Islamic University

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ME 334
Manufacturing Technology

Chapter 3, Forming
Technology
Bulk deformation process

Dr. Abdulrahman Aljabri

❑I recommend you to read the textbook:

▪ Chapter 19 : BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES IN

METAL WORKING
 Forming
Any process that changes the shape of a raw stock
without changing its phase (i.e. without melting it).
 Forming Processes

➢Bulk deformation
• Rolling of metals
• Extrusion of metals
• Forging of metals
• Drawing of metals
 Why Metal Forming is required?

• Economical and time saving process to obtain desired

shape from the given material.
• To improve mechanical properties.
• To minimize defects such as holes, cracks etc
• To distribute impurities equally in metal.
 Chapter 3

Rolling of metals
• Introduction/objectives
Subjects of interest • Rolling mills
• Classification of rolling processes
• Hot rolling
• Cold rolling
• Forces and geometry relationships in rolling
• Simplified analysis of rolling load: Rolling
variables
• Problems and defects in rolled products
• Rolling-mill control
• Theories of cold rolling
• Theories of hot rolling
• Torque and power
Objectives
•This chapter provides information on different types of metal
rolling processes which can also be divided in to hot and cold
rolling process.

•Mathematical approaches are introduced for the

understanding of load calculation in rolling processes.

•Finally identification of defects occurring during and its

solutions are included.
 Introduction- Definition of rolling process

•Definition of Rolling : The

process of plastically deforming
metal by passing it between
rolls.
•Rolling is the most widely used
forming process, which provides high
production and close control of final
product.

•The metal is subjected to high

compressive stresses as a result of
the friction between the rolls and the
Rolling process metal surface.

Note: rolling processes can be mainly divided into 1)

hot rolling and 2) cold rolling.
Function of the Rolls

The rotating rolls perform two main functions:

• Pull the work into the gap between them by

friction between work-part and rolls

• Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce

cross section
 Types of Rolling
➢Based on work piece geometry :
➢Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a rectangular
cross section
➢Shape rolling - square cross section is formed into a
shape such as an I-beam

➢Based on work temperature :

➢Hot Rolling – most common due to the large amount of
deformation required
➢Cold rolling – produces finished sheet and plate stock
10
 Recrystallization Temperature

▪Formation of new strain-free grains is called

recrystallization
▪Recrystallization temperature of a given metal = about
one-half its melting point (0.5 Tm) as measured on an
absolute temperature scale
▪Recrystallization takes time - the recrystallization
temperature is specified as the temperature at which
new grains are formed in about one hour
 Temperature in Metal Forming

Increasing temperature

Melting temperature

Room temperature 0.3 Tm 0.5 Tm Tm Above Tm

Recrystallization
Warm Working
Cold working

Hot working

Casting
 Introduction- Hot and cold rolling processes
www.vatech.at

Hot rolling

•The initial breakdown of ingots into

blooms and billets is generally done
by hot-rolling. This is followed by
further hot- rolling into plate, sheet,
rod, bar, pipe, rail.
Cold rolling

•The cold-rolling of metals has played a

major role in industry by providing sheet,
strip, foil with good surface finishes and
increased mechanical strength with
close control of product dimensions.
 Bloom Billet Slap
Terminology

• Bloom is the product of first breakdown of ingot

(cross sectional area > 230 cm2).
Semi-
finished • Billet is the product obtained from a further reduction by hot rolling
products (cross sectional area > 40x40 mm2).

• Slab is the hot rolled ingot (cross sectional area > 100 cm2 and with a
Further width  2 x thickness).
rolling
steps Plate Sheet Strip
• Plate is the product with a thickness > 6 mm.

Mill • Sheet is the product with a thickness < 6 mm and width > 600 mm.
products
• Strip is the product with a thickness < 6 mm and width < 600 mm.
 Dimensional quality parameters for rolled metal strip
In a typical rolling process illustrated in Figures, the
applied forces required to achieve strip thickness
reductions, cause elastic deflection of the mill
housing, rolls deformation consists both the roll
deflection and flattening

Also, the elastic-plastic

deformation of the rolled
strip. As a result of these
rolling component
deflections, there are two
dimensional quality
measures of the rolled strip
occur, (1) thickness profile
and (2) flatness
 Dimensional quality parameters for rolled metal strip

