MTH 301: Groups and Rings

Semester 1, 2013-2014

Dr. Prahlad Vaidyanathan

Contents
Symmetries of a Square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
I. Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1. Definition and Basic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2. The Integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3. Subgroups and Cyclic Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4. Orthogonal Matrices and Rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5. Homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
6. The Symmetric Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
II. Quotient Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1. Modular Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2. Lagrange’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3. Normal Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4. The First Isomorphism Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5. Modular Arithmetic : The Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
III. Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1. Isometries of Rn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2. Symmetries of Platonic Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3. Group Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4. Cayley’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5. Conjugation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
6. The Icosahedral Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
7. Conjugation in Sn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
IV. Classification of Finite Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1. Direct Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2. Cauchy’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3. Sylow’s Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4. Simple Groups of order ≤ 60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5. Finite Abelian Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
V. Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1. Definition and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2. Ring Homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3. Ideals and Quotient Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4. Integral Domains and Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5. Polynomial Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6. Euclidean Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7. Field of Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
VI. Prime Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1. Euclidean Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

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 2. The Gaussian Integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3. Polynomial Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4. The Polynomial Ring Z[x] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
VII. Instructor Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

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Symmetries of a Square
(See [Gallian, §2.1])

0.1. Definition of a symmetry of a square with vertices labelled {1, 2, 3, 4}

0.2. List of all such symmetries. Proof that there are exactly 8 such symmetries.
0.3. Definition of D4
0.4. Properties of D4 :
(i) Closure
(ii) Existence of Identity
(iii) Existence of Inverses

I. Groups
1. Definition and Basic Properties
1.1. Definition of
(i) Binary operation
(ii) Group
1.2. Examples:
(i) (Z, +) is a group. (Z, −) is not a group. (N, +) is not a group.
(ii) (Q, ·) is not a group, but Q∗ = (Q \ {0}, ·) is. Similarly, R∗ and C∗ are groups.
(iii) (Rn , +), (Cn , +) are groups. More generally, any vector space is a group under
addition.
(iv) The Dihedral groups Dn = the group of symmetries of a regular n-gon
1.3. Proposition: Let (G, ∗) be a group
(i) Uniqueness of Identity
(ii) Cancellation laws
(iii) Uniqueness of inverses
1.4. Definition : Let G be a group, a ∈ G
(i) an for n ∈ Z. Note that an am = an+m , (an )m = anm
(ii) Definition of cyclic group. Generator of a cyclic group.
1.5. Example :
(i) (Z, +) is cyclic with generators 1 or −1
(ii) (Z × Z, +) is not cyclic
(End of Day 1)

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 (iii) For k ∈ N, define Gk = {ξ ∈ C : ξ k = 1}. Gk is cyclic with generator
ξ0 = e2πi/k
Note: Every cyclic group is either the same as Z or the same as Gk for some k (Proof
later). Can represent Gk as a cycle in C. Hence the term cyclic.
1.6. Definition of abelian group
1.7. Examples :
(i) (Z, +) is abelian. In general, any cyclic group is abelian.
(ii) (Z × Z, +) is abelian, but not cyclic.
(iii) The Klein-IV group V4 of symmetries of a water molecule is an abelian, non-
cyclic group of order 4.
(iv) Dn is non-abelian (and hence not cyclic)
(v) The general linear group, GLn (R), of n×n invertible matrices with real entries
is a non-abelian, infinite group.
1.8. Definition: Order of a group
1.9. Table of groups discussed thus far (Note that Cyclic ⇒ Abelian)
Group Finite Cyclic Abelian
Gk Y Y Y
V4 Y N Y
Dn Y N N
Z N Y Y
Z×Z N N Y
GLn (R) N N N

2. The Integers
(See [Gallian, §0.1], and [Herstein, §1.3])
2.1. Well-Ordering principle/axiom
2.2. Euclidean Algorithm
2.3. Definition :
(i) For a, b ∈ Z, b 6= 0, b divides a (In symbols b | a)
(ii) Prime number
(End of Day 2)
2.4. Theorem: GCD exists and is a linear combination of the elements. (proof later)
2.5. Definition : Relatively prime
2.6. Euclid’s Lemma : If a | bc and (a, b) = 1, then a | c. In particular, if p prime and
p | bc, then either p | b or p | c
2.7. Unique Factorization theorem (without proof)

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3. Subgroups and Cyclic Groups
3.1. Definition of a subgroup
3.2. Subgroup test
3.3. Examples :
(i) For fixed n ∈ N, nZ < Z
(ii) {R0 , R90 , R180 , R270 } < D4
(iii) (See Example 1.5(iii)) Gk < S 1
(iv) (Q, +) < (R, +)
(v) SLn (R) < GLn (R)
3.4. Theorem: Every subgroup H < Z is of the form nZ for some n ∈ Z
Proof of Theorem 2.4
(End of Day 3)
3.5. Remark : G a group, a ∈ G fixed.
(i) Cyclic subgroup generated by a, denoted by hai
(ii) Order of a, denoted by O(a). If n = O(a) < ∞, then
(a) am = e ⇔ n | m
(b) hai = {e, a, a2 , . . . , an−1 }
3.6. Example :
(i) G = Z, a = n, then a has inifinite order
(ii) G = D4 , a = R90 , then O(a) = 4
(iii) G = S 1 , a = e2πi/k , then O(a) = k
3.7. Theorem: Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.

4. Orthogonal Matrices and Rotations

(See [Artin, §5.1] (mostly taken from the 1st edition))

4.1. Definition :
(i) Real Orthogonal matrix is a matrix A such that At A = AAt = I
(ii) On (R) and SOn (R)
4.2. Theorem : Let A be an n × n real matrix. Then TFAE :
(i) A is an orthogonal matrix
(ii) hAx, Ayi = hx, yi for all x, y ∈ Rn
(iii) The columns of A form an orthonormal basis of Rn
4.3. Example :

6
  
cos(θ) − sin(θ)
(i) For θ ∈ R, ρθ = ∈ SO2 (R)
sin(θ) cos(θ)
 
1 0
(ii) r = ∈ O2 (R) \ SO2 (R)
0 −1
(End of Day 4)
4.4. Lemma: SO2 (R) = {ρθ : θ ∈ R}. Hence, SO2 (R) is called the 2 × 2 rotation group.
4.5. Definition of rotation ρv,θ in R3
4.6. Remark :
(i) Identity is also considered a rotation
(ii) ∃ a change of basis matrix P ∈ O3 (R) such that
 
1 0 0
P −1 ρv,θ P = 0 cos(θ) − sin(θ)
0 sin(θ) cos(θ)

and hence ρv,θ ∈ SO3 (R)

4.7. Lemma: If A ∈ SO3 (R), ∃v ∈ R3 such that Av = v
4.8. Euler’s Theorem: SO3 (R) = {ρv,θ : v ∈ R3 unit vector, θ ∈ R}
4.9. Corollary: Composition of rotations about any two axes is a rotation about some
other axis.

