may not be related by blood).

A classic study from the Philippine province presents interesting findings on the class-based contexts of
the said system (Szanton, 1979): “The patterns and strategies used in choosing the compadres
(godparents) differ according to four ranked socio-economic levels, namely, (1) the upper level (older
eite and capitalist-entrepreneurs); (2) the middle high level (professionals and bureaucrats); (3) the
middle low level (small-scale businessmen and employees); (4) the lower level (fishermen, crewmen,
laborers, and market vendors).

Various forms of marriages:

a. Monogamy – both married partners only have ONE spouse or sexual partners.
b. Polygamy – occurs when one individual has MULTIPLE spouses or sexual mate.
o Polygyny – a man has multiple female partners or mates.
o Polyandry – a woman has multiple male partners or mates.
Marriage across cultures:
a. Endogamy – compulsory marriage, in their own village, community, ethnic, social, or religious
groups. (You need to marry only within your own culture, your own class.)
b. Exogamy or out-marriage – marriage custom where an individual is required by society’s norms
and rules to marry outside of their own group, community, or social classes.
Postmarital residency rules:
a. Neolocal – independent from the place of residence of both of the newlywed’s parents.

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 b. Patrilocal – when married couples stay in the house of the husband’s relatives or near the
husband’s kin.
c. Matrilocal – when the couples live with the wife’s relatives or near the wife’s kin.
d. Bilocal – couples stay with the husband’s and wife’s kin alternately.

Referred Marriage – happens through the help of matchmaker.

Arranged Marriage – also known as fixed marriage.
Types of arranged marriage:
a. Child marriage – when parents arranged for the marriage of their child long before the
marriage takes place.
b. Exchange marriage – there is a reciprocal exchange of spouses between 2 countries, tribes,
or groups.
c. Diplomatic marriage – has been established between two royal or political families in order
to forge political or diplomatic alliances.
d. Modern arranged marriage – the child’s parent, the consent of the child, choose from
several possible mates.

Kinship may also be established politically through political alliances formed on the basis of political
loyalty to powerful figures in a community. When a political family strengthens its hold on political
power through such alliances, a political dynasty is born. Such dynasty tends to endure for as long as
political alliances remain strong through blood, marriage, ritual, and/or economic ties to many other
families.

BANDS, TRIBES, CHIEFDOMS, AND STATES

Bands
- societies that were typically organized in ancient times that endured through hundreds of
centuries to the modern times.
- “it is a small, egalitarian (it means that all families are equal), kin-based group of perhaps 10-50
people.”
- Formed by several families living together; oftentimes moving from one place the other to search
for food.
- There is no class differentiation based on wealth; however, status differences based on gender and
age is well-defined.
- There is no formal leadership, instead, those who posses’ special skills and knowledge can be
raised to become an informal leader.
Tribe
- Comprised a number of bands that were politically integrated (often through council of elders or
other leaders) and shared language, religious beliefs, and other aspects of culture.
- As political entities are fragile in nature as their informal political structures are only meant to
respond to crises such as threats of external interference or invasion.
- As the population increases, there is a shifting from a basic form of livelihood to a multiple way
of living.
- Commonly headed by a village headman who perform leadership roles but has limited political
power.
Chiefdoms
- Organized through formal structures that integrates several communities (such as tribes) into a
distinct political entity led by a council of elders or leaders which typically has a chief but doesn’t
always have one.
- Authority rests solely on the members of a select family.
- It is composed of several communities that is ruled by a permanent paramount chief coming from
this elite family. Power is inherited (from one and is passed to other).
- Can either be simple chiefdoms (characterized by a single village or community rules by a single
family.) or complex chiefdoms (composed of several simple chiefdoms ruled by a single
paramount chief residing in a single paramount center.

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States vs. Nations
Nations
- Group of people who see themselves as a cohesive and coherent unit based on shared cultural or
historical criteria.
- Are socially constructed units… “that are essentially “imagined communities…bound together by
notions of unity that can pivot around religion, ethnic identity, language, cultural practice and so
forth.” (Rock, 2020).
- Group of people that shared common history, language, traditions, customs, habits, and ethnicity.

States
- An independent, sovereign government exercising control over a certain spatially defined and
bounded area, whose borders are usually clearly defined and internationally recognized by other
states.
- Political unit consisting of government that has sovereignty presiding over a group of people and
a well-defined territory and has the highest form of political organization.
- Typically has the following elements: population(people), territory, government, and sovereignty.

NOTE: Not all nations are (or have their own) states, and some states can be composed of many nations.

Authority in Relation to Legitimacy

Authority – is the right to command. It is observed when an individual has a command to make a person
do things. Such act is a response to that person’s perceived power.
Legitimacy – is a “value whereby something or someone is recognized and accepted as right and proper.”

POLITICAL STRUCTURES AND TYPES OF AUTHORITY

Max Weber’s Three Types of Authority
TRADITIONAL CHARISMATIC RATIONAL-LEGAL
SOURCE OF Legitimized from well- Legitimized from the Legitimized from formal rules
POWER established customs, charisma of an individual promulgated by the state through its
habits, and social fundamental and implementing
structures rules.
LEADERSHIP Historic personality Dynamic personality Bureaucratic
STYLE
EXAMPLE Monarchical rule or the Religious leaders or popular Government officials in modern
rule of elites in a icons such as movie actors. state
chiefdom.
Traditional Authority – often considered a synonym of hereditary authority or authority passed through
the bloodline of leaders.
Charismatic Authority – authority drawn from a leader’s personal charisma- the capacity of a leader to
attract and retains loyal and devoted followers through his/her persona qualities. Just like what some
dictators and cult leaders are capable of.
Rational-legal Authority – authority drawn from legal and constitutional mandates that are usually or
collectively agreed upon and/or approved by those who are governed, as in what is practiced in many
modern democratic countries or at least, in countries that claimed to be democratic.
Public Sphere – the core of “state, economy, and societal relations.”

At times, politicians also use showbiz people’s charismatic authority through advertisement deals. As
Agting (2013) notes, “(a)ctors or actresses who play heroic roles…are effective in persuading the masses.
An endorser’s ‘hero image’ may easily be associated with the candidate, seeing as public officials and
leaders are at times viewed as ‘saviors’ by the masses.”
ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS IN MARKET AND NON-MARKET ECONOMIES
Economic Institutions – play a major role in any organizing and constantly shaping and reshaping of
society.
Two basic forms of economies:
1. Market Economies
- typically understood as those that rely on money or currency to facilitate trade or the exchange of
goods and services.