❖ One of solution
Metal rolling researchers have
developed various types of
shape control systems for strip
rolling and put it in practical
use, in order to produce a
preferred strip profile and
flatness.
IMR
Shifting
 Rolling mills
Rolling mill is a machine or a factory for shaping
metal by passing it through rollers
A rolling mill basically consists of
• rolls
• bearings
• a housing for containing these parts
• a drive (motor) for applying power to the rolls and controlling the speed

•Requires very rigid

construction, large motors
Modern rolling mill to supply enough
power (MN).
Successive stands of a
large continuous mill
• skills
• engineering design
• construction + Huge capital investment
Typical arrangement of rollers for rolling mills
Two-high mill, pullover
Four-high mill
The stock is Small-diameter rolls
returned to the (less strength &
entrance for
rigidity) are
further reduction.
supported by
larger-diameter
Two-high mill, reversing backup rolls
The work can be
passed back and forth
through the rolls by
reversing their
direction of rotation. Cluster mill or
Sendzimir mill
Three-high mill Each of the work rolls is
supported by two
Consist of upper and
backing rolls.
lower driven rolls and
a middle roll, which
rotates by friction.
 Typical arrangement of rollers for rolling mills
Continuous rolling
b f •Use a series of rolling mill and
each set is called a stand.

•The strip will be moving at

different velocities at each
stage in the mill.

A four stand continuous mill or tandem mil.

•The speed of each set of rolls is synchronised so that the input speed of
each stand is equal to the output speed of preceding stand.

•The uncoiler and windup reel not only feed the stock into the rolls and coiling up
the final product but also provide back tension and front tension to the strip.
The direction of rotation of rolls cannot be changed,
therefore the work must be fed into rolls from one
direction only. If rolling requires more than one ‘pass’ in
the same set of rolls, the material will have to be brought
back to the same side after the first pass.
It consists of three rolls positioned directly over one another
as shown in the figure . The direction of rotation of the first
and second rolls are opposite as in the case of two high
mills. The direction of rotation (path) of second and third
rolls is always opposite to each other.
The mill has four horizontal rolls, two
smaller diameters and two much larger.
The larger rolls are called backup rolls.

Backup rolls hold the working rolls and restrict

deflection when the material is being rolled. The usual
products of these mills are hot and cold plates and
sheets.
It consists of two small diameter working
rolls and four or more backing rolls. The
larger number of backup rolls provided
becomes necessary as the backup rolls
cannot exceed the diameter of working
rolls by more than 2-3 times.
In the planetary mill type of rolling machine, a large backup
roller is surrounded by a number of planetary working rollers
as shown in the figure.
Each planetary roll gives a continuous reduction. It is
employed to reduce large thicknesses in a single pass of a
steel strip. Its rolling capacity is higher than cluster machine
but less than a tandem rolling machine.
Typical arrangement of rollers for rolling mills
Planetary mill
• Consist of a pair of heavy backing rolls
surrounded by a large number of planetary rolls.

•Each planetary roll gives an almost constant

reduction to the slab as it sweeps out a circular
path between the backing rolls and the slab.
•As each pair of planetary rolls ceases to have
contact with the work piece, another pair of rolls
makes contact and repeat that reduction.

•The overall reduction is the summation of a

series of small reductions by each pair of rolls.
Therefore, the planetary mill can hot reduces a
slab directly to strip in one pass through the mill.

•The operation requires feed rolls to introduce the

slab into the mill, and a pair of planishing rolls on
the exit to improve the surface finish.
In this tandem mill types of rolling mill, It includes of a number of non-
reversing two-high rolling mills provide one after other. So that the material
can be passed through them all in order.

This is only suitable for mass production work, as lower volumes require a
quicker change of set up and they will consume a lot of labour and work.
The sheet is
cooled
before it
coiled into
a coil
 Different types of rolling processes

There are different types of rolling processes as listed below;