(End of Day 5)

5. Homomorphisms
5.1. Definition of homomorphism
5.2. Examples :
(i) n 7→ 2n from Z to Z
(ii) x 7→ ex from (R, +) to (R∗ , ×)
(iii) det : GLn (R) → R∗
(iv) θ 7→ ρθ from (R, +) to SO2 (R)
5.3. Lemma : Let f : G → G0 be a group homomorphism, then
(i) f (e) = e0 where e, e0 are the identity elements of G and G0 respectively
(ii) f (g −1 ) = f (g)−1 for all g ∈ G
5.4. Definition : f : G → G0 a homomorphism
(i) ker(f ) < G
(ii) Im(f ) < G0
5.5. Examples :

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 (i) f : Z → Z is f (n) = 2n, then ker(f ) = {0}, Im(f ) = 2Z
(ii) f : GLn (R) → R∗ is f (A) = det(A), then ker(f ) = SLn (R), Im(f ) = R∗
(iii) f : R → SO2 (R) is f (θ) = ρθ , then ker(f ) = 2πZ, Im(f ) = SO2 (R) by Lemma
4.4
(iv) f : C∗ → R∗ is f (z) = |z|, then ker(f ) = S 1 , Im(f ) = R∗
5.6. Definition : f : G → G0 a group homomorphism
(i) Injective
(ii) Surjective
∼ ∼
→ G0 , then f −1 : G0 −
(iii) Bijective, Isomorphism. Note: If f : G − →G
∼
5.7. Theorem : f : G → G0 is injective iff ker(f ) = {e}. In that case, f : G −
→ Im(G).
5.8. Examples :
(i) f : Z → Z is f (n) = 2n, then f is injective, but not surjective
(ii) f : (R, +) → SO2 (R) is f (θ) = ρθ , then f is surjective, but not injective.
(iii) If G is a finite cyclic group with |G| = k, then G ∼= Gk
(iv) G4  V4

(End of Day 6)

6. The Symmetric Group

6.1. Definition : Let X be a set
(i) Permutation of X
(ii) SX = symmetric group on X
6.2. Lemma : If |X| = |Y |, then SX ∼
= SY
6.3. Definition : Sn
6.4. Remark :
(i) O(Sn ) = n!
(ii) If σ ∈ Sn , we represent σ by
 
1 2 ... n
σ=
σ(1) σ(2) . . . σ(n)

(iii) For σ ∈ Sn , define Pσ ∈ GLn (R) by Pσ (ei ) = eσ(i) .

6.5. Theorem : The function f : Sn → GLn (R) by σ 7→ Pσ is a homomorphism.
6.6. Definition :
(i) sgn : Sn → {±1}
(ii) An

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6.7. Remark :
(i) Sn = An t Bn where Bn = {σ ∈ Sn : sgn(σ) = −1} [Not a subgroup of Sn ]
(ii) |An | = |Bn |. Hence |An | = n!/2
(iii) Note that Bn = σ0 An for some fixed σ0 ∈ Bn . Hence Sn = An t σ0 An

(End of Day 7)

II. Quotient Groups

1. Modular Arithmetic
1.1. Definition : Equivalence relation on a set X
1.2. Examples :
(i) X any set, x ∼ y ⇔ x = y
(ii) X = R2 , (x1 , y1 ) ∼ (x2 , y2 ) ⇔ y1 − y2 = x1 − x2
(iii) X = C, z ∼ w ⇔ |z| = |w|
(iv) X = Z, a ∼ b ⇔ n | (b − a). Denote this by a ≡ b (mod n) (with proof)
1.3. Definition : Equivalence class
1.4. Theorem : Equivalence classes partition the set
1.5. Examples : (See Example 1.2)
(i) [x] = {x}
(ii) [(x1 , y1 )] = the line parallel to the line y = x passing through (x1 , y1 )
(iii) [z] = the circle of radius |z|
(iv) [a] = {b ∈ Z : ∃q ∈ Z such that b = a + nq}
1.6. Lemma : Consider Z with ≡ (mod n)
(i) There are exactly n equivalence classes {[0], [1], . . . , [n − 1]}
(ii) If a ≡ a0 (mod n) and b ≡ b0 (mod n), then a + b ≡ (a0 + b0 ) (mod n)
1.7. Theorem: Zn = {[0], . . . , [n − 1]} is a cyclic group of order n with generator [1]

(End of Day 8)

2. Lagrange’s Theorem
Recall: In constructing Zn , we had 4 steps :
(i) Define an equivalence relation ≡ (mod n) on Z
(ii) Collecting the equivalence classes together : Zn
(iii) Counting that there are n of them

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 (iv) Defining a group structure on the equivalence classes, and showing that it is
well-defined.
We now do the same thing for a general group.
2.1. Definition : G a group, H < G, a ≡ b (mod H) iff a−1 b ∈ H (with proof)
2.2. Definition :
(i) The equivalence class [a] = aH is called a left coset of H in G
(ii) [G : H]
2.3. Examples :
(i) G = Z, H = nZ, then
(a) a ≡ b (mod H) iff a ≡ b (mod n)
(b) [Z : nZ] = n (Lemma 1.6)
(ii) G = Sn , H = An , then
(a) σ = τ (mod H) iff sgn(σ) = sgn(τ )
(b) [G : H] = 2
(iii) G = C∗ , H = S 1 , then
(a) z ≡ w (mod H) iff |z| = |w|
(b) [G : H] = |(0, ∞)| = +∞
(iv) G = R2 , H = {(x, x) : x ∈ R}, then
(a) (x1 , y1 ) ≡ (x2 , y2 ) (mod H) iff y1 − y2 = x1 − x2
(b) [G : H] = |R| = +∞
2.4. Lemma : |aH| = |bH| for any a, b ∈ G
2.5. Lagrange’s theorem : Let G be a finite group, then |G| = [G : H]|H|. In particular,
|H| | |G|
2.6. Corollary: If |G| = p, a prime, then G is cyclic.
2.7. Corollary: If a ∈ G, then O(a) | |G|, and hence a|G| = e

(End of Day 9)

3. Normal Subgroups
3.1. Definition : G/H. Note that [G : H] = |G/H|. G/H is not, in general, a group.
3.2. Examples :
(i) G = Z, H = nZ, then G/H = Zn
(ii) G = C∗ , H = S 1 , then G/H = {circles with varying radii around 0}
(iii) G = R2 , H = {(a, a) : x ∈ R}, then G/H = {lines parallel to y = x}
(iv) G = Sn , H = An , then G/H = {An , Bn } where Bn = {σ ∈ Sn : sgn(σ) = −1}

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 3.3. Remark : We want to define a group operation on G/H by

[a] ∗ [b] = [ab]

Recall proof of Lemma 1.6(ii). Note: We only used the fact that G = Z is abelian.
3.4. Lemma : If G is abelian, and H < G, then (G/H, ∗) is a group.
3.5. Remark: We did not need G to be abelian. We only needed that for any h ∈ H, g ∈
G, ∃h0 ∈ H such that hg = gh0 . Equivalently, g −1 hg ∈ H
3.6. Definition : Normal subgroup (as above)
3.7. Theorem : If H C G, then (G/H, ∗) is a group.
3.8. Examples :
(i) G = Z, H = nZ, then Zn = Z/nZ
(ii) G = C∗ , H = S 1 , then ∗ is the same as multiplying radii. G/H ∼
= ((0, ∞), ×)
(iii) G = R2 , H = {(a, a) : a ∈ R}, then ∗ is the same as adding Y-intercepts.
G/H ∼
= (R, +)
(iv) G = Sn , H = An . H C G and G/H ∼ = ({±1}, ×)
3.9. Proposition: If G abelian, then every subgroup is normal
3.10. Proposition: If H = ker(f ) for some homomorphism f : G → G0 , then H C G

