very large even with moderate values of n.

Hence, a system of switching the networks is needed in-between these subscribers.

Alexander Graham Bell recommended the Switching between the subscribers using a
switching office that maintains the telephone connections.

Switching Systems
This network connection cannot be simply made with telephone sets and bunch of wires, but a
good system is required to make or break a connection. This system is known as the Switching
System or the Switching Office or the Exchange. With the introduction of the switching
system, the subscribers instead of getting connected directly to one another, are connected to a
switching office and then to the required subscriber.
With theTheintroduction of switching
following figure will helpsystems, the need
you understand thefor traditional
switching connections between the
system
subscribers reduced. All the subscribers need to have a connection with the switching
In this chapter, we will understand how the switching systems work. A Switching system can
system, which makes or breaks any connection, requested by the calling subscriber. The
be understood as a collection of switching elements arranged and controlled in such a way as
switching system, which is also called the Telephone Exchange, takes care of establishing
to set up a common path between any two distant points. The introduction of switching
the calls. Hence, the total number of such links is equal to the number of subscribers connected
systems reduced the complexity of wiring and made the telephony hassle-free.
to the system.

The early systems

Classification required manual
of Switching Systemsoperations to establish telephone calls. An operator used
to receive a call from the calling subscriber and then connect the call to the called subscriber.
In the early stages of telecommunication systems, the process and stages of switching,
Later on, the system was automated.
played an important to make or break connections. At the initial stages, the switching
systems were operated manually. These systems were later automated. The following
Telephone Model
flowchart shows how the switching systems were classified.
The following figure will help you understand the model of telephones in the early stage of
its invention.