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 - Such economies follow the dictates of the so-called law of supply and demand that influences
every public and private sector decision with regard to investments, commodity production, and
distribution of goods and/or services.
- Typical modern societies are market economies.
- Are also governed by the profit motive (maximizing the profitability of a company or business or
optimizing an individual’s financial gains from a market transaction.
2. Non-market Economies
- Those that rely on barter and similar forms of product/commodity exchanges.
- In prehistoric communities there were practicing forms of barter, and also the use of gold and
other precious objects as some sort of currency.
- In contemporary economic discourse, these economies are commonly known to have extensive
“government ownership or control of the means of production” and “government control over
allocation of resources and over the price and output decisions of enterprises.” (Congressional
Research Service, 2019).

Contemporary Market Economies – are those that adhere to capitalist free trade and/or where the
private sector is either dominant, deregulated, or at least relatively strong.
Traditional Non-Market Economies – are governed by the principles of reciprocity or redistribution.
Reciprocity – refers to the direct exchange of goods and services.
Transfer – redistribution of income that is matched by actual exchange of goods and services. Ex.
donation or financial assistance from a richer relative.
Redistribution – means the transfer of goods or services from a central authority that collects it from
community member and/or external sources, so as to redistribute it to the members of the society.

Modern Market Economies – reciprocity is still somehow in place, albeit facilitated through money or
currency rather than a direct exchange of goods and services.

Market Transaction – it is called the indirect exchange of goods and services - facilitated by money or
currency. (two people should be involved – one has a product, and another who has the money).
Elements of Market Transactions:
1. Money – objects that serve as means of exchange of goods and services.
2. Price – amount required or agreed upon by the exchanging parties.
3. Supply – quantity of goods and services that are available to sell at a given price and period of
time.
4. Demand - quantity of goods and services that consumers are willing to purchase at a given price
and period of time.

Stock Market – where physical goods (laptops & canned good), actual services (tutorials & laundry
services), stocks or shares, and partial ownership of corporations can also be bought by money or traded.
US Federal Trade Commission – has elaborated on the perils of using cryptocurrency which it considers
as digital money: “You can transfer cryptocurrency to someone online without a go-between, like a
bank….”
Bitcoin and Ether – are well-known cryptocurrencies.
Cryptocurrency – is stored in a digital wallet, either online, on your computer, or on other hardware...
know that it does not have the same protections as when you are using U.S. dollars.

THREE SECTORS OF THE ECONOMY

Three-sector model
- Another approach in discussing economic institutions.
- identifies three major sectors of economic activity:
- primary sector

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 o engaged in extraction of raw materials such as petroleum, minerals, logs etc., and in
extracting natural resources through agriculture and fishing.
- secondary sector
o engaged in manufacturing or the mass production of goods/commodities from raw
materials.
- tertiary sector
o engaged in providing services, especially those that facilitate the transport, distribution
and sale of goods/commodities.
o The tertiary sector encompasses business process outsourcing (BPO or
call center services), real estate sales, and practicing professions.
o The current Philippine economy is dominated by the tertiary sector,
which can also be considered a weakness for a developing country, as
the manufacturing sector is typically advancing in countries that are able to lift
themselves out of poverty and toward a developed status.

ROLE OF NON-STATE INSTITUTIONS

Important non-state institutions that help build and shape societies include banks and corporations,
cooperatives and trade unions, transnational advocacy groups, development agencies, and international
organizations. One way or the other, they exist independently from states (though there are also state-
owned banks and corporations) while at the same time, they operate within the regulations and limitations
set by states.
1. Banks
- lend money to businesses, start-ups, entrepreneurs, and even to the government.
- they play a major role in maximizing the productive potentials of money, because in modern
society, money can only be productive if invested in sectors that produce commodities and/or
provide services.
2 Types of Banks
- Commercial Banks – financial deposit with security, form of credit cards, debit
cards, and check. It serves as payment agents within and outside the country through
wire transfer.
- Investment Banks – financial intermediaries that performs a variety of services.
Make markets, facilities, mergers, and other corporate reorganizations. It acts as
brokers for institution clients.
2. Corporations
- refer to usually private entities that are created to manage a company or a group of companies
that produce commodities, provide services, or engage in the stock market.
- are led and managed by a board of directors that the owners or shareholders have typically
chosen.
- They are expected to run the corporations profitably, while at the same time taking into account
the so-called corporate social responsibility or the private sector's commitment to upholding the
common good. This is where the tricky part of things become the subject of ongoing debates on
whether or not corporations can be expected to hold on to their corporate social responsibility
while also maintaining profitability.
- In times of crises (such as destruction brought by typhoons or earthquakes), some corporations
also engage in relief operations through financial and non-financial donations.
2 Types of Corporations
a. Profit Entity – formed to generate revenues and provide a return to their
stakeholders. (ex. Jollibee)
b. Non-profit Entity – operate under the category of charitable organizations, which
are dedicated to a particular social cause such as educational, religious, scientific, or
research purposes. (ex. Philippine Charity Sweeptakes Office)

Critics of the current dominant economic system

- point out that states should do more toward compelling corporations to honor their corporate
social responsibility at all times.
Laws and regulations

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 - exist to protect consumers, stakeholders, stockholders, the environment etc., from corporate greed
and exploitation.

NOTE: When run and managed well, corporations create good-paying jobs and provide essential services
to society. However, when run and managed badly, corporations can be greedy and exploitative, and their
malpractices could lead to full-blown crises. An example is the 2008 international financial crisis that
started in the housing market (real estate sales) in the United States that has affected the global economy
too.