(End of Day 10)

4. The First Isomorphism Theorem

4.1. Proposition : Let H C G, then the map π : G → G/H given by π(a) = aH is a
surjective homomorphism and ker(π) = H
4.2. First Isomorphism theorem : Let f : G → G0 be a group homomorphism with
kernel K
G/K ∼
= Im(f )
In particular, if f is surjective, then G/K ∼
= G0
4.3. Examples :
(i) Any cyclic group is isomorphic to either Z or Zn for some n ∈ N
(ii) G = R2 , and H = {(a, a) : a ∈ R}, then G/H ∼ =R
(iii) G = C∗ , H = S 1 , then G/H ∼
= ((0, ∞), ×)
(iv) Sn /An ∼
= {±1}
(v) GLn (R)/SLn (R) ∼
= R∗
4.4. Proposition : Let f : G → G0 be a homomorphism.
(i) If H 0 < G0 , then f −1 (H 0 ) < G
(ii) If H < G, then f (H) < G0

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 4.5. Remark : If H C G and π : G → G/H the natural projection, then if K 0 < G/H,
then K = π −1 (K 0 ) < G contains H.
4.6. Theorem : If H C G and π : G → G/H the natural projection, then this association
sets up a one-to-one correspondence
 0 
K < G/H ↔ K < G such that H ⊂ K

(End of Day 11)

4.7. Example : For n ∈ N fixed
 
subgroups of Zn ↔ divisors of n

5. Modular Arithmetic : The Units

5.1. Lemma : Let n ∈ N fixed. If a ≡ c (mod n) and b ≡ d (mod n), then

ab = cd (mod n)

(Proof on HW 4.1)
5.2. Definition : For [a], [b] ∈ Zn , [a] × [b] = [ab] is well-defined. Note: (Zn , ×) is not a
group. (Example on HW 4.1)
5.3. Lemma : If a ≡ c (mod n) and (a, n) = 1, then (c, n) = 1.
5.4. Definition :
(i) Z∗n = {[a] ∈ Zn : (a, n) = 1}
(ii) ϕ(n) = |Z∗n | is called the Euler Phi function
5.5. Theorem : (Z∗n , ×) is a group, called the group of units modulo n
5.6. Examples :
(i) If p prime, then Z∗p = {[1], [2], . . . , [p − 1]}, ϕ(p) = p − 1
(ii) If p prime, then [a] ∈ Zpk iff p - a. Hence, ϕ(pk ) = pk − pk−1
(iii) Z∗8 is not cyclic.
(iv) Z∗pk is cyclic if p odd prime, k ∈ N (Proof Later)
5.7. Euler’s theorem : If n ∈ N and (a, n) = 1, then aϕ(n) ≡ 1 (mod n)
5.8. Fermat’s Little Theorem : If a ∈ Z and p a prime, then ap ≡ a (mod p)

(End of Day 12)

III. Symmetry
(See [Artin, §6])

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1. Isometries of Rn
1.1. Motivation : Recall
(i) Dn = symmetries of regular n−gon
(ii) V4 = symmetries of water molecule
More generally, if ∆ ⊂ Rn , we are interested in the symmetries of ∆
Examples :
(i) [Human figure] has only one non-trivial symmetry, namely reflection.
(ii) [Square] has 8 symmetries, the group D4
(iii) [Infinite arrows] has infinitely many symmetries - translation by any k ∈ Z
(iv) [Glide symmetry] has infinitely many symmetries - translation + flip
(v) [Sphere] has infinitely many symmetries - all rotations, and reflections
(vi) [Cube] has finitely many - some reflections, some rotations.
1.2. Definition :
(i) For x, y ∈ Rn , hx, yi and |x − y|
(ii) Isometry
(iii) M (Rn ) is the set of isometries of Rn . Note : We will show that M (Rn ) is a
group, called the Euclidean Group
1.3. Examples :
(i) Translation τb : x 7→ x + b for any fixed b ∈ Rn
(ii) Orthogonal linear operator
1.4. Lemma : Let u, v ∈ Rn such that hu, ui = hv, vi = hu, vi, then u = v
1.5. Theorem : Let g ∈ M (Rn ) such that g(0) = 0, then ∃A ∈ On (R) such that
g(x) = Ax for all x ∈ Rn
1.6. Corollary : If g ∈ M (Rn ), then ∃A ∈ On (R) and b ∈ Rn such that g(x) = Ax + b
for all x ∈ Rn , and conversely, if A ∈ On (R) and b ∈ Rn , then g(x) = Ax + b is in
M (Rn )
1.7. Corollary : Every g ∈ M (Rn ) is bijective, and M (Rn ) is a group
1.8. Theorem : There is a surjective homomorphism π : M (Rn ) → On (R) and ker(π) =
{τb : b ∈ Rn }. Thus M (Rn )/ ker(π) ∼
= On (R)

(End of Day 13)

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2. Symmetries of Platonic Solids
The 5 Platonic solids are : Tetrahedron (T), Cube (C), Octahedron (O), Dodecahe-
dron (D) and Icosahedron (I). Imagine each embedded in the unit sphere S 2 ⊂ R3
2.1. Definition : Given ∆ ⊂ Rn , M (∆) = {g ∈ M (Rn ) : g(∆) = ∆} is called the (full)
group of symmetries of ∆. Note : This does not mean that g(x) = x for all x ∈ ∆.
2.2. Remark : Let ∆ be a platonic solid. Then
(i) M (∆) ∩ ker(π) = {e}, and so π : M (∆) → π(M (∆)) is an isomorphism
(ii) Reflection about a plane is a physical impossibility. In fact, any isometry that
”switches” two axes is not physically possible in R3 . We are only going to
be interested in those symmetries which preserve the order of the axes, which
happens iff det(g) = +1
2.3. Definition : For ∆ ⊂ Rn with M (∆) < On (R), we write

G(∆) = π(M (∆)) ∩ SOn (R) = {g ∈ SO3 (R) : g(∆) = ∆}

for the group of rotational (or orientation-preserving) symmetries of ∆

2.4. Example : Let ∆ = T =The tetrahedron
(i) G(T ) has 12 elements.
(ii) G(T ) permutes the set X = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 } of vertices.
2.5. Lemma : There is a homomorphism f : G(T ) → SX where f (g) = σg as above.
2.6. Theorem : G(T ) ∼
= A4
(End of Day 14)
2.7. Example : Let ∆ = C =The cube
(i) G(C) has 24 elements
(ii) G(C) permutes the set X = {D1 , D2 , D3 , D4 } of principal diagonals
2.8. Lemma : There is a homomorphism f : G(C) → SX where f (g) = σg as above.
2.9. Theorem : G(C) ∼
= S4
2.10. Remark :
(i) If O is the octahedron, then G(O) = G(C)
(ii) If D is the dodecahedron, and I is the icosahedron, then G(D) = G(I)