• Continuous rolling
• Transverse rolling
• Shaped rolling or section rolling
• Ring rolling
• Powder rolling
• Continuous casting and hot rolling
• Thread rolling
 Conventional hot or cold-rolling
The objective is to decrease the thickness of the metal with an
increase in length and with little increase in width.
•The material in the centre of the sheet is
constrained in the z direction (across the
width of the sheet) and the constraints of
undeformed shoulders of material on
each side of the rolls prevent extension of
the sheet in the width direction.
•This condition is known as plane
strain. The material therefore gets
longer and not wider.
y •Otherwise we would need the width of a
football pitch to roll down a steel ingot to
x make tin plate!
z
Shaped rolling or section rolling
•A special type of cold rolling in which
flat slap is progressively bent into
complex shapes by passing it
through a series of driven rolls.
•No appreciable change in the
thickness of the metal during this
process.
•Suitable for producing moulded
sections such as irregular shaped
channels and trim.
Shaped rolling or section rolling
A variety of sections can be produced by roll forming process using a series of
forming rollers in a continuous method to roll the metal sheet to a specific shape

Applications:
- construction materials,
- partition beam
- ceiling panel
- roofing panels.
- steel pipe
- automotive parts
- household appliances
- metal furniture,
- door and window frames
- other metal products.

A variety of rolled sections

Ring rolling
Ring rolling is a particular category of metal rolling, in which
a ring of smaller diameter is rolled into a precise ring of larger
diameter and a reduced cross section. This is accomplished by
the use of two rollers, one driven and one idle, acting on either
side of the ring's cross section.
Seamless rings
Simulation of ring rolling

•The donut shape preform is placed between a

free turning inside roll and a driven outside roll.
•The ring mills make the section thinner while
increasing the ring diameter.

www.qcforge.com
www.rz.rwth-aachen.de

www.shape.co.kr Relative strain in ring rolling

Simulation of ring rolling

Powder rolling
Metal powder is introduced between the rolls and compacted into a ‘green strip’,
which is subsequently sintered and subjected to further hot-working and/or cold
working and annealing cycles.

Advantage :
- Cut down the initial hot-ingot breakdown step (reduced capital investment).
- Economical - metal powder is cheaply produced during the extraction process.
- Minimise contamination in hot-rolling.
- Provide fine grain size with a minimum of preferred orientation.
 Continuous casting and hot rolling

•Metal is melted, cast and hot rolled continuously through a

series of rolling mills within the same process.
• Usually for steel sheet production.
Suranaree University of Technology Jan-Mar 2007
 Thread rolling

•Dies are pressed against the surface of cylindrical

blank. As the blank rolls against the in-feeding die
faces, the material is displaced to form the roots of
the thread, and the displaced material flows radially
outward to form the thread's crest.
•A blank is fed between two grooved die plates to form
the threads.
•The thread is formed by the axial flow of material in
the work piece. The grain structure of the material is
not cut, but is distorted to follow the thread form.

•Rolled threads are produced in a single pass at

speeds far in excess of those used to cut threads.

•The resultant thread is very much stronger than

a cut thread. It has a greater resistance to
mechanical stress and an increase in fatigue
Cut thread and rolled thread
strength. Also the surface is burnished and work
hardened.
Tapany Udomphol Jan-Mar 2007
Hot-rolling
•The first hot-working operation for
Plate rolling most steel products is done on the
primary roughing mill (blooming,
slabbing or cogging mills).

•These mills are normally two-high

reversing mills with 0.6-1.4 m diameter
rolls (designated by size).

•The objective is to breakdown the cast ingot into blooms or slabs for
subsequent finishing into bars, plate or sheet.

•In hot-rolling steel, the slabs are heated initially at 1100 -1300 oC. The
temperature in the last finishing stand varies from 700 - 900 oC, but should
be above the upper critical temperature to produce uniform equiaxed
ferrite grains.
Advantages

• Properties such as strength, ductility and toughness is improved.

• Density increases by removing voids.
• Desired shape can be easily obtained under plastic deformation.
• Effect of impurities can be reduced.
• Good grain structure.

Hot working improves the engineering properties of

the workpiece because it replaces the microstructure
with one that has fine spherical shaped grains. These
grains increase the strength, ductility, and toughness
of the material.
Disadvantages

• Surface finish is not good as comparing to cold rolling.

• Required accuracy is not obtained.
• Process takes place at higher temperature, so tool life is minimum.
• Thus handling cost is high.
 •Flat plate of large thickness (10-50 mm) is
passed through different set of working
rolls, while each set consecutively reduces
thickness.

Plate rolling

•Hot strip is coiled to reduce its

increasing length due to a reduction of
thickness.
•Reducing the complication of controlling
strips of different speeds due to different
thicknesses. (thinner section moves
Hot rolled coil produced on strip mill faster)
Cold-rolling
•Cold rolling is carried out under
recrystallisation temperature and
introduces work hardening, which
increases the strength via strain
hardening

•The starting material for cold-rolled steel

sheet is pickled hot-rolled breakdown coil
from the continuous hot-strip mill.