Workers and employees

- establish these unions to collectively fight for their welfare and interests. In a way, these
institutions exist to ensure that corporations won't exploit workers, and to compel the government
to provide protection and relief to workers too.
Government-registered labor unions
- In the Philippines and in many countries these institutions have the power to strike a collective
bargaining agreement (CBA) with the corporate management (or its representatives).
Collective Bargaining Agreement
- covers "negotiations with respect to wages, hours of work and all other terms and conditions of
employment" (Bureau of Labor Relations 2021) which tend to favor the workers, in exchange
for concessions such as strike-free provisions.
Welfare states in Scandinavia (Mulvad and Stahl 2015)
- It is the historical role that unions played in guaranteeing generous benefits to workers.
- provides an inspiration to workers everywhere.
Civil society organizations and community organizations
- are also established to advocate for short-term, medium-term, and long-term reforms in local,
national, and international levels.
- These organizations are typically multisectoral, as they draw their power from the collective
demands of various sectors, for a fairer and more just world.

3. Cooperatives
- are organizations formed by citizens/consumers to help themselves through providing financial
services (such as lending money and selling products at a rate lower than typical market prices) to
its members, in exchange for membership dues or share capital.
- The profits of the cooperative are typically given back to its members every year in the form of
cash dividends or so-called patronage refund, proportional to a member's number of shares or
amount of share capital.
- Provide badly-needed financial services that help improve the lives of the people there.
- In the Philippines, recognizing the important role of cooperatives in nation-building has made the
government exempt their profits from taxes.
Types of Cooperatives
a. Retail Cooperative – type of “consumer cooperative” which help create retail stores
to benefit the consumers making the retail “our store”.
b. Worker Cooperative – members are both the employees of the business as well as
the owners of the cooperatives. One of the fastest growing segments cooperatively
owned businesses.
c. Producer Cooperative – created, owned and operated by producers. Producers can
decide to work together or as separate entities to help increase marketing possibilities
and production efficiency.
d. Service Cooperative – help to fill a need in the community. They allow the
consumers to supply their own needs, gain bargaining power, and share earnings.
e. Housing Cooperative – provide a unique form of home ownership. They allow
homeowners the opportunity to share costs of home ownership (or building).

4. Trade unions or labor unions

- harness the collective power of employees/working class/workers. These are organizations
formed by workers from related fieds that work for common interests of its members.
Types of Labor Unions

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 a. Public Unionism – refers to association of employees in the agiences of government which
exists in whole or in part for the purpose of collective negotiations or mutual aid, interest,
cooperation and protection.
b. Private Unionism – labor organizations that advocate on behalf of workers in industries
made up of companies owned by private individuals.

Nation-states
- retain and defend their sovereignty from external interference.
- they also welcome help from transnational advocacy groups, development agencies, and
international organizations, which all contribute to nation-building and community-building
through their various activities.

5. Transnational advocacy groups

- such as Transparency International and Amnesty International ensure that governments
worldwide maintain transparency in their affairs (especially about public finances in major
government projects) and uphold human rights and civil liberties to make democracy function
well despite perceived limitations and weaknesses.
- Their transnational presence allows them to fearlessly monitor every country's situation, and in
many instances, help vulnerable sectors in every country by ensuring that their concerns,
especially those related to human rights, are publicized and brought into international attention,
especially when local authorities are repressive or are not responsive to the sectors' needs.

6. Development agencies and lending institutions such as the World Bank, International Monetary
Fund (IMF), Asian Development Bank, etc.
- help finance big government projects, especially in developing countries.
- their roles in providing financial support to governments are indeed appreciated by many
governments and stakeholders.
- critics point out that they lack transparency and democratic mechanisms and at times are not
responsive to the needs and voices of communities that they intend to serve.
- Other critics also remark that these development agencies charge interest rates to loans that they
facilitate; hence profit motive, rather than altruism, seems to be their central function also like
typical private banks.
- Most of these are dominated by the more developed countries, which at times firstly prioritize
various countries' financial interests and agendas. It is for this reason that beyond development
agencies, international organizations have been established too.
Types of Development Agency
a. International Organization – with membership drawn from two or more countries.
(ex. World Health Organization)
b. Non-international Organizations – functions independently of any government. It
serves the social or political goals such as humanitarian and environmental causes.
(ex. Philippine Red Cross)

Culminating in the foundation of the United Nations, the processes of forming and strengthening
international organizations remain necessary.

Interdependence
- is the necessary order of things for social beings like humans.

The United Nations serves as a springboard for global governance, however imperfect it is.
Each country has a voice, especially in the UN General Assembly.

Through the various vital international organizations such as the International Labor Organization,
World Health Organization, UNESCO, World Trade Organization, and Food and Agriculture
Organization, nation-states are able to peacefully conduct dialogues on pressing issues, resolve
disagreements, and carry out mutually-beneficial economic and socio-cultural activities. While still

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limited in scope and power, and though not without their weaknesses, these institutions help countries
continuously strive for a more caring and sharing world.

FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION
Governments
- dominate political institutions.
Schools
- are the main entities in establishing and nurturing educational institutions.
- In general, education's functions cover both the individual's need for self-actualization (fulfilling
or maximizing one's potentials) and society's need for having a productive citizenry that
contributes their knowledge and skills toward improving lives and making the world a better
place for everyone.
Philippine Education Act of 1982
- mandates that the country's education system should ensure “maximum contribution...to the
attainment of the following national developmental goals:
1. to achieve and maintain an accelerating rate of economic development and social progress;
2. to ensure the maximum participation of all the people in the attainment and enjoyment of the
benefits of such growth; and
3. to achieve and strengthen national unity and consciousness and preserve, develop and promote
desirable cultural, moral and spiritual values in a changing world.”
- The same law emphasizes that such education system must be established and maintained "within
the context of a free and democratic system."
- the law also upholds the concept of "education for all" by emphasizing that "The State shall
promote the right of every individual to relevant quality education, regardless of sex age, creed,
socio-economic status, physical and mental conditions, racial or ethnic origin, political or other
affiliation. The State shall therefore promote and maintain equality of access to education as well
as the enjoyment of the benefits of education by all its citizens."
- It is in this context that the Philippine government has laudably progressively implemented
policies-throughout the decades- toward ensuring that free public education is available from
primary to tertiary education.
Education Act of 1982
- also recognizes the multilingual and multicultural context of the archipelago which is expected to
reflect in the education system: "The State shall promote the right of the nation's cultural
communities in the exercise of their right to develop themselves within the context of their
cultures, customs, traditions, interest and belief, and recognizes education as an instrument for
their maximum participation in national development and in ensuring their involvement in
achieving national unity."