3. Group Actions
3.1. Definition : Acton of a group G on a set X
3.2. Examples :
(i) G(T ) acts on the set of vertices of T
(ii) G(C) acts of the set of principal diagonals of C

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 (iii) Dn acts on the set of vertices of a regular n-gon.
(iv) GLn (R) acts on Rn by (A, x) 7→ A(x). Similarly, SLn (R), On (R) and SOn (R)
act on Rn
(v) Sn acts on {1, 2, . . . , n}
(vi) Any group G acts on itself by the left regular action [See HW 3.5]
3.3. Lemma (Permutation Representation) : If G acts on X, then there is a homomor-
phism, G → SX (Proof on HW)
3.4. Lemma : Let G act on X. For x, y ∈ X, write x ∼ y iff ∃g ∈ G such that y = gx.
This is an equivalence relation on X.
3.5. Definition :
(i) Orbit of x ∈ X. Note : Orbits partition X (See II.1.4)
(ii) Transitive action
3.6. Examples :
(i) GLn (R) acts on Rn as before. Then the orbit of the origin is the origin itself.
The orbit of any other point is Rn \ {0}
(ii) SO2 (R) acts on R2 . If x ∼ y, then |x| = |y|, and so the orbit of any point
x ∈ Rn is the circle of radius |x|
(iii) Sn acts transitively on {1, 2, . . . , n}
(End of Day 15)
3.7. Definition : Stabilizer of x, Stab(x) < G
3.8. Proposition : Let G act on X. Let x ∈ X and H = Stab(x). Then there is a
bijection η : G/H → O(x) given by gH 7→ gx
3.9. (Orbit-Stabilizer Theorem) Let G be a finite group acting on a set X. Let x ∈ X,
then |G| = |O(x)||Stab(x)|. In particular, if G acts transitively on X, then |G| =
|X||Stab(x)|
3.10. Example : Let D be the regular dodecahedron, then |G(D)| = 60

4. Cayley’s Theorem
4.1. Remark : G acts on itself by left multiplication
4.2. Cayley’s Theorem : Let G be a finite group with n = |G|, then G is isomorphic to
a subgroup of Sn
4.3. Definition: Let G be a group, and H < G. Let X = G/H, then G acts on X by
left multiplication. Let fH : G → SX be the induced permutation representation.
4.4. Lemma : ker(fH ) ⊂ H
4.5. Lemma : Let G be a finite group, and K < H < G, then [G : K] = [G : H][H : K]

15
4.6. (Strong Cayley Theorem) Let G be a finite group, and p the smallest prime dividing
|G|. Then any subgroup of index p is normal in G. In particular, any subgroup of
index 2 is normal in G.

(End of Day 16)

5. Conjugation
5.1. Definition :
(i) A group G acts on itself by conjugation
(ii) Two elements x, y ∈ G are conjugate iff ∃g ∈ G such that y = gxg −1
5.2. Examples :
(i) Let T : Rn → Rn be an invertible linear operator, and A1 , A2 be two represen-
tations of T w.r.t two different bases, then A1 is conjugate to A2 in GLn (R)
(ii) Let G = M (R2 ), x = ρθ , g = τv , then gxg −1 is the rotation by θ about v
(iii) Let G = D3 , x = the reflection about v1 , g = rotation by 120 degrees clockwise,
then gxg −1 is the reflection about v3 . ie. Conjugation is ”looking at the group
from different perspectives/change of coordinates in the group”
5.3. Definition : G a group, x ∈ G
(i) C(x) is the conjugacy class of x in G
(ii) Z(x) is the centralizer of x in G
5.4. Remark : Let G be a finite group
(i) By the orbit-stabilizer theorem, |G| = |Z(x)||C(x)|
(ii) By Lemma 3.4, G is partitioned into conjugacy classes. Hence

|G| = |C(x1 )| + |C(x2 )| + . . . + |C(xn )|

where the sum is taken over all distinct conjugacy classes

5.5. Lemma :
(i) Every term in the RHS above divides |G|
(ii) |C(x)| = 1 iff xg = gx for all g ∈ G
5.6. Definition : Center of the group, Z(G)
5.7. Remark :
(i) Z(G) C G (by HW 6.6)
(ii) Z(G) = G iff G is abelian
(iii) x ∈ Z(G) iff |C(x)| = 1

16
 5.8. (The class equation) : Let G be a finite group, then
X
|G| = |Z(G)| + |C(xi )|
|C(xi )|>1

where the sum on the RHS is taken over all distinct conjugacy classes whose cardi-
nality is > 1. Note : Each term on the RHS divides |G|
5.9. Corollary : Let G be a group such that |G| = pn , where p is prime, then Z(G) 6= {e}
(End of Day 17)
5.10. Lemma : If G/Z(G) is cyclic, then G is abelian. [HW]
5.11. Theorem : If |G| = p2 , where p is prime, then G is abelian

6. The Icosahedral Group

(See [Artin, §7.4])

6.1. Remark : G(D) is the group of rotational symmetries of a regular dodecahedron

(i) By 3.10, |G(D)| = 60
(ii) What are these elements?
(a) The identity (1)
(b) Rotation by 2π/3 about every vertex (+20)
(c) Rotation by π about the centre of an edge. There are 30 edges, but each
such rotation accounts for 2 edges (+15)
(d) Rotation by 2π/5 about the centre of a face (+12) [This accounts for a
rotation by 8π/5]
(e) Rotation by 4π/5 about the centre of a face (+12) [This accounts for a
rotation by 6π/5]
6.2. Lemma : Let x = ρu,α ∈ SO3 (R)
(i) trace(x) = 1 + 2 cos(α)
(ii) Let g ∈ SO3 (R) and v = g(u), then gxg −1 = ρv,α
6.3. Remark (Class Equation of G(D))
(i) If e ∈ G(D) is the identity, then |C(e)| = 1
(ii) If u is a vertex, α = 2π/3, let x1 = ρu,α , then |C(x1 )| = 20
(End of Day 18)
(iii) If e is the centre of an edge, and α = π, let x2 = ρe,α , then |C(x2 )| = 15
(iv) If f is the centre of a face, and α = 2π/5, let x3 = ρf,α , then |C(x3 )| = 12
(v) If f is the centre of a face, and α = 4π/5, let x4 = ρf,α , then |C(x4 )| = 12.
So the class equation is : 60 = 1 + 20 + 15 + 12 + 12

17
6.4. Lemma : Let G be a group, N C G, then
(i) If x ∈ N , then C(x) ⊂ N
(ii) |N | is the sum of the cardinalities of disjoint conjugacy classes in G
6.5. Definition : Simple group
6.6. Theorem : G(D) is a simple group
6.7. Theorem : G(D) ∼
= A5 . In particular, A5 is a simple group.
6.8. Remark :
(i) Zp is a simple group for p prime
(ii) If G is an abelian simple group, then G ∼
= Zp for p prime [HW]
(iii) A5 is the smallest non-abelian simple group.
(End of Day 19)

7. Conjugation in Sn
7.1. Definition : m-cycle in Sn . Note on how we multiply two cycles.
7.2. Proposition : Every σ ∈ Sn can be written as a product of disjoint cycles.
7.3. Proposition : If σ ∈ Sn has the cycle decomposition

(a1 a2 . . . ak1 )(b1 b2 . . . bk2 ) . . .

and τ ∈ Sn , then τ στ −1 has the cycle decomposition

(τ (a1 )τ (a2 ) . . . τ (ak1 ))(τ (b1 )τ (b2 ) . . . τ (bk2 )) . . .