• The total reduction achieved by cold-rolling generally will vary from about 50 to
90%.
• The reduction in each stand should be distributed uniformly without falling much
below the maximum reduction for each pass.
• Generally the lowest percentage reduction is taken place in the last pass to
permit better control of flatness, gage, and surface finish.
Advantages

• Improves hardness and strength

• Desired accuracy is possible.
• Heating is not required.
• Thus, cost and time is reduced.

Disadvantages

• Reduces ductility, thus difficult to process.

• Force required is more.
• Produce internal and residual stresses.
Cold-rolling
•Cold rolling provide products with
superior surface finish (due to low
temperature no oxide scales)
•Better dimensional tolerances
compared with hot-rolled products due
to less thermal expansion.

•Cold-rolled nonferrous sheet may be produced from

hot-rolled strip, or in the case of certain copper alloys it
is cold-rolled directly from the cast state.

Cold rolled metals are rated as ‘temper’

Cold rolled strips
•Skin rolled : Metal undergoes the least rolling ~ 0.5-1% harden,
still more workable. It is used to produce a smooth surface and a
uniform thickness
•Quarter hard : Higher amount of deformation. Can be bent normal
to rolling direction without fracturing
• Half hard : Can be bent up to 90o.
•Full hard : Metal is compressed by 50% with no cracking. Can be
bent up to 45o.
Roll Forging
 Forging

Forging is a compressive metal forming process, involving

shaping a metal piece by hammer, press or rolls.

Hot forging,

open-die
 Forging
Most forging operations
• Oldest of the metal forming operations, dating from about 5000 B C
are performed hot or
warm, owing to the
• Components: engine crankshafts, connecting rods, gears, aircraft significant deformation
structural components, jet engine turbine parts demanded by the
process and the need to
 Cold vs. hot forging:
reduce strength and
 Hot or warm forging – most common, due to the significant increase ductility of the
deformation and the need to reduce strength and increase work metal.
ductility of work metal
 Cold forging - advantage is increased strength that results from
strain hardening

Forging is an important industrial process used to make a variety of high-strength

components for automotive, aerospace, and other applications. These components
include engine crankshafts and connecting rods, gears, aircraft structural
components, and jet engine turbine parts.
 Classification of forging process by equipment
Forging machines mainly divided into two categories : based on
pressure applied.

➢ Hammer forging (drop forging) is forming a preheated workpiece

by using impact energy of the falling hammer forcing the metal to
fill the space between the punch (a part attached to the hammer) and
the forging die (a part attached to the anvil).
Disadvantage: Non-uniform structure and the impact energy transmitted
through anvil into floor of building.

➢ Press forging is forming a preheated workpiece by applying gradual

pressure created by a hydraulically driven ram causing the metal to
be squeezed into the die cavity by the static pressure. Press forging
achieves more uniform internal structure due to transmitting
deformation to the interior layers of the workpiece. This effect is
particularly important when large shafts or other thick parts are
forged. Problems can arise because of longer time of contact between
the dies and work-piece.
 Types of Forging Dies

1. Open-die forging - In open-die forging, the work is compressed

between two flat (or almost flat) dies, thus allowing the metal to flow
without constraint in a lateral direction relative to the die surfaces

2. Impression-die forging - die surfaces contain a cavity or impression

that is imparted to work-part, thus constraining metal flow - flash is
created. Flash must be later trimmed from part.

3. Fleshless forging – work-part is completely constrained in die and no

excess flash is produced

58
 Forging Processes
• Advantages
– Metal flow and grain structure can be controlled
– Results in good strength and toughness
– Near net shape
– Parts of reasonable complexity can be created
• Landing gear
• Connecting rods
• Complex shafts
• Disadvantages
– Dies are expensive, particularly for hot forging
– Highly skilled labour required
Extrusion

➢ Compression forming process in which the work metal is forced

to flow through a die opening to produce a desired cross-sectional
shape.
➢ extrusion is used to produce long parts of uniform cross-sections
➢ Types of Extrusion:
➢ Direct extrusion
➢ In-direct extrusion
 DIRECT EXTRUSION
 Also called forward extrusion
 Large amount of friction between the die/metal and container. a solid ram drives
entire billet to and through a stationary die, must provide additional power to
overcome frictional resistance between surface of moving billet and confining
chamber.
 As ram approaches die opening, a small portion of billet remains that cannot be
forced through die opening
 Starting billet cross section usually round, but final shape is determined by die
opening