RELEVANCE OF RELIGION AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

Religion and belief systems
- maintain significant influence in the lives of Filipinos.
Animism
- is usually defined as "the belief that everything has a spirit: trees, birds, rainstorms, rocks"
(Eichler 2011).
- In common terms, it is usually referred to as "nature worship" or a nature-based spirituality.
- A belief that everything has a spirit, and that all living things has a soul.
- Animism is still practiced by some indigenous people, especially in Mindanao, where the Lumad
(originally meant to refer to non-Christian and non-Moslem ethnolinguistic groups) reside.
Monotheistic
- relating to or characterized by the belief that there is only one God.
- adheres to the belief that only one all- powerful god exists.
- Both Christianity and Islam-the Philippines' two dominant religions-are both monotheistic.
Polytheism
- is a belief system that emphasizes belief in the existence of multiple gods.
- Ancient societies in our prehistoric archipelago had also maintained polytheistic beliefs, as
evident in a number of names of gods and goddesses that survived through oral literature.

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 - Examples of religion who practiced polytheism are Hinduism and Buddhism.

Institutionalized or Official religions

- dominant religions that played a major historical role and/or are closely linked with certain
countries' history and heritage in some countries.
- For example, in Brunei, "the constitution states that while the official religion is the Shafi'i School
of Islam, all other religions may be practiced in peace and harmony" (US Department of State
2019). Moreover, the country also implements Islamic Law via the Sharia Penal Code (SPC)
which applies to both Muslims and non-Muslims, including foreigners, with some exceptions.
- Meanwhile, the Constitution of Denmark recognizes that the Church of Denmark is the
established church.

PUBLIC HEALTH AND CULTURE

Health
- is another human right that is prioritized by the state through providing health services.
- Such services rely on both Western, traditional, and alternative healing systems in countries such
as the Philippines.
Alternative healing systems
- incorporate culture-specific discourses related to illnesses, such as binat/bughat,
bales/usog/buyag.
Binat/Bughat
- can be translated as "relapse," and "it occurs when someone is recovering from illness but gets
sick again shortly after or even during the recovery period" (Unilab 2019).
- In Filipino culture, binat can only be beaten through ample pahinga or rest period.
Bales (na-bati, na-bales)
- Meanwhile, Stuart (2014) explains bales, it is a condition unique to Philippine folk medicine,
deeply embedded in the folklore beliefs of rural folk....believed to be caused by an admiring or
complimentary greeting or comment like: Your hair looks nice or You look good today or The
baby looks so cute. It is believed that the compliment carries 'bad wind' with it, entering the yet
weak and defenseless bodies of infants and young children. An immediate verbal antidote (pang-
kontra) is to say: Puwera usog."

Such discourses prove that public health has cultural dimensions to which healers should be sensitive to.

Abad et al. (2014)

- explain in a related study, "(t)he provision of culturally competent health care is an important
professional issue recognized by the pioneer genetic counselors in the Philippines. Being an
archipelago consisting of 7,107 islands, the Philippines has approximately 175 ethnolinguistic
groups with their own unique cultural identity and health practices.
- Said that the emphasis on culture in our genetic counseling training recognizes its crucial role in
molding an individual's conceptualization of health, as well as other life aspects, especially since
the Filipino culture is a mixture of indigenous as well as imported and borrowed elements."
Identified common Filipino cultural beliefs related to health:
a. namamana d. pasma (hot and cold f. kaloob ng Diyos
(inheritance) syndrome) (God's will).
b. lihi (conception or e. namaligno (mystical
maternal cravings) and supernatural
c. sumpalgaba (curse) causes)

Despite the lack of official institutionalization of religion in the Philippines, as the country adheres to
democratic secularism, religious practice is protected as a right in the country. Religions, especially
Christianity and Islam, receive a semblance of recognition through national days of prayer or important
religious feast days or days of commemoration that have also been recognized as holidays.

UNIT V: RANKING GROUPS WITHIN SOCIETY

INTRODUCTION

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Humankind’s historical experience shows that progression from simple hunter-gatherer societies to more
complex ones such as agricultural and industrial societies has enabled people to gain and accumulate
wealth beyond mere sustenance.

SYSTEMS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

Social stratification
- Refers to a system in which people in a society are ranked hierarchically through metrics
considered as “social desirables” (status or characteristics that a particular society values or
considers as something to aspire for) such as power, wealth, and prestige. (Macionis, 2012).
- Term used by sociologists to describe the system of social standing.
Power
- Typically measured through one’s influence and clout in the political process (e.g. elections in
democratic societies) or through one’s ability to maximize one’s networks to pursue more
power and/or wealth.
Wealth
- Usually measured in terms of ownership of and/real estate and accumulation of money.,
precious metals, and more recently, even luxurious items and company stocks/ or shares.
- Also understood as control (or even monopoly) over valuable and/or scarce resources.
Prestige
- Pertains to one’s ability to gain respect and/or recognition in society.
- Also understood as being related to fame or popularity.

NOTE: Within the context of these explanations, one’s social status is determined by one’s power,
wealth, and prestige (or lack of these). The gap between those who have much power, wealth, and
prestige and those that do not have theses constitutes what we label as social inequality.

Social Mobility – the ability to rise in rank or Downward Mobility – those whose social
improve one’s social status by gaining power, status was downgraded because of unfortunate
wealth, and prestige. instances such as unemployment or bankruptcy
Vertical Mobility – a process which one who’s or illness.
born into a rich, powerful, and prestigious Horizontal Mobility – happens when one’s
family fall from his/her original status. slight change in situation doesn’t affect his/her
Upward Mobility – if one is able to upgrade social standing.
his/her social status or rise in rank.

Social Stratification systems:

1. Open or class-based
- if they permit relatively more mobility.
- Called as class system (social stratification based on both birth and individual achievement).
- In such systems, people can theoretically easily move up or down the social ladder through
hard work etc., even if they are born poor or not so rich.
2. Closed or caste-based
- If they ascribe people’s social status at birth and offer almost no chance or possibility of
allowing any upward mobility.
- Called as caste system (social stratification based on ascription, or birth).