7.4. Definition : Cycle-type of a permutation σ ∈ Sn

7.5. Theorem : For σ ∈ Sn , the conjugacy class of σ consists of all those elements η ∈ Sn
with the same cycle-type as σ
7.6. Corollary : The number of conjugacy classes in Sn is equal to the number of parti-
tions of n
7.7. Corollary : Let σ ∈ Sn be an m-cycle (a1 a2 . . . am )
n!
(i) |C(σ)| =
m(n − m)!
(ii) |Z(σ)| = m(n − m)!
(iii) Z(σ) = {σ i τ : 0 ≤ i ≤ m − 1, τ ∈ Sn−m } where

Sn−m = {τ ∈ Sn : τ (ai ) = ai ∀1 ≤ i ≤ m}

(End of Day 20)

18
IV. Classification of Finite Groups
All groups in this chapter will be assumed to be finite.

1. Direct Products
1.1. Definition : External direct product : G = G1 × G2 .
1.2. Lemma : If G = G1 × G2 , G c1 = {(a, e2 ) : a ∈ G1 } C G and

c1 ∼
G/G = G2

1.3. Lemma : If g = (a, b) ∈ G1 × G2 , then O(g) = lcm(O(a), O(b))

1.4. Theorem : Let G1 , G2 be finite cyclic groups, then G1 ×G2 is cyclic iff (|G1 |, |G2 |) = 1
1.5. Corollary : If (n1 , n2 ) = 1, and n = n1 n2 , then Zn ∼
= Zn × Zn . In particular, if
1 2

n = pα1 1 pα2 2 . . . pαk k

is the prime decomposition of n, then

Zn ∼
= Zpα1 1 × Zpα2 2 × . . . × Zpαk k

1.6. Definition : If H, K ⊂ G, HK = {hk : h ∈ H, k ∈ K}

1.7. Lemma : Let H, K < G, then
|H||K|
|HK| =
|H ∩ K|

1.8. Proposition : HK < G iff HK = KH

1.9. Corollary : If K C G, and H < G, then HK < G
1.10. Corollary : If G = G1 × G2 , then G = G
c1 G
c2
(End of Day 21)

2. Cauchy’s Theorem
2.1. Proposition : Let |G| = p2 , then
(
Zp2 : if G cyclic
G∼ =
Zp × Zp : otherwise

2.2. Lemma : Let G be a p−group acting on a finite set S, and let F = {x ∈ S : g · x =

x ∀g ∈ G} denote the set of fixed points in S. Then

|F | ≡ |S| (mod p)

19
2.3. (Cauchy’s Theorem): Let G be a finite group, and p a prime dividing |G|, then
there exists x ∈ G such that O(x) = p (and therefore, there exists a subgroup of G
of order p)
2.4. Corollary : If |G| = 6, then
(
Z6 : if G is abelian
G∼
=
S3 : otherwise

2.5. Corollary : If |G| = 15, then G ∼

= Z15

(End of Day 22)

3. Sylow’s Theorems
Notation: Let G be a finite group, p a prime. Let k ∈ N be the highest power of p
dividing |G|. ie.
|G| = pk m, p - m
3.1. (First Sylow Theorem) : Let G, p, k as above. There is P < G such that |P | = pk .
Such a subgroup is called a p−Sylow subgroup of G
3.2. Definition : Normalizer of a subgroup H < G, denoted by NG (H)
3.3. Lemma :
(i) NG (H) < G
(ii) H ⊂ NG (H) and H C NG (H)
3.4. (First Sylow Theorem) : Let G, p, k as before. Then, for each 1 ≤ i ≤ k, there is a
subgroup Hi < G such that |Hi | = pi
3.5. Corollary : Let H < G be a p−group, then there exists a p−Sylow subgroup P < G
such that H ⊂ P
3.6. (Second Sylow Theorem) : Let P1 , P2 be two p−Sylow subgroups of G, then there
exists g ∈ G such that P1 = gP2 g −1
(End of Day 23)
Review from last time :
(i) Lemma 2.2
(ii) Definition 3.2
(iii) Lemma 3.3
(iv) Theorem 3.4
(v) Corollary 3.5
(vi) Theorem 3.6
3.7. (Third Sylow Theorem) : Let G, p, k, m be as above. Let np denote the number of
p-Sylow subgroups in G, then

20
 (i) np ≡ 1 (mod p)
(ii) np | m
(End of Day 24)

4. Simple Groups of order ≤ 60

Recall : A group is called simple if its has no non-trivial normal subgroups.

4.1. Remark :
(i) Any group of of prime order is simple (by Lagrange’s theorem, it has no sub-
groups).
(ii) If G is abelian with |G| composite, then G is not simple (by Cauchy’s theorem,
and the fact that every subgroup is normal)
(iii) A5 is a simple group of order 60.
4.2. Lemma: If |G| = pn , where p is prime, and n > 1, then G is not simple.
4.3. Lemma: If G has a subgroup H such that |G| - [G : H]!, then G is not simple.
4.4. Lemma: Let G be a group of order pqr, where p < q < r are primes, then G is not
simple.
4.5. Theorem: If |G| < 60 and G is simple, then |G| is a prime. (HW)
4.6. Theorem: If G is any simple group of order 60, then G ∼= A5
(End of Day 25)

5. Finite Abelian Groups

5.1. Definition : G finite abelian, for each p | |G|, let G(p) denote the (unique) p-Sylow
subgroup of G.
5.2. Lemma : Let G be a finite abelian, then G is isomorphic to the direct product of
its Sylow subgroups.
5.3. Theorem : A finite abelian group is a direct product of cyclic groups. (without
proof)
5.4. Example :
(i) Abelian groups of order 54 are
(a) Z5 × Z5 × Z5 × Z5
(b) Z5 × Z5 × Z25
(c) Z5 × Z125
(d) Z25 × Z25
(e) Z625
(ii) Abelian groups of order 100 are

21
 (a) Z2 × Z2 × Z5 × Z5
(b) Z2 × Z2 × Z25
(c) Z4 × Z5 × Z5
(d) Z4 × Z25 ∼
= Z100
5.5. Definition : Elementary divisors. Note: Two finite abelian groups are isomorphic
iff they have the same elementary divisors (upto a change of order)
5.6. Corollary : The number of non-isomorphic abelian groups of order pn , where p is a
prime is equal to the π(n), the number of partitions of n. Example : p = 5, n = 4
5.7. Corollary : Let n = pk11 pk22 . . . pkmm , then the number of non-isomorphic groups of
order n is equal to π(k1 )π(k2 ) . . . π(km ). Example : n = 100

(End of Day 26)

V. Rings
1. Definition and Examples
Recall : A binary operation
1.1. Definition : A ring R (Note: May not have a multiplicative identity)
1.2. Examples :
(i) Z, Q, R, C are all rings. N is not a ring
(ii) 2Z is a ring without a multiplicative identity.
(iii) Zn
(iv) Mn (R) is a non-commutative ring. More generally, if R is a ring, then Mn (R)
is a ring.
(v) C[0, 1] is a commutative ring.
1.3. Definition :
(i) Commutative ring
(ii) Division ring
(iii) Field
1.4. Examples :
(i) Z is not a field, Q, R, C are all fields.
(ii) Zn is a field iff n is prime.
    
