1. What do you mean by ‘Sample Design’?

What points should be taken into consideration by a

ANSWER: A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to
the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample.

STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN

While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the following points:

(vi) Type of universe: The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define the set of
objects, technically called the Universe, to be studied. The universe can be finite or infinite.
In finite universe the number of items is certain, but in case of an infinite universe the
number of items is infinite, i.e., we cannot have any idea about the total number of items.
The population of a city, the number of workers in a factory and the like are examples of
finite universes, whereas the number of stars in the sky, listeners of a specific radio program,
throwing of a dice etc. are examples of infinite universes.

(vii) Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting
sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district, village, etc., or a
construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit such as family, club,
school, etc., or it may be an individual. The researcher will have to decide one or more of
such units that he has to select for his study.

(viii)Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be drawn. It contains
the names of all items of a universe (in case of finite universe only). If source list is not
available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list should be comprehensive, correct, reliable
and appropriate. It is extremely important for the source list to be as representative of the
population as possible.

(ix) Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to
constitute a sample. This a major problem before a researcher. The size of sample should
neither be excessively large, nor too small. It should be optimum. An optimum sample is one
which fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility.
While deciding the size of sample, researcher must determine the desired precision as also
an acceptable confidence level for the estimate. The size of population variance needs to be
considered as in case of larger variance usually a bigger sample is needed. The size of
population must be kept in view for this also limits the sample size. The parameters of
interest in a research study must be kept in view, while deciding the size of the sample. Costs
too dictate the size of sample that we can draw. As such, budgetary constraint must
invariably be taken into consideration when we decide the sample size.

(x) Parameters of interest: In determining the sample design, one must consider the question of
the specific population parameters which are of interest. For instance, we may be interested
in estimating the proportion of persons with some characteristic in the population, or we
may be interested in knowing some average or the other measure concerning the here may
also be important sub-groups in the population about whom we would like to make
estimates. All this has a strong impact upon the sample design we would accept.
 (xi) Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a major impact
upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to the type of sample. This
fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.

(xii) Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he will use i.e.,
he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample. In fact,
this technique or procedure stands for the sample design itself. There are several sample
designs (explained in the pages that follow) out of which the researcher must choose one for
his study. Obviously, he must select that design which, for a given sample size and for a given
cost, has a smaller sampling error.

3. Why probability sampling is generally preferred in comparison to non-probability sampling? Explain

Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance sampling’. Under this sampling
design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample. It is, so to say, a
lottery method in which individual units are picked up from the whole group not deliberately but by
some mechanical process. Here it is blind chance alone that determines whether one item or the other
is selected. The results obtained from probability or random sampling can be assured in terms of
probability i.e., we can measure the errors of estimation or the significance of results obtained from a
random sample, and this fact brings out the superiority of random sampling design over the deliberate
sampling design. Random sampling ensures the law of Statistical Regularity which states that if on an
average the sample chosen is a random one, the sample will have the same composition and
characteristics as the universe. This is the reason why random sampling is considered as the best
technique of selecting a representative sample.

This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or probability sampling where each and every
item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible
samples, in case of finite universe, has the same probability of being selected. For example, if we have to
select a sample of 300 items from a universe of 15,000 items, then we can put the names or numbers of
all the 15,000 items on slips of paper and conduct a lottery. Using the random number tables is another
method of random sampling. To select the sample, each item is assigned a number from 1 to 15,000.
Then, 300 five-digit random numbers are selected from the table. To do this we select some random
starting point and then a systematic pattern is used in proceeding through the table. We might start in
the 4th row, second column and proceed down the column to the bottom of the table and then move to
the top of the next column to the right. When a number exceeds the limit of the numbers in the frame,
in our case over 15,000, it is simply passed over and the next number selected that does fall within the
relevant range. Since the numbers were placed in the table in a completely random fashion, the
resulting sample is random. This procedure gives each item an equal probability of being selected. In
case of infinite population, the selection of each item in a random sample is controlled by the same
probability and that successive selections are independent of one another.
5. Distinguish between:

(a) Restricted and unrestricted sampling:

On element selection basis, the sample may be either unrestricted or restricted. When each sample
element is drawn individually from the population at large, then the sample so drawn is known as
‘unrestricted sample’, whereas all other forms of sampling are covered under the term ‘restricted
sampling’.