THEORIES OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

Two theories are typically employed in explaining why social stratification exists.
1. Structural- Functionalist Theory
- claim that stratification and inequality are necessary-functioning as incentives-to
compel people to work harder, as higher status and more privileges are granted to
those who are high up in the social ladder.
- Hence, power, wealth, and prestige are understood to be rewards for those who work
hard to achieve these.
- Structural-functionalists assert that stratification and inequality can motivate those
who are at the bottom of the social pyramid to strive more toward achieving higher
status.

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 - Critics of such analysis emphasize that inequalities are oppressive to those who are in
the lower ranks and unjustly favor those who are in higher ranks. Furthermore, critics
reiterate that poverty reduction-an objective that almost no government rejects-can
only happen if the gap between the rich and poor is bridged one way or the other.
Thus, improving society will only be possible by at least reducing if not totally
abolishing inequalities.
2. Social Conflict Perspective
- consider stratification as harmful to society because it almost always leads to stiff
competition, and eventually, conflict between the rich and the poor, between the
haves and the have-nots, between those who have power and those who are
powerless.
- Hence, within this context, conflict between social classes may culminate in rebellion
or revolution when inequalities become so unbearable.
- Other social conflict theorists are greatly influenced by Karl Marx's ideas on
exploitation and class conflict.
- Hence, for proponents of the social conflict theory, inequalities are man-made,
imposed, and maintained by individuals and groups that want to accumulate wealth at
the expense of others.
- For social conflict theorists, a classless society where exploitation and greed don't
exist, and where the surplus wealth created by society is redistributed for the
common good rather than accumulated by a few people, is possible.
- Critics of such perspective point out that without stratification, people may not have
enough drive to work hard. Moreover, some consider the goal of creating a classless
society a utopian dream that is not achievable.

NOTE: To simply put, Functionalist Perspective or Structural-Functionalist Theory says that social
inequality exists because it plays a vital part in the continued existence of society. While, on the other
hand, Social Conflict Perspective says that rather than viewing social stratification as benefiting society
as a whole, it emphasizes how it benefits some people and disadvantages others.

DIMENSIONS OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS AND TYPES OF CAPITAL

Max Weber
- For Weber, social stratification is best understood in terms of its three dimensions, namely
class, prestige, and power.
- Holistic view should be adopted in circumstances since they employ the term socio-economic
status when measuring dimensions of social inequality, which encompass the lack of wealth,
power, and prestige.
Socio-economic status
- define as "education, income, occupation grade, and subjective social status" (Noppert et al.
2018).
Pierre Bourdieu's theory
- Related to describing one's socio-economic status and social inequalities around us.
- His theory on the forms of capital is instructive.
Pierre Bourdieu's
- French sociologist and philosopher
- Bourdieu (1986) identifies at least three forms of capital:
a. Economic capital
- which is immediately and directly convertible into money and may be
institutionalized in the forms of property rights.
- refers to the command of economic resources such as money, assets, and property.
b. Cultural capital
- which is convertible, on certain conditions, into economic capital and may be
institutionalized in the forms of educational qualifications.
- one of the categories of capital, and it refers to the knowledge, skills, education, and
cultural assets that a person possesses.
c. Social capital

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 - made up of social obligations ('connections'), which is convertible, in certain
conditions, into economic capital and may be institutionalized in the forms of a title
of nobility.
- Essentially, this means that "social capital is manifested through benefits derived
from social networks, however, the source of social capital stems from social,
economic, and cultural structures that create differential power and status for specific
individuals and not others.
- Social capital is therefore not so much about having a large social network but
having social position that creates the potential for advantage from one's social
network (Claridge 2015).
- The actual and potential resources linked to the possession of a durable network of
institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition.
In simpler terms, one's current social status is linked with one's social capital, and
existing inequalities mean that those who have higher social status have greater social
capital, and those born with low social status have lesser social capital to start with.
Symbolic capital
- Bourdieu's writings also uses this term which is commonly understood as referring to the
variety of resources available to an individual due to prior honor, prestige, reputation, or
recognition.
- Gaining symbolic capital in this case would have partly relied on one's ability to use
economic capital (money for education) in building up cultural capital (education and writing
books).
Structural inequalities
- are further laid bare by the existence of political capital which, "loosely defined, is the sum of
combining other types of capital for purposive political action or the return of an investment
of political capital" (Casey 2008).
Political capital
- refers to resources and/ or skills which one can use to gain political power or help others gain
it.
- can also be utilized to help campaign for reforms or mobilize citizens and/or voters to support
these campaigns, etc.
- While theorists say that political capital is not a literal currency, it must be emphasized that
holding and retaining political capital also entails using up economic capital.

OTHER FORMS OF INEQUALITY

Gender inequality is another contemporary problem.
- It is observed when one gender is not treated equally as those of other genders. It is most of
the times associated with gender-based discrimination.
- A US Peace Corps primer (2021) summarized gender inequality in our times by pointing
out that while gender equality is considered a human right, "our world faces a persistent gap
in access to opportunities and decision-making power for women and men. Globally, women
have fewer opportunities for economic participation than men, less access to basic and higher
education, greater health and safety risks, and less political representation."
- Meanwhile, UNICEF provides details on other gender inequality issues that we face today:
"(i)n its most insidious form, gender inequality turns violent…violence can occur at birth,
like in places where female infanticide is known to persist."
- In a 2017 report, Human Rights Watch also pointed out how segments of the LGBT
community in the Philippines suffer gender inequality too: "...students who are lesbian, gay,
bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) too often find that their schooling experience is marred by
bullying, discrimination, lack of access to LGBT-related information, and in some cases,
physical or sexual assault. These abuses can cause deep and lasting harm and curtail students'
right to education, protected under Philippine and international law."
- In 2018, a survey that covered 100 companies found out that "Filipino companies are not
accepting of LGBTQ+" (Casal 2018).

House Bill No. 4982 or "An Act Prohibiting Discrimination on the Basis of Sexual Orientation or
Gender Identity or Expression (SOGIE) and Providing Penalties Therefore"

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 - This was filed in Congress to help remedy such situation.
- The said bill specifically "lists the practices to be considered discriminatory and unlawful
under the bill, like the denial of rights to LGBTQ+ community on the basis of their SOGIE,
such as their right to access public services, right to use establishments and services including
housing, and right to apply for a professional license, among others. Differential treatment of
an employee or anyone engaged to render services, denial of admission to or expulsion from
an educational institution, refusal or revocation of accreditation to any organization due to an
individual's SOGIE will also be penalized" (Deslate 2017).