1 0 0 0 0 0
(iii) Mn (R) is not a division ring because =
0 0 0 1 0 0
(iv) H, the ring of real quaternions, is a non-commutative division ring.
(End of Day 27)

22
1.5. Theorem : If R is a ring, a, b ∈ R, then
(i) 0a = a0 = 0
(ii) (−a)b = a(−b) = −(ab)
(iii) (−a)(−b) = ab
(iv) (na)b = a(nb) = n(ab) for all n ∈ Z (HW)
(v) If R has a multiplicative identity, then it is unique.
1.6. Definition : Subring
1.7. Examples :
(i) 2Z ⊂ Z is a subring
(ii) Z ⊂ Q or Q ⊂ R or R ⊂ C are all subrings
(iii) If R = C[0, 1], and S = {f ∈ C[0, 1] : f is differentiable on (0, 1)}, then S is a
subring of R
(iv) Z[i] = {a + bi : a, b ∈ Z} ⊂ C is a subring. Z[i] is called the ring of Gaussian
integers.

2. Ring Homomorphisms
2.1. Definition :
(i) Ring homomorphism ϕ : R → R0
(ii) Isomorphism
2.2. Examples :
(i) The natural quotient map Z → Zn
(ii) z 7→ z from C → C
 
x 0
(iii) R → M2 (R) given by x 7→
0 0
(iv) f 7→ f (0) from C[0, 1] → C
(v) x 7→ 2x from Z → Z is a homomorphism of additive groups, but not a ring
homomorphism.
2.3. Lemma : If ϕ : R → R0 a ring homomorphism
(i) ϕ(0) = 00
(ii) ϕ(−a) = −ϕ(a)
Note: Even if R and R0 have multiplicative identities, it may not happen that
ϕ(1) = 10 . For instance, R → M2 (R) as above.
2.4. Definition :
(i) Kernel of a homomorphism
(ii) Image of a homomorphism.

23
 (Note: ker(ϕ) is a subring of R, and Im(ϕ) is a subring of R0 )
2.5. Proposition : ϕ : R → R0 is injective iff ker(ϕ) = {0}

3. Ideals and Quotient Rings

Note: If ϕ : R → R0 a ring homomorphism and a ∈ ker(ϕ). Then, for any r ∈ R, ar, ra ∈
ker(ϕ).
3.1. Definition : Ideal of a ring (Notation :I C R)
3.2. Examples :
(i) nZ C Z
(ii) Z is not an ideal of Q
(iii) R = C[0, 1], I = {f ∈ R : f (0) = 0} C R
(iv) If I C R, then Mn (I) C Mn (R)
3.3. Theorem : If I C R, then R/I is a ring
3.4. Proposition : If I C R, then π : R → R/I is a ring homomorphism, and ker(π) = I.
3.5. Examples :
(i) Z/nZ ∼
= Zn
(ii) If R = C[0, 1], I = {f ∈ R : f (0) = 0}, then R/I ∼
=C
(iii) If I C R, then Mn (R)/Mn (I) ∼ = Mn (R/I) (proof later)
(End of Day 28)
3.6. First Isomorphism Theorem : If ϕ : R → R0 is a homomorphism of rings, then
(i) ker(ϕ) C R
(ii) R/ ker(ϕ) ∼
= Imϕ
In particular, if ϕ is surjective, then
R/ ker(ϕ) ∼
= Im(ϕ)

3.7. Correspondence Theorem : If R is a ring and I C R, then there is a 1-1 correspon-

dence  0 
J C R/I ↔ J C R such that I ⊂ J

3.8. Examples :
(i) If R = C[0, 1], ϕ : R → C is f 7→ f (0), then ker(ϕ) = {f ∈ R : f (0) = 0 and
R/ ker(ϕ) ∼
=C

(ii) If R and ring and I C R, then the natural map ϕ : Mn (R) → Mn (R/I is a
ring homomorphism and ker(ϕ) = Mn (I). Hence,
Mn (R)/Mn (I) ∼
= Mn (R/I)

24
 (iii) If R = Z and I = nZ, then there is a 1-1 correspondence
 
ideals of Zn ↔ divisors of n

In particular, if n is prime, then Zn has no non-trivial ideals.

4. Integral Domains and Fields

Let R be a commutative ring
4.1. Definition :
(i) Zero divisor
(ii) Integral domain
4.2. Examples :
(i) Z is an integral domain.
(ii) Zn is an integral domain iff n is prime.
(iii) Any field is an integral domain (with proof)
4.3. Lemma: Any finite integral domain is a field.
(End of Day 29)
4.4. Lemma : If R is a field, then the only ideals of R are {0} and R itself.
4.5. Theorem : If R is a commutative ring with 1 ∈ R such that {0} and R are the only
ideals of R, then R is a field.
4.6. Definition : Maximal Ideal
4.7. Theorem : If R is a commutative ring, and M C R. Then M is a maximal ideal iff
R/M is a field
4.8. Examples :
(i) pZ C Z. In fact nZ C Z is a maximal ideal iff n is prime.
(ii) I = {f ∈ C[0, 1] : f (c) = 0} C C[0, 1]

5. Polynomial Rings
5.1. Definition : Let F be a field
(i) A polynomial f (x) over F
(ii) We say f (x) = g(x) iff n = m and ai = bi for all i
(iii) F [x]
5.2. Remark : We do not think of polynomials as functions. For instance x 6= x2 in
Z2 [x]
5.3. Definition : Let f (x), g(x) ∈ F [x]
(i) f (x) + g(x)

25
 (ii) f (x) · g(x)
5.4. Proposition: F [x] is a ring w.r.t. the operations defined above.
5.5. Definition : Degree of a polynomial deg(f (x)). Note : We do not define the degree
of 0, and deg(constant) = 0
5.6. Lemma : deg(f (x)g(x)) = deg(f (x)) + deg(g(x))
5.7. Corollary : deg(f (x)) ≤ deg(f (x)g(x)). Hence, F [x] is an integral domain.
5.8. Theorem (Division Algorithm) : If f (x), g(x) ∈ F [x] with g(x) 6= 0, then ∃t(x), r(x) ∈
F [x] such that

f (x) = t(x)g(x) + r(x), and r(x) = 0, or deg(r(x)) < deg(g(x))

(End of Day 30)