When you see the telephone in the above figure, the dialer part and the microphone are
connected to a stationary wooden plank; and the speaker to listen, was connected by a
The switching
wire systems
at the side. in the
The top earlyof
portion stages were operated
the telephone manually.
has two The connections
bells connected - thesewere
bellsmade
ring
by the operators at the telephone exchanges in order to establish a connection.
when there is an incoming call. This is one of the earlier models of the telephone. To minimize
the disadvantages of manual operation, automatic switching systems were introduced.
The telephone sets of the calling subscriber and the called subscriber are connected through a
The Automatic
switching systemswitching systems
or a telephone are classified
exchange as the
in order following:
to establish the calls requested.
Electromechanical
In the following sections, we Switching Systems
will learn about - Here,system
the switching mechanical switches are
in detail.
electrically operated.
Electronic Switching Systems – Here, the usage of electronic components such as
diodes, transistors and ICs are used for the switching purposes.
 SECX1034 TELECOMMUNICATION SWITCHING SYSTEMS
UNIT I EVALUATION OF PUBLIC SWITCHED TELECOMMUNICATION
NETWORKS
Switching system functions – stronger switching system – cross bar exchange – SPC exchange –
Message switching – circuits switching – Telephone handset – four wire concept – Hybrid circuit
– Echo suppressor and cancellorsFigure: – PCMManual coders Switching
– Modems and relays – Telecommunication
The switching systems in the early stages were operated manually. The connections were made
bystandard.
The switching
the operators systems
at the in the earlyexchanges
telephone stages wereinoperated
order tomanually.
establish aThe connections
connection. Towere made
minimize
by the
the operators at
disadvantages of the telephone
manual exchanges
operation, automatic in order to establish
switching systemsa were
connection. To minimize
introduced.
1.1disadvantages
the Switching System.of manual operation, automatic switching systems were introduced.
The
TheAutomatic switching
switching centers systems
receives theare classified
control as the
signals, following:
messages or conversations and forwards to the
The Automatic switching systems are classified as the following:
required destination, after necessary
Electromechanical Switchingmodification
Systems -(link Here, amplifications)
mechanical ifswitches
necessary.areA switching
Electromechanical
systemelectrically
is a collection Switching
of switching
operated. Systems
elements - Here,
arranged mechanical
and controlled switches
in such a wayare as to setup a
electrically
communication
Electronic operated.
path betweenSystems
Switching any two –distant
Here, points.
the usage of electronic components such as
A diodes,Electronic
switching centerSwitching
transistors ofand Systems
a telephone
ICs are – Here,
network
used for the usagepurposes.
thecomprising
switching of electronic network
a switching componentsand such as
its control and
diodes, transistors and ICs are used
support equipment is called a central office. for the switching purposes.
In computer communication, the switching technique used is known as packet switching or
1.Electromechanical
Electromechanical Switching Systems
Switching Systems
Electromechanical
message Switching
switch (store and Systems
forward switching).
The Electromechanical switching systems are aIncombination
telephone network the switching
of mechanical method used
and electrical
is called
The circuit switching.
Electromechanical Some practical
switching systems switching system areofstep-by-step,
are mechanical
a combination mechanical crosselectrical
barred relay
switching types. The electrical circuits and the relays are deployed andin them. The
system, digital switching
Electromechanical switching systems,
systems electronic
are further switching
classified system etc.following.
into the
Signalling Systems:
A signalling system in a data communication networks exchanges signalling information
Step-by-step
effectively between subscribers. The signalling systems are essential building blocks in
The Step-by-step switching system is also called the Strowger switching system after its
providing
inventor AB theStrowger.
ultimate The objective
controloffunctions
a worldwide automatic
in a Strowger telephone
system services by
are performed standardized.
circuits
Signalling provides the interface between
associated with the switching elements in the system. different national systems. The introduction of
signalling system was the big step in improving the PSTN.
Crossbar
The Crossbar switching systems have hard-wired control subsystems which use relays and
latches. These subsystems have limited capability and it is virtually impossible to modify
them to provide additional functionalities.
ElectronicSwitching Systems
Step-by-Step
1.2 Strowger(Strowger switching system)
switching systems-The Invention of Automatic Switching
The Electronic Switching systems are operated with the help of a processor or a computer
which control
Almon the switchingwas
B. Strowger timings. The instructions
an undertaker in KansasareCity,programmed
USA. The storyand stored on there
goes that a
processor or computer
was a competing that control
undertaker locallythe operations.
whose wife wasThis
an method
operatorofatstoring the(manual)
the local programstelephone
on a
processor or computer is called the Stored Program Control (SPC) technology.
exchange. Whenever a caller asked to be put through to Strowger, calls were deliberately put New facilities
can be added to a SPC system by changing the control program.
through to his competitor. This obviously frustrated Strowger greatly and he set about devising a
system
The for doing
switching away used
scheme with the human
by the part of switching
electronic the equation.Strowger
systems may developed
be eithera system
Space of
Division
automaticSwitching
switchingorusing
Time an Division Switching. In
electromechanicalcal spacebased
switch division
aroundswitching,
around aelectromagnets
dedicated
path
and ispawls.
established
In this between
selector, the calling wiper
a moving and the called
(with subscribers
contacts on thefor
end)themoved
entire up
duration
to and of the a
around
call.
bankInoftime
manydivision switching,
other contacts, sampled
making values of
a connection speech
with signals
any one are transferred at fixed
of them.
intervals.
Selector
The time Theory
division switching may be analog or digital. In analog switching, the sampled
voltage levels are transmitted as they are. However, in binary switching, they are binary
coded and transmitted. If the coded values are transferred during the same time interval from
input to output, the technique is called Space Switching. If the values are stored and
The step-by-step switch is conveniently based on a stepping relay of 10 levels. In its simplest form,
which uses direct progressive control, dial pulses from a subscriber's telephone activate the switch. For
example, if a subscriber dials a 3, three pulses from the subscriber subset are transmitted to the switch.
The switch then steps to level 3 in the first relay bank. The second relay bank is now connected waiting
for the second dialed digit. It accepts the second digit from the subscriber and steps to its equivalent
position and connects to the third relay bank and so on for four or seven dialed digits. Assume that a
certain exchange only serves four-digit numbers. A dialed number happens to be 4388 and will be
stepped through four sets of banks of 10 steps each. This is conceptually illustrated in Figure below.

Figure: Strowger Step-by-Step Switching

The general arrangement of the Group and Final Selectors, in a typical 4-digit Strowger Exchange, is
shown in Figure.

1. When the Calling Customer lifts the Telephone Handset from the Cradle, the Hook (Spring-
operated) Switch in the Telephone closes and an Electrical Circuit is formed between the
Telephone and Telephone Exchange. The Exchange receives the Signal that a Customer is
ready for a Dial. The set of Wipers of the Uniselector Rotate to seize a Free First Group Selector.
2. After a First Group Selector has been founded, it connects the Calling Customer to the "Dial
Tone" and then waits for Dialing. During Dialing, the set of Wipers of the First Group Selector
step Vertically according to the First Dialed Digit, and Rotates to seize a Free Second Group
Selector.
3. After a Second Group Selector has been founded, its set of Wipers step Vertically according to
the Second Dialed Digit and Rotates to seize a Free Final Selector.
4. The set of Wipers of the Final Selector step Vertically according to the Third Dialed Digit and
Rotates according to the Fourth Dialed Digit, Figure 3, and the connection is established.