Ethnic minorities in the Philippines, such as the Lumad (indigenous people) of Mindanao, face countless
challenges too.
National Committee on Culture and the Arts (NCCA) Professor Faina Ulindang explained that
LUMAD –
- is a Bisayan term meaning native or indigenous.
- It is adopted by a group of 15 from a more than 18 Mindanao ethnic groups in their Cotabato
Congress in June 1986 to distinguish them from the other Mindanaons, Moro or Christian.
- Its usage was accepted during the Cory Administration when R.A. 6734, the word "lumad"
was used in Art. XIII Sec. 8(2) to distinguish these ethnic communities from the Bangsa
Moro."
- She added that the Lumad "account for 2.1 million out of the total 6.5 million indigenous
people nationally," with at least 15 self-identified ethnolinguistic groups:
1. Subanen 6. Talaandig 11. Bagobo,
2. B'laan 7. Ubo 12. Tagakaolo
3. Mandaya 8. Manobo 13. Dibabawon
4. Higaonon 9. T'boli 14. Manguangan
5. Banwaon 10. Tiruray 15. Mansaka
- are considered as "among the poorest of minority groups, with little access to social services
including education and healthcare" and making things more complicated, "they have been
caught in the middle of a five-decade old insurgency, as well as a push by logging and mining
companies to tap Mindanao's rich resources including gold, copper and nickel" (Chandran
2018).
- Professor Ulindang also traced the historical roots of the Lumad's displacement.
- Related to the indigenous people's struggle against physical displacement from their ancestral
domain, they also face the realities of linguistic and cultural marginalization as ethnic
minorities with little or no political representation. In fact, their physical displacement makes
it more difficult for them to preserve their unique ways of life and worldviews rooted in their
closeness to the natural environment.

Persons with disabilities (PWDs) are somehow marginalized too.

- For example, research written for the Institute of Labor Studies provides a quick review of
PWD’s situation: The sector of people with disability continues to grow. It was reported that
about 15 percent of PWDs' of the world's population live with some form of disability.
- In the Philippines, there are almost one (1) million persons with disability (PWDs). Studies
revealed that the sector is considered the most marginalized and economically disadvantaged
groups. Their impairment makes them vulnerable to different social and economic barriers,
and negative attitudes by the abled members of the society" (Fojas 2012).
- The same paper noted that the Philippine government continuously strives "to integrate
PWDs into the mainstream of society" but despite such efforts, "(m)any PWDs continue to
experience work discriminations, unequal rights, and limited opportunities. They are hardly
equipped for competitive and gainful long-term employment."
- Worldwide, the COVID-19 pandemic "has further marginalized persons with disabilities"
(Bellamkonda 2020) as many social distancing and lockdown rules fail to consider the plight
of many PWDs who have mobility problems.

GLOBAL INEQUALITIES: INEQUALITIES BETWEEN AND WITHIN COUNTRIES

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Income inequality "between" nations and "within" nations makes the global situation all the more
pressing for those who still imagine a world without injustices.

Economists from Piketty (2014) to Stiglitz (2013) to anti-poverty non-governmental organizations

(NGOs) such as
Oxfam (2013)
- highlight how global income and wealth inequality make the economic system unsustainable .
Oxfam (2015)
- warned that "the combined wealth of the richest 1 percent will overtake that of the other 99
percent of people...unless the current trend of rising inequality is checked."

Data on economic disparity in Southeast Asia and elsewhere can be easily seen by comparing wealth
statistics for every country's billionaire from Forbes Magazine vis-à-vis the minimum wage in those
countries. Regardless of the innate differences between these countries, a few elite businessmen and their
partners are able to seemingly monopolize the profits from the hard work of minimum wage earners who
compose majority of the labor force.

Dependency Theory or Teoría de la Dependencia

- in the past decades this theory became popular in many developing countries.
Dos Santos (1970)
- one of the Dependency Theory's eminent scholars.
- He defined dependency as a "...situation in which the economy of certain countries is
conditioned by the development and expansion of another economy to which the former is
subjected," categorized as colonial dependency or financial-industrial dependency.
- He noted that aside from influencing the international affairs of the subordinated country,
dependency also covers "their internal structures: the orientation of production, the forms of
capital accumulation, the reproduction of the economy, and, simultaneously, their social and
political structure."

Simply put, Dependency Theory scholars assert that industrialized countries exploit poor
countries through economic and political neocolonialism which perpetuate the latter's pre-
industrial or semi-industrial status-majority of which are former colonies of developed
countries.

Dependency Theory analysis

- fits the current reality as the Philippine Statistics Authority still includes
electronic products, mineral fuels, lubricants and related materials, transport
equipment, industrial machinery and equipment, plastics in primary and non- primary forms,
iron and steel, miscellaneous manufactured articles, and telecommunication equipment
among the country's top imports, while electronic products (mostly semiconductors-which
should be categorized as a semi-manufactured good), woodcrafts and furniture, other mineral
products (mostly unprocessed such as mineral ore), ignition wiring set and other wiring sets
used in vehicles, articles of apparel, metal components, and coconut oil are listed as among
the country's top exports.
Dependency Theory
- through its lens, it is evident that this economic system is more favorable to
developed/capital-rich countries because:
1) developed nations' investments in developing countries earn profits which the former typically
repatriate, rather than reinvest in the latter;
2) developed countries control multilateral financial institutions such as the IMF, World Bank,
and even the biggest private banks that are capable of bankrolling or frustrating any effort toward
industrialization contemplated by progressive developing countries' governments;
3) technology transfers on a massive scale seldom happens, hence developed countries tend to
retain a monopoly on innovations vital to the growth of the manufacturing sector;
4) the bulk price of the developing countries' main exports (raw materials and semi-manufactured
goods) is lower than the bulk price of their typical imports from developed countries
(technology/machinery and high-value products);

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 5) the migration of workers and professionals from developing countries to the developed
countries depletes the former's human resources which they need to free themselves from poverty
and dependency; and
6) the education system of developing countries is aligned with the needs of developed/capital-
rich countries which are also typical destinations of migrant workers from the developing nations.