6. Euclidean Domains
6.1. Definition : Euclidean domain with function d : R \ {0} → N ∪ {0}
6.2. Examples :
(i) Z with d(a) = |a|
(ii) F [x] with d(f (x)) = deg(f (x))
(iii) Any field with d(a) = 1 for all a ∈ R \ {0}
(iv) Z[i] with d(z) = |z|2
6.3. Definition : Principal Ideal generated by a ∈ R, denoted by (a)
6.4. Theorem : If R is a Euclidean domain and I C R, then there exists a ∈ I such that
I = (a)
6.5. Example : (x) C F [x] is a maximal ideal.
6.6. Corollary : A Euclidean domain possesses a multiplicative identity.
6.7. Definition :
(i) a | b in a commutative ring.
Note :
(a) If a | b, b | c, then a | c
(b) If a | b, a | c, then a | (b ± c)
(c) If a | b, then a | bx for all x ∈ R
(ii) Greatest common divisor
6.8. Theorem : R Euclidean domain, and a, b ∈ R. Then d := gcd(a, b) exists, and
∃r, s ∈ R such that d = ra + sb
6.9. Definition : Let R be a commutative ring with 1 ∈ R
(i) Unit of R

26
 (ii) R∗
(iii) Associate elements. Note: ∼ is an equivalence relation.
6.10. Examples :
(i) Z∗ = {±1}
(ii) If F a field, then F ∗ = F \ {0}
(iii) Z∗n = {[a] ∈ Zn : (a, n) = 1} (See Section II.5)
(End of Day 31)
6.11. Lemma : Let R be an integral domain with 1 ∈ R.
(i) If c, d ∈ R are such that c | d and d | c, then c ∼ d
(ii) In particular, if a, b ∈ R, then any two gcd’s of a and b are associates.

7. Field of Fractions
7.1. Remark : (Constructing Q from Z)
7.2. Let R and R0 be two rings with 1 ∈ R, 10 ∈ R0 . An imbedding of rings is an injective
homomorphism ϕ : R → R0 such that ϕ(1) = 10 . If such a homomorphism exists,
we write R ,→ R0
7.3. Theorem : Every integral domain can be imbedded in a field.
7.4. Definition : Quot(R)
7.5. Examples :
(i) Quot(Z) = Q
(ii) Quot(F ) = F if F is a field
(iii) Quot(F [x]) = F (x) = the field of rational functions over F
7.6. Definition : Characteristic of a ring
7.7. Examples :
(i) char(Z) = 0
(ii) char(Zn ) = n
(iii) char(F [x]) = char(F )
(End of Day 32)

VI. Prime Factorization

Let R be an integral domain with 1 ∈ R

27
1. Euclidean Domains
(See [Herstein, §3.7])

Recall : (Definition 6.9)

(i) An element u ∈ R is called a unit if ∃v ∈ R such that uv = 1.
(ii) Denote by R∗ the group of units of R.
(iii) Two elements a, b ∈ R are called associates if ∃u ∈ R∗ such that a = ub (This
is an equivalence relation)
1.1. Definition : Let R be an integral domain with 1 ∈ R. An element π ∈ R is called
/ R∗ , and if π = ab, then either a ∈ R∗ of b ∈ R∗ .
an irreducible element if π 6= 0, π ∈
1.2. Lemma : Let R be a Euclidean domain, then the ideal I = (a) C R is maximal in
R iff a is an irreducible element of R.
1.3. Examples :
(i) n ∈ Z is irreducible iff |n| is a prime number.
(ii) p(x) = x2 + 1 ∈ R[x] is irreducible in R[x]. (with proof)
(iii) p(x) = x2 − 2 is irreducible in Q[x], but not in R[x]
/ R∗ , then
1.4. Lemma : Let R be a Euclidean domain, and a, b ∈ R such that 0 6= b ∈
(i) d(a) < d(ab)
(ii) If d(a) = d(1), then a ∈ R∗
1.5. Theorem : Let R be a Euclidean domain, then every element in R is either a unit
in R or can be written as a product of finitely many irreducible elements.
(End of Day 33)
1.6. Definition : Relatively prime
1.7. (Euclid’s Lemma) : Let R be a Euclidean domain.
(i) Suppose that a, b, c ∈ R such that a | bc and (a, c) = 1, then a | c
(ii) In particular, if π is an irreducible element and π | ab, then π | a or π | b
1.8. Unique Factorization Theorem : Let R be a Euclidean domain, and 0 6= a ∈ R be
a non-unit. Suppose that a = π1 π2 . . . πn = π10 π20 . . . πm
0
where πi , πj0 are irreducible
elements of R, then
(i) n = m
(ii) Each π is an associate of some πj0 and vice-versa.
Remark : By Theorems 1.5 and 1.8, we have shown that, in a Euclidean domain,
every element can be written uniquely (up to associates) as a product of irreducible
elements in the ring.

28
2. The Gaussian Integers
(See [Herstein, §3.8], and some notes of Keith Conrad online)

Recall : Z[i] = {a + bi : a, b ∈ Z} is a Euclidean domain with d(a + bi) = a2 + b2

2.1. Lemma : If α, β ∈ Z[i], then d(αβ) = d(α)d(β)
2.2. Theorem : Z[i]∗ = {±i, ±1}
2.3. Lemma :
(i) If α ∈ Z[i] is such that d(α) is prime in Z, then α is irreducible in Z[i]
(ii) If α is irreducible in Z[i], then ∃p ∈ Z prime such that α | p
2.4. Examples :
(i) 2 = (1 + i)(1 − i). By unique factorization, this is the only possible way to
decompose 2 ∈ Z[i]
(ii) 3 is irreducible in Z[i] (Proof later)
(iii) 5 = (1 + 2i)(1 − 2i)
2.5. Theorem : A prime p ∈ Z is composite in Z[i] iff ∃a, b ∈ Z such that p = a2 + b2
(End of Day 34)
2.6. Lemma : If p is a prime number in Z such that p ≡ 3 (mod 4), then p is prime in
Z[i]
2.7. (Wilson’s Theorem) : If p ∈ Z is a prime number, then (p − 1)! ≡ −1 (mod p)
2.8. Lemma : If p ∈ Z is a prime number such that p ≡ 1 (mod 4), then ∃x ∈ Z such
that x2 ≡ −1 (mod p)
2.9. (Fermat’s theorem) : If p ≡ 1 (mod 4), then ∃a, b ∈ Z such that p = a2 + b2
2.10. Theorem : The irreducible elements of Z[i] are unit multiplies of one of these :
(i) (1 + i)
(ii) α or α where d(α) = p ∈ Z where p is a prime ≡ 1 (mod 4)
(iii) p ∈ Z prime such that p ≡ 3 (mod 4)
2.11. Definition : p | n with multiplicity k iff pk | n and pk+1 - n. We say p divides n with
even multiplicity if k is even.
2.12. Theorem : Let 1 < n ∈ N, then n can be written as the sum of two squares (ie.
∃a, b ∈ Z such that n = a2 + b2 ) iff for any prime p | n, if p ≡ 3 (mod 4), then p
divides n with even multiplicity.