CHART SHOWING BASIC SAMPLING DESIGNS

Representation basis
Element selection
technique
Probability sampling Non-probability sampling
Unrestricted sampling

Simple random sampling Haphazard sampling or

Restricted sampling Complex random Purposive sampling (such as

(b) Convenience and purposive sampling:

Purposive and convenience sampling are both a form of sampling typically applied for qualitative data
collection. Convenience sampling does not distinguish characteristics among the participants; whereas,
purposive sampling focuses on the selection of participants possessing characteristics associated with
the research study.

For example, data collection taken at a public area for anyone passing by would be a convenience
sample, e.g., anyone willing to answer questions; whereas, purposive (also purposeful) sampling only
seeks those meeting pre-defined characteristics, such as those who have recovered from the COVID-19
virus. A sampling technique that shares features of both convenience and purposive sampling is known
as snowball sampling; whereby, one participant recommends other possible participants who may
qualify for the study.

(c) Systematic and stratified sampling;

A simple random sample is used to represent the entire data population and randomly selects
individuals from the population without any other consideration. A stratified random sample, on the
other hand, first divides the population into smaller groups, or strata, based on shared characteristics.
Therefore, a stratified sampling strategy will ensure that members from each subgroup are included in
the data analysis.

(d) Cluster and area sampling.

Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and then selecting the groups or the clusters rather
than individual elements for inclusion in the sample.

Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about when the total geographical
area of interest happens to be big one. Under area sampling we first divide the total area into a number
of smaller non-overlapping areas, generally called geographical clusters, then a number of these smaller
areas are randomly selected, and all units in these small areas are included in the sample.

7. Explain and illustrate the procedure of selecting a random sample.

With regard to the question of how to take a random sample in actual practice we can write the name of
each element of a finite population on a slip of paper, put the slips of paper so prepared into a box or a
bag and mix them thoroughly and then draw (without looking) the required number of slips for the
sample one after the other without replacement. In doing so we must make sure that in successive
drawings each of the remaining elements of the population has the same chance of being selected. This
procedure will also result in the same probability for each possible sample. We can verify this by taking
the above example. Since we have a finite population of 6 elements and we want to select a sample of
size 3, the probability of drawing any one element for our sample in the first draw is 3/6, the probability
of drawing one more element in the second draw is 2/5, (the first element drawn is not replaced) and
similarly the probability of drawing one more element in the third draw is 1/4. Since these draws are
independent, the joint probability of the three elements which constitute our sample is the product of
their individual probabilities and this works out to 3/6 × 2/5 × 1/4 = 1/20. This verifies our earlier
calculation.

9. “A systematic bias results from errors in the sampling procedures”. What do you mean by such a

systematic bias? Describe the important causes responsible for such a bias.

A systematic bias is sampling error that results from the way in which the research is conducted. It stems
from errors in the sampling procedures, and it cannot be reduced or eliminated by increasing the
sample size. At best the causes responsible for these errors can be detected and corrected. Usually, a
systematic bias is the result of one or more of the following factors:

Causes of Systematic Bias

Inappropriate sampling frame:

If the sampling frame is inappropriate i.e., a biased representation of the universe, it will result in a
systematic bias.
Defective measuring device:

In survey work, systematic bias can result if the questionnaire or the interviewer is biased. Similarly, if
the physical measuring device is defective there will be systematic bias in the data collected through
such a measuring device.

Non-respondents:

If we are unable to sample all the individuals initially included in the sample, there may arise a
systematic bias. The reason is that in such a situation the likelihood of establishing contact or receiving a
response from an individual is often correlated with the measure of what is to be estimated.

Indeterminacy principle:

Sometimes we find that individuals act differently when kept under observation than what they do
when kept in non-observed situations. For instance, if workers are aware that somebody is observing
them in course of a work study on the basis of which the average length of time to complete a task will
be determined and accordingly the quota will be set for piece work, they generally tend to work slowly
in comparison to the speed with which they work if kept unobserved. Thus, the indeterminacy principle
may also be a cause of a systematic bias.

Natural bias in the reporting of data:

There is usually a downward bias in the income data collected by government taxation department,
whereas we find an upward bias in the income data collected by some social organization.

People in general understate their incomes if asked about it for tax purposes, but they overstate the
same if asked for social status or their affluence. Generally in psychological surveys, people tend to give
what they think is the “correct” answer rather than revealing their true feelings.