Thus, reshaping the world's economic system is necessary if local sweeping reforms are to become
successful.

UNIT VI: MAKING SOCIETY BETTER

INTRODUCTION
"Pagbabago" is the Filipino word for "change." The root word "bago" means "new."
Change
- in the Filipino context means the process of being something new, or engaging in something
new.
- In many English dictionaries, change is both a verb and a noun.
- As a noun, Cambridge Dictionary defines it as "the act of becoming different, or the result of
something becoming different."
- While change and transformation are usually considered as synonyms.
Ron Ashkenas
- an expert on organizational transformation, differentiates between change and transformation.
- He considers change as the process of "implementing finite initiatives" which focus "on
executing a well- defined shift in the way things work," while saying that transformation
encompasses "a portfolio of initiatives, which are interdependent or intersecting," thereby
reinventing the entity that underwent transformation.

In simpler terms, transformation is bigger than change, and many changes bring about transformation.

SOURCES OF CULTURAL, SOCIAL, AND POLITICAL CHANGE

A. INNOVATION
- According to the American Society for Quality it refers to "...the successful conversion of
new concepts and knowledge into new products, services, or processes..."
- Other researchers define it as "the multi-stage process whereby organizations transform ideas
into new/improved products, service or processes, in order to advance, compete and
differentiate themselves successfully" (Baregheh, Rowley, and Sambrook 2009 p. 1334) from
their rivals.
- are usually technological in nature.
- Independent invention to creatively find solutions to problems.
Republic Act No. 112931
- a law “adopting innovation as vital component of the country's development policies to drive
inclusive development, promote the growth and national competitiveness of micro, small and
medium enterprises.”
- states that innovation is "the creation of new ideas that results in the development of new or
improved policies, products, processes, or services which are then spread or transferred
across the market."
History
- is full of examples on how innovations lead to social change. For example, the invention of
the steam engine definitely paved the way for the Industrial Revolution in the West.
Thomas Newcomen
- who produced the innovative engines.
James Watt
- who developed the innovative engines, which powered Britain to prominence as the first
industrial country in the world," and it "was crucial to the industrialization" of the West, as an
"outstanding source of power for industry and transport systems" which led to the
"development of more sophisticated heat engines and for the large-scale generation of
electricity." (Telegraph 2000).

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Industrialization
- helped modernize factories, expand cities, and mass-produce essential goods and household
appliances which arguably improved the overall quality of life.
Professor Emanuela Cardia's study "Household Technology: Was it the Engine of Liberation?" (2008)
- the popularization of washing machines, refrigerators, and other household appliances was
linked to the rise in the number of women who can take a job beyond domestic housekeeping.
L' Osservatore Romano
- Vatican magazine which famously remarked that, in the 20th century, the washing machine
has "contributed most to the emancipation of western women."
Professor Sarah Evans (2009)
- In her historical study, she noted that "(a)t the beginning of the twentieth century, women
were outsiders to the formal structures of political life-voting, serving on juries, holding
elective office-and they were subject to wide-ranging discrimination that marked them as
secondary citizens. Over the course of the century, however, women in America moved
dramatically (though still not equally) into all aspects of public life-politics, labor-force
participation, professions, mass media, and popular culture."

First two female presidents in the last decades of the 20th century leading into the 21st century in the
Philippines:
1. Corazon Aquino
- ascent to power in 1986 after a successful People Power Revolution
2. Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo
- presidency in 2001, after another popular revolt in the streets.
Women leaders in other countries in Asia also gained prominence in the 20th century: (to name a few)
1. Indira Gandhi in India (1966- 1977 and 1980-1984)
2. Golda Meir of Israel (1969-1974)
3. Benazir Bhutto in Pakistan (1988-1990 and 1993-1996)
4. Megawati Sukarnoputri of Indonesia (2001-2004)

International women's rights movement

- has come a long way from the days of the Suffragettes' struggle for the women's right to vote.
- This protest is in London, c.1912.
- The United Kingdom has had 2 women prime ministers hence, and women occupy many
major posts around the world today.
2 Types of Innovation
a. Primary Innovation – an individual or group comes up with a new idea, method, or
device.
b. Secondary Innovation – if the idea, method, or device is further develops by an
individual or group.

NOTE: Social change at times happens slowly, but every little struggle and victory contributes to the
forward march of humankind.

B. DIFFUSION
- is typically cultural.
- can also be technological, as it is also defined as "the process through which innovations are
introduced into an organization or social group, sometimes called the diffusion of
innovations.
Cultural diffusion
- is "the process by which aspects of one culture or subculture are incorporated into another
culture" (Brinkerhoff et al. 2011).
- It is among the primary sources of cultural changes in contemporary society.
Crossman (2019)
- Things that are spread through diffusion include ideas, values, concepts, knowledge,
practices, behaviors, materials, and symbols.
Technological diffusion

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 - its one example is the proliferation of smart phones and Internet subscription in developing
countries like the Philippines.
Professor Alfredo Lagmay
- a psychologist, whom in his article "Western Psychology in the Philippines: Impact and
Response," traced "the history of psychological science in the Philippines...as a case of
cultural diffusion from the West through the English language and the institutions
(educational and legal, business and industry, the media, government and the bureaucracy)
which adopted the language.”
2 Types of Diffusion
a. Direct Diffusion – occurs through trade, marriage, and war.
b. Indirect Diffusion – occurs when a group comes in contact with another group indirectly through
a third party.

C. ACCULTURATION AND ASSIMILATION

- are usually defined in cultural contexts.
Acculturation
- is "the adoption by one culture of features from another, often as a result of conquest or
colonization--for example, the use of French as a primary language in many former French
colonies in Africa.”
Assimilation
- is "the adoption of society's culture and customs by immigrants to that society" (Muller
2017).
Cole (2019)
- ASSIMILATION is one-way, ACCULTURATION is a two-way "process through which a
person or group from one culture comes to adopt the practices and values of another culture,
while still retaining their own distinct culture," with "a minority culture adopting elements of
the majority culture," while at the same instance, "those within the majority culture often
adopt elements of minority cultures with which they come into contact."
- also notes, ASSIMILATION is just one of the possible outcomes of acculturation, other than
"rejection, integration, marginalization, and transmutation."
Filipino diaspora communities
- experience assimilation when they adopt the language and customs of their new countries of
residence.
- experience acculturation if they persevere in retaining significant aspects of their ties to the
Philippines, and as citizens in their adopted countries start to adopt Filipino customs or
aspects of Filipino culture as well.
Acculturation
- happens when Filipinos choose to retain Filipino or other Philippine languages as their
preferred language in their own households while speaking the language of their adopted
countries outside their homes.
- also happens when American and Canadian universities start to offer Filipino language
electives and whenever Western restaurants start to serve Filipino food such as adobo or
dinuguan.