[Example : 15 = 3 × 5 cannot be written as the sum of squares, whereas 45 = 9 × 5 can]

(End of Day 35)

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3. Polynomial Rings
3.1. Remark : Let F be a field, then we know that F [x] is a Euclidean domain. Hence,
(i) If I C F [x], then there is a polynomial f (x) ∈ F [x] such that I = (f (x)).
(ii) f (x) ∈ F [x] is a unit iff deg(f (x)) = 0 (by HW 12.2), which happens iff f (x)
is a constant in F ∗
(iii) A polynomial p(x) ∈ F [x] is irreducible if, whenever p(x) = f (x)g(x), then
either f (x) ∈ F ∗ or g(x) ∈ F ∗
(iv) p(x) is irreducible iff (p(x)) C F [x] is a maximal ideal
(v) Every element f (x) ∈ F [x] can be expressed uniquely as a product of irre-
ducible polynomials.
3.2. Definition : Let F be a field, and α ∈ F .
(i) Define a map F [x] → F by

a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + . . . + an xn 7→ a0 + a1 α + a2 α2 + . . . + an αn

This is a homomorphism, called an evaluation map, and denoted by evα . We

write f (α) := evα (f )
(ii) An element α ∈ F is called a root of f (x) ∈ F [x] if f (α) = 0.
3.3. Lemma :
(i) ker(evα ) = (x − α). In other words, f (α) = 0 iff (x − α) | f (x)
(ii) F [x]/(x − α) ∼
=F
3.4. Corollary : If f (x) ∈ F [x] has degree n, then f (x) has atmost n roots (counting
multiplicity). (Note : This does not mean it has n roots. A polynomial may not
have any roots in F )
3.5. Examples :
(i) f (x) = xn − 1 ∈ C[x] has n distinct roots, αk = e2πik/n
(ii) f (x) = x2 + 1 ∈ R[x] does not have a root in R
(iii) Every polynomial f (x) ∈ C[x] has a root in C (This is called the fundamental
theorem of algebra)
3.6. Theorem : Let f (x) ∈ F [x] with deg(f (x)) = n. For any g(x) ∈ F [x], define

g(x) := π(g(x)) ∈ F [x]/(f (x))

Then, F [x]/(f (x)) is a vector space over F with basis vectors {1, x, x2 , . . . , xn−1 }.
In particular, it has dimension n
3.7. Example :
(i) R[x]/(x2 + 1) ∼
=C
(ii) There does not exist a polynomail f (x) ∈ Q[x] such that f (π) = 0. Hence,
there is no polynomial f (x) ∈ Q[x] such that Q[x]/(f (x)) ∼
=R

30
 (iii) If p(x) ∈ Zp [x] is an irreducible element, then Zp [x]/(p(x)) is a field with pn
elements. In fact, all finite fields arise like this.
(End of Day 36)

4. The Polynomial Ring Z[x]

4.1. Definition : Let R be a commutative ring with 1 ∈ R. Then,
(i) We may define R[x] in exactly the same way as we did in Definition V.5.1
(ii) We may define an irreducible polynomial p(x) ∈ R[x] in the same way as in
Definition VI.1.1
4.2. Lemma :
(i) If R is an integral domain, then for any f (x), g(x) ∈ R[x], deg(f (x)g(x)) =
deg(f (x)) + deg(g(x)).
(ii) R[x] is an integral domain iff R is an integral domain.
4.3. Example :
(i) x ∈ Z[x] is an irreducible polynomial
(ii) (x) C Z[x] is not a maximal ideal. Hence Z[x] is not a Euclidean domain.
4.4. Definition : Let f (x) = a0 + a1 x + . . . + an xn ∈ Z[x]
(i) The content of f is c(f ) = gcd(a0 , a1 , . . . , an )
(ii) f (x) is called primitive if c(f ) = 1
Note: Any f (x) ∈ Z[x] can be written in the form f (x) = af1 (x) where a = c(f )
and f1 (x) is primitive.
4.5. Theorem : Every non-zero polynomial f (x) ∈ Z[x] can be expressed as

f (x) = a1 a2 . . . as p1 (x)p2 (x) . . . pk (x)

where a1 , a2 , . . . , as ∈ Z are prime numbers, and p1 (x), p2 (x), . . . , pk (x) ∈ Z[x] are
primitive irreducible polynomials.
4.6. (Gauss’ Lemma) : If f (x), g(x) ∈ Z[x] are both primitive, then f (x)g(x) is primitive.
4.7. Corollary : Let f (x) ∈ Z[x] be a primitive irreducible polynomial. Then f (x) is
irreducible in Q[x]
(End of Day 37)
4.8. Lemma : If f (x) ∈ Q[x], then ∃k ∈ Q, k 6= 0 such that kf (x) ∈ Z[x] is primitive.
4.9. Corollary : Let f (x), g(x) ∈ Z[x] with f (x) primitive and f (x) | g(x) in Q[x]. Then
f (x) | g(x) in Z[x]
4.10. (Rational Root Theorem) : If f (x) = a0 + a1 x + . . . + an xn ∈ Z[x] has a root at
a/b ∈ Q, then a | a0 and b | an
4.11. Examples :

31
 (i) Factorize f (x) = x4 − 5x2 + 4 into irreducibles in Q[x]
(ii) If f (x) = a0 + a1 x + . . . + an−1 xn−1 + xn ∈ Z[x], then any rational root of f (x)
must be an integer.
4.12. (Unique Factorization Theorem) : Every non-zero polynomial f (x) ∈ Z[x] can be
written uniquely in the form
f (x) = a1 a2 . . . as p1 (x)p2 (x) . . . pk (x)
where a1 , a2 , . . . , as ∈ Z are prime numbers, and p1 (x), p2 (x), . . . , pk (x) ∈ Z[x] are
primitive irreducible polynomials.
4.13. Definition : Let R be an integral domain with 1 ∈ R. R is called a unique factor-
ization domain (UFD) if
(i) Every non-zero, non-unit of R can be written as a product of finitely many
irreducible elements of R
(ii) The decomposition in (i) is unique upto order, and multiplication by units.
4.14. Examples :
(i) Any Euclidean domain is a UFD (Theorem 1.5, 1.8)
(ii) Z[x] is a UFD (Theorem 4.5, 4.9) which is not a Euclidean domain (Ex. 4.3)
(iii) We can prove, using the above methods, that if R is a UFD, then R[x] is a
UFD (without proof)
(End of Day 38)
Review of Chapter I, II and III
(End of Day 39)
Review of Chapter IV, V
(End of Day 40)
Review of Chapter V, VI
(End of Day 41)

VII. Instructor Notes

0.1. I used [Artin] for most of Group theory, and [Herstein] for most of Ring theory.
The focus of the course was examples (Group theory centred around SO3 (R) and
the symmetries of platonic solids, Ring theory around Z[i] and polynomial rings,
specifically Z[x])
0.2. I did not cover the general Chinese Remainder theorem, prime ideals, or PIDs.
These will be covered in the following semester. As will the fundamental theorem
for finite abelian groups (I stated the theorem and used it, but did not prove it)
0.3. I did not prove that An was simple for n ≥ 6, but focussed on A5 (since the
proof is geometric, and more revealing). I did not stress too much on the cycle
decomposition in Sn .

32
Bibliography
[Artin] M. Artin, Algebra, 2nd Ed.

[Herstein] I.N. Herstein, Topics in Algebra, 2nd Ed.

[Gallian] J.A. Gallian, Contemporary Abstract Algebra, 7th Ed.

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