From the above explanations one can conclude that each Group Selector "absorb" only one Dialed
Digit while the Final Selector "absorb" the last two.

Limitations of the Strowger Switch:

In spite of its attraction, the Strowger switch is characterized by some main disadvantages:

a) Since all the switches except the first one are shared among several incoming lines, the
possibility exists that a call is blocked part of the way through the dialing sequence even if the
called line were not engaged
b) Tone dialing telephones (DTMF) cannot be used directly, except if the central office has a
conversion device connected.
c) This method requires large maintenance by skilled workers because of the number of relays
employed. In addition, large amounts of electrical and mechanical noise are generated.
d) The fact that the switching is hardwired makes it difficult to implement changes in the switching
arrangement

Cross Bar Switching (Common Control)

In the late 1930‘s and throughout 1940‘s, AT & T introduced various versions of the crossbar switches.
This crossbar switch basically consists line link frames trunk, link frames and common control
equipments. With crossbar switchies and common control equipments, the crossbar exchange achieves
full access and nonblocking capabilities. Active elements called crosspoints are placed between input
and output lines. In common control switching systems, the switching and the control operations are
separated. This permits a particular group of common control circuits to route connections through the
switching network for many calls at the same time on a shared basis. Crossbar switches are easier to
maintain because the switch have significantly fewer moving parts than strowger switching system.

Basic principle: The fundamental concept of crossbar switching is that it uses common control
networks. The common control networks enables the exchange to perform event monitoring, call
processing, charging, operation and maintenance. The common control also facilitates uniform
numbering of subscribers in a multiexchange area like big cities and routing of calls from one exchange
to another via some intermediate exchanges. The common control method of switching overcomes the
 specific switch based on customer mix in a specific location.
(iv) Crossbar switches are easier to maintain because the switch have significantly fewer moving
parts than strowger switching system.
Basic principle. The fundamental concept of crossbar switching is that it uses common control
networks. The common control networks enables the exchange to perform event monitoring, call
processing, charging, operation and maintenance. The common control also facilitates uniform
numbering of subscribers in a multiexchange area like big cities and routing of calls from one
disadvantages of step-by-step
exchange to switching.
another via some The common
intermediate controlThe
exchanges. makes
common nocontrol
call processing until it receives
method of switching
entire number. It receives all the
overcomes number, stores,
the disadvantages and then
of step-by-step establishes
switching. connection.
The common control makes no call
Fig. illustrates the 3 ×processing
4 crossbar until switching.
it receives entireIt number.
containsIt receives
an arrayall the
ofnumber, stores, and
horizontal andthen establishes
vertical wires (shown
connection.
as a solid line). BothCrossbar
wires are connected to initially separated contact points of switches. Horizontal
switching matrix. The basic crossbar matrix requires atleast M × N sets of contacts
and vertical bars (shown as dotted lines) to
and M + N or less activactors areselect
mechanically connected
one of the contacts. to these
Fig. illustrates the 3 × contact
4 crossbar points and
attached to the electromagnets. Whenanboth
switching. It contains horizontal
array of and
horizontal and vertical
vertical bars connected
wires (shown toBoth
as a solid line). thewires
electromagnet
are activated, the contact of thetointersection
are connected of contact
initially separated the two bars
points will close
of switches. together.
Horizontal Thus bars
and vertical the contact is
made and continues to hold. When the electromagnets are deenergized both horizontal bartheand vertical
(shown as dotted lines) are mechanically connected to these contact points and attached to
electromagnets.
bars are released from the contact.