(a) Direct extrusion to produce a hollow or semi-hollow cross-section; (b) hollow and
(c) semi-hollow cross- sections
62
 Problems in direct extrusion

Dummy block

One of the problems in direct extrusion is the significant friction that exists between
the work surface and the walls of the container as the billet is forced to slide toward
the die opening. This friction causes a substantial increase in the ram force required
in direct extrusion. In hot extrusion, the friction problem is aggravated by the
presence of an oxide layer on the surface of the billet. This oxide layer can cause
defects in the extruded product. To address these problems, a dummy block is often
used between the ram and the work billet. The diameter of the dummy block is
slightly smaller than the billet diameter, so that a narrow ring of work metal (mostly
63
the oxide layer) is left in the container, leaving the final product free of oxides.
 HOLLOW SECTIONS IN DIRECT EXTRUSION

Hollow sections (e.g., tubes) are possible in direct extrusion by the process setup
in Figure19.31.The starting billet is prepared with a hole parallel to its axis. This
allows passage of a mandrel that is attached to the dummy block. As the billet
is compressed, the material is forced to flow through the clearance between the
mandrel and the die opening. The resulting cross section is tubular. Semi-hollow
cross-sectional shapes are usually extruded in the same way.

64
 INDIRECT EXTRUSION
 Also called backward extrusion and reverse extrusion
 Low friction. A hollow ram drives die back through a stationary, confined
billet.
 No relative motion and no friction between billet and die walls.
 Lower forces required, can extrude longer billets.
 More complex process, more expensive equipment required.
 Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by the lower rigidity of hollow
ram and difficulty in supporting extruded product as it exits die

Indirect extrusion to produce

(a) a solid cross-section and (b) a hollow cross-section

65
ADVANTAGES OF EXTRUSION
 Varietyof shapes possible, especially in hot
extrusion
 Limitation: part cross-section must be uniform
throughout length
 Grain structure and strength enhanced in cold
and warm extrusion
 Close tolerances possible, especially in cold
extrusion
 In some operations, little or no waste of
material

66
Cold vs. Hot Extrusion

• Cold:
– Better mechanical properties due to work-hardening.
– Good dimensional tolerances & surface finish.
– No need to heat billet.
– Competitive production rates & costs.
– High stresses on tooling
• Hot:
– Larger variety of materials.
– Less forces required.
– Better material flow.
Drawing
Drawing – It is a process where a cross-section of solid
rod, wire, or tubing is reduced or changed in shape by
pulling it through a die.

stock (bar) die

wire

F (pulling force)

Similar to extrusion, except: pulling force is applied (force

is tensile)

Commonly used to make wires from round bars

 Drawing Process
• In this process the cross section of a round rod or wire is typically reduced or
changed by pulling it through a die
• Die angle has great influence on the drawing force and the quality of the drawn
product

Drawing FORCE :
F = Yavg Af In (Ao/Af) ; Yavg – average true stress of the material in the die
gap

Fig : Process variables in wire

drawing. The die angle,
the reduction in cross-
sectional area per pass,
the speed of drawing, the
temperature, and the
lubrication all affect the
drawing force, F.
WIRE DRAWING VS. BAR DRAWING
 Usually performed as cold working
 Most frequently used for round cross-sections

 Difference between bar drawing and wire drawing is stock

size
 Bar drawing - large diameter bar and rod stock
 Wire drawing - small diameter stock - wire sizes down to 0.03 mm
are possible
 Although the mechanics are the same, the methods,
equipment, and even terminology are different

71
WIRE DRAWING
 Continuous drawing machines consisting of multiple draw dies
(typically 4 to 12) separated by accumulating drums
 Each drum provides proper force to draw wire stock through
upstream die
 Each die provides a small reduction, so desired total reduction is
achieved by the series
 Annealing sometimes required between dies

Continuous drawing of wire 72

BAR DRAWING
 Accomplished as a single-draft operation - the stock is
pulled through one die opening
 Beginning stock has large diameter and is a straight
cylinder

Hydraulically operated draw bench for drawing metal bars

73
 Die Materials

• Commonly used materials are Tool Steels and Carbides

• Diamond dies are used for fine wire.
• For improved wear resistance, steel dies may be chromium plated,
and carbide dies may be coated with titanium nitride
• For Hot drawing, cast-steel dies are used
 Lubrication in drawing

Proper lubrication is essential in drawing, in order to improve die

life, reduce drawing forces and temperature, and improve
surface finish.