NOTE: Subtle cultural shifts can also have political and economic impacts in the long-term.

D. SOCIAL CONTRADICTIONS AND TENSIONS

- sources of social transformation.
- These happens when the are of the new ideas as well as encountering other cultures can
destabilize society and lead to social conflict and tensions.
Conflicts:
a. Inter-ethnic conflicts
- are among the most common sources of social change in this category.
- In the strictest sense of the term, such conflicts stem from conflicts between various ethnic
groups or groups with various common cultural backgrounds.
- often go beyond mere cultural clashes, and thus encompass economic and political gaps.
Case studies on interethnic conflict: A theoretical integration" (Massey and Miller 2018)

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 - revealed five "primary factors underpinning" most inter-ethnic conflicts such as "institutional
inequity; relative ingroup strength; environmental stress; power imbalance; and resource
scarcity."
Mindanao's complex situation as a very multi-ethnic and multi-religious region mirrors most of these
factors.

Armed insurgencies
- previously waged by the Moro National Liberation Front and the Moro Islamic
Liberation Front have been technically settled with the recent creation of a new
Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM).
Transnational mining firms
- that are out to extract resources in the region of BARMM, at all cost, and the virtual
monopoly of politically and/or economically powerful clans on vast tracts of lands are also
among the causes of concern.
Within this context, it is not surprising that the more than 40-year-old communist insurgency in the
Philippines remains strong especially in Mindanao, where both indigenous groups and peasant citizens
are attracted to the insurgency's promise for sweeping and broad-based political and economic reforms.

b. Class Struggle
- Communist insurgency is an expression of class struggle, at least ideologically.
- As the communists aim for a system where workers or the proletariat would own the means
of production and hold political power, their vision clashes with the current capitalist system
dominated by elite families and big corporations (the oligarchy or the capitalist class).
c. Armed Conflicts
- Some people equate it with terrorism.
Miller, 2017
- "the use of random violence, especially against civilian targets, by ideologically motivated
groups or individuals in an attempt to create social upheaval and to achieve recognition of
their agenda".
Insurgencies
- are violent but not necessarily terrorist in nature.
ISIS
- is a terrorist group as it has been documented to indiscriminately target not only armed
combatants, but also civilians (including Moslems).
d. Protests
- also belong to the category of social tensions as sources of social change.
- Historically, protests-from rallies to strikes and other similar collective actions-yield some
victories for a fairer and more just world.
- In the Philippine situation, the broad-based protest that led to the downfall of the Marcos
dictatorship-People Power/EDSA I is perhaps the most successful in terms of enduring legacy
and broad participation.
- In our days, the continuing campaign against labor contractualization is possibly the broadest
protest movement in the Philippines, though it is still far from becoming triumphant.
Extinction Rebellion to clamor for global action on climate change
- is the biggest and arguably the most pressing protest of our times because it focuses on the
survival of the human species and the planet where we are in.

E. GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE

- are among the priority issues that must be addressed.
- has made life less tenable and sustainable in many vulnerable communities.
These are the new realities that citizens worldwide deal with as a result of extreme climate change
induced by global warming:
1. Parched tracts of formerly verdant 4. Lungs helplessly breathing the
rice fields. poisonous air.
2. Dead fish floating in once pristine 5. Unpredictable weather patterns.
waters. 6. Snow in the dessert.
3. Flashfloods plaguing lowlands. 7. Strong storms in temperate zones.

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Basic necessities such as food, potable water, and clean air have become less abundant as extreme climate
change negatively affects planting and harvest seasons and as over-extraction of resources seems to
worsen in many parts of the world.

Corporations
- are expropriating frontier lands for cattle farming or mountains and forests for mining.
Global economic system's sustainability
- is now in question as it becomes obvious that not all citizens can aspire to live like
Americans-for such will drive carbon emissions soaring, something that will exacerbate
global warming.
According to the Global Footprint Network National Footprint Accounts 2019, we would need 5 Earths if
the world's population lived like Americans.
Extreme climate change has only made the developing countries more vulnerable as the world's ecology
is put to a test by continuing population growth and rapid urbanization. Urgent action is needed to halt
and try to reverse global warming and the seemingly unsustainability of the current economic system, if
the world is to survive. The key to succeed in this noble endeavor lies to "going back to the basics."
Collective action on a collective problem may halt the march of global warming's ugly cabal of disasters:
living simply so that the world may continue to live and ensuring that economic growth and development
will be broad-based so that resources are sustainably maximized for the common good, rather than
exploited by the few. It is in this context that calls for the fulfillment of sustainable development goals
(SDGs), which becomes more urgent.

Degrowth and Green Economy as Alternative Models of Sustainable Development

Degrowth is among the alternative models of sustainable development. A paradigm shift away from the
profit motive and toward the common good (Foster 2011), from wants to needs, and from luxury to
simplicity seems to be necessary if the earth is to survive and be the home to future generations. The
concept of degrowth encourages people to formulate simple or even simpler demands, focusing on
meeting everyone's basic necessities first so that the extraction of the world's resources for commodity
production will not be as unbridled as it is today. In lieu of a competitive
race toward a higher and higher GDP, degrowth compels every country to instead ensure that their
citizens have food, jobs, shelter, etc. for the world's resources can easily be spent out if every man's
whims and caprices will be fulfilled first. Perhaps there should only be one car per family. Perhaps the use
of cars can be banned wherever there are functioning public train systems. Perhaps in the near future, you
can be offered discounted rates in buying a new cellphone if you bring your old one for recycling. These
will be preliminary springboards toward a more sustainable economic system- typically labeled as green
economy.

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