When the electromagnets are deenergized both horizontal bar and vertical bars are
released from the contact.Figure:
In order to3x4
Fig4. Crossbar
3 ×the
prevent 4 crossbarswitch
catching switch.
of different crosspoint in the same
When
circuit, both horizontal
a procedure and vertical
is followed barsa connected
to establish connection.to the electromagnet are activated, the contact
of the intersectionhorizontal
Accordingly, of the twobarbars will closefirst
is energised together. Thus
and then the contact
vertical is made and
bar is energised continues to
to make
Accordingly, horizontal
contactbar
hold. or inisreverse.
energized first
But while and then
removing vertical
contact horizontalbar
barisis energized to make
deenergized first and thencontact
the or in reverse.
But while removingvertical
contact horizontal bar is deenergized first and then the
bar is deenergized. The crossbar switch is known as a non-blocking crossbar vertical bar is deenergized. The
2
crossbar switch is known as a non-blocking crossbar configuration. It requires N switching elements for
configuration. It requires N2 switching elements for N subscribers. Thus for 100 subscribers,
N subscribers. Thus 10000
forcrosspoint switches are required.
100 subscribers, 10000Hence, crossbar isswitches
crosspoint economic onlyare for small private
required. Hence, crossbar is
exchanges requiring small switches.
economic only for small For private exchanges requiring small switches.
connecting and releasing the subscriber, the select magnet and bridge magnet should
be energised and deenergised respectively. External switch must decide which magnet to operate.
There were severalThisconfigurations
is called marker. Aand improvements
marker of theand
can control many swtiches crossbar
serve many switching systems
registers. Thus, even after the first
a large exchange needs few markers. In Ericsson ARF system, groups
e.g. the Ericsson ARF system or diagonal crosspoint matrix with the number of crosspoints reduced to N of 1000 subscribers are
served by a line switch network controlled by the two markers. Diagonal crosspoint matrix. The
(N–1)/2, where N isnumber
the number of subscribers.
of crosspoints are reduced to N (N–1)/2, where N is the number of subscribers. It is also
called triangular matrix or two way matrix.

Figure:Fig5.
Diagonal
DiagonalCrosspoint Matrix
crosspoint matrix
Blocking Configurations. By blocking configuration the crosspoint switches required can be
reduced significantly.For the rectangular matrices with N inputs and N outputs, the number of
2. STORED PROGRAM CONTROL
switches is now 2N2 compared to N2 –forSPC
the single stage. Here, the random failure of a limited
Early Manual Switching andwill
number of switches Electromechanical
not preclude connections.Switching systems are used to provide
communication between large scale users with limited network access because it includes tedious
jobs like Call Connecting, Call Processing, Call Waiting, Billing and many services.
In order to avoid this manual operations are automated with the help of “Automatic Electronic
Switching System” commonly called Stored Program Control (SPC). All the Exchange Functions
like Call Processing, Call Waiting, Billing etc are developed with computer programs and are
 stored in a memory, and a processor is provided to control all the exchange functions with help of
Processors and Memory System hence the system is called “Stored Program Control”

There are two types of SPCs −

• Centralized SPC
• Distributed SPC

Centralized SPC
The previous version of Centralized SPC used a single main processor to perform the
exchange functions. The dual processor replaced the single main processor at a later stage
of advancement. This made the process more reliable. The following figure shows the
organization of a typical Centralized SPC.

A dual processor architecture may be configured to operate in three modes like −

• Standby Mode
• Synchronous Duplex Mode
• Load Sharing Mode

Standby Mode
As the name implies, in the two processors present, one processor is active and the other is
in the standby mode. The processor in the standby mode is used as a backup, in case the
active one fails. This mode of exchange uses a secondary storage common to both the
processors. The active processor copies the status of the system periodically and stores in
the axis secondary storage, but the processors are not directly connected. The programs
 o Load Sharing Mode
The Major Advantages of the SPC

and instructions related to the control functions, routine programs and other required
Standby
information are storedMode:
in the Secondary storage.

Exchange Environment

P1 P2

Secondary Memory

Synchronous Duplexenvironment
o Exchange Mode contains all functions of exchange like
o Calling
In the Synchronous Duplex mode, two processors are connected and operated in
o Call connecting
synchronism. Two processors P1 and P2 are connected and separate memories like M1 and
M2 are used. These oprocessors
Call processing
are coupled to exchange the stored data. A Comparator is
used in between these o two
Call processors.
disconnectingThe Comparator helps in comparing the results.
o Call forwarding
During the normal operation, both of the processors function individually receiving all the
information from theoexchange and also related data from their memories. However, only
Call diverting
one processor controls o Callthebearing
exchange; the other one remains in synchronism with the
previous one. The comparator,
o Messaging which compares the results of both the processors, identifies
if any fault occurs and then the faulty processor among them is identified by operating them
o Ring tone generation
individually. The faulty processor is brought into service only after the rectification of fault
and the other processoro Busy tonemeanwhile.
serves generation
o Trunk call forwarding
o Bill charging
o Bill generation.....etc....
o All these exchange functions are available as a full scale programs developed and
kept in memory
o As it is found from the diagram that, exchange is a dual processor system, where
two processors ‘P1’ and ‘P2’ are available in exchange
o Both processors are shared by single memory

www.jagadeeshnaren.weebly.com Page 8
 Processor -2 is again kept in standby mode, because of this operation, this mode
is called “standby mode”

Synchronous Duplex Mode:

Exchange Environment

P1 C P2

Memory 1 Memory 2

Load Sharingo Mode

In synchronous duplex mode, two processors Processor P1 is active,
Load sharing modeProcessor
is whereP2a task is shared between two processors. The Exclusion Device
is standby
(ED) is used instead of the comparator in this mode. The processors call for ED to share the
o Both processors are coupled with a Comparator “C”
resources, so that both the processors do not seek the same resource at the same time.
o Any
In this mode, both thetask assigned by
processors arethe exchange, is simultaneously
simultaneously active. Theseprocessed by P1share
processors and P2the
resources of theo exchange and
The results load.
of the P1In
andcase onecompared
P2 are of the processor fails, “C”
in Comparator the other one takes
over the entire load of the exchange with the help of ED. Under normal operation, each
o Ifone-half
processor handles both results are calls
of the same onit will take next task
a statistical to be
basis. processed
The exchange operator can
however vary the processor load for maintenance purpose.
o In this case, Processor P2 will process a task from exchange but it will not
control the exchange, always Processor P1 only will control the exchange

www.jagadeeshnaren.weebly.com Page 9
 Load Sharing Mode:

Exchange Environment

P1 P2

ED

Memory 1 Memory 2

o In case of standby mode and synchronous duplex mode, the exchange

System Availability:
controlled or load is taken by only one processor, the other processor is
acting as standby and it will control the exchange only when the active
processor is under repair
o In case of load sharing mode, both the processors will take control of the
exchange

www.jagadeeshnaren.weebly.com Page 10
 “Exclusion Device (ED)” used
o In this mode both the processors are synchronised and memories are also got
synchronised
7. System Availability
Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF): the time taken between two successive
failures of a system
Mean Time To Repair (MTTR): The time taken to repair the system when a system is
got repaired
Generally an exchange is maintained with a single processor or dual processor under
these conditions, we need to know about the system availability for both the cases
So, the following are used for single processor system and dual processor system
For a Single Processor system:
o MTBFs: Mean Time Between Failure of single Processor System
o MTTRs : Mean Time To Repair of Single Processor System
o As : System Availability of Single Processor System
o Us : System Unavailability of Single Processor System

We know that, MTBFs >> MTTRs

www.jagadeeshnaren.weebly.com Page 11
 DSTN Module - 1 Part - 1

Therefore for a single processor system:

For a Dual Processor System

o MTBFD : Mean Time Between Failure of a Dual Processor System
o MTTRD : Mean Time To Repair of a Dual Processor System
o AD : System Availability of a Dual Processor System
o UD : System Unavailability of Dual Processor System
The relation between MTBF of dual Processor and Single Processor System:

By using the above relations

{ }

We Know that MTBFs >> MTTRs

Therefore for a Dual Processor System:

Exercise: Given that MTBF = 2000 hrs, and MTTR = 4 hrs, calculate the unavailability for
single and dual processor systems for 10 years and 30 years.

www.jagadeeshnaren.weebly.com Page 12
Distributed SPC
Unlike Electromechanical switches and Centralized SPC, the introduction of Distributed SPC
has enabled to provide a wide range of services. This SPC has separate small processors
called the Regional Processors that deal with different works, rather than just one or two
processors working on the whole thing like in the centralized system. However, when these
regional processors are required to perform complex tasks, the centralized SPC helps by
directing them.
The Distributed SPC has more availability and reliability than Centralized SPC, because
entire exchange control functions may be decomposed either horizontally or vertically for
distributed processing. Such distributed control where switching equipment is divided into
parts, each of which have its own processor, is indicated in the figure below.

The exchange environment in vertical decomposition is divided into several blocks and each
block is assigned to a processor that performs all the control functions that are related to
specific block of equipment, whereas each processor in horizontal decomposition performs
one or some of the exchange control functions