Types of Lubrication
a) Wet drawing : Dies and Rods are completely immersed in
lubricant
b) Dry drawing : Surface of the rod to be drawn is coated with a
lubricant
c) Coating : Rod or Wire is coated with a soft metal that acts as a
solid lubricant
d) Ultrasonic Vibration of the dies and mandrels.
 Flat rolling and its analysis

R = roller radius
p = roll pressure
L = contact length
θ = contact angle
vr = roll speed
to = initial plate thickness
tf = final plate thickness
vo = plate entry speed
vf = plate exit speed

Side view of flat rolling, indicating before and after thicknesses, work
velocities, angle of contact with rolls, and other features.
 Fundamental concept of metal rolling
1) The arc of contact between the rolls and the
Assumptions metal is a part of a circle.
2) The coefficient of friction, , is constant in
theory, but in reality  varies along the arc of
contact.
3) The metal is considered to deform
o R
plastically during rolling.

vo y
4) The volume of metal is constant before and
x vf
ho hf after rolling. In practical the volume might
x y decrease a little bit due to close-up of pores.
Lp
5) The velocity of the rolls is assumed tobe
o
constant.
6) The metal only extends in the rolling direction
and no extension in the width of the
material.
7) The cross sectional area normal to the
rolling direction is not distorted.
 Forces and geometrical relationships
in rolling
•A metal sheet with a thickness h o enters
the rolls at the entrance plane xx with a
o R velocity v o .

•It passes through the roll gap and leaves
vo x y the exit plane yy with a reduced thickness
ho vf hf
x
h f and at a velocity v f.
y
Lp •Given that there is no increase in
o width, the vertical compression of the
metal is translated into an elongation in
the rolling direction.
•Since there is no change in metal
volume at a given point per unit time
bho vo = bhv = bh f v f …Eq.1 throughout the process, therefore

Where b is the width of the sheet

v is the velocity at any thickness h intermediate between h o and hf.
Roll bite condition
For the work piece to enter the
throat of the roll, the component of
the friction force must be equal to
or greater than the horizontal
component of the normal force.

But we know

Therefore
 Therefore roling will occur when  > tan 

Increase the effective values of  Using big rolls to reduce tan  or

, for example grooving the rolls + if the roll diameter is fixed, reduce
parallel to the roll axis. the h o

 

 Flat rolling and its analysis

▪ The work enters the gap between the rolls at a velocity

vo and exits at a velocity vf. Because the volume flow
rate is constant and the thickness is decreasing, vf
should be larger than vo.

▪ The roll surface velocity vr is larger than vo and smaller

than vf. This means that slipping occurs between the
work and the rolls.

▪ Only at one point along the contact length, there is no

slipping (relative motion) between the work and the roll.
This point is called the “Neutral Point” or the “No Slip
Point”.
 Flat rolling and its analysis
1. Constant material volume
to wo Lo = t f w f L f where
Lo = initial plate length
Lf = final plate length
2. Continuity of volume flow rate

to wo vo = t f w f v f
3. Forward slip

v f − vr DN
s= where : - v r = m/min
vr 1000
Example:- A 2.0-in-thick slab is 10.0 in. wide and 12.0 ft long.
Thickness is to be reduced in three steps in a hot rolling operations.
Each step will reduce the slap to 75% of its pervious thickness. It is
expected that for this metal and reduction the slap will widen by 3% in
each step. If the entry speed of the slap in the first step is 40 ft/min.
and roll speed is the same for the three steps, determine (a) length
and (b) exit velocity of the slap after the final reduction.

Solution

(a) After three passes, tf = (0.75)(0.75)(0.75)(2.0) = 0.844 in.

wf = (1.03)(1.03)(1.03)(10.0) = 10.927 in.

to wo Lo = t f w f L f
(2.0)(10.0)(12) = (0.844)(10.927)Lf

Lf = (2.0)(10.0)(12)/(0.844)(10.927) = 26.025 ft
(b) Given that roll speed is the same at all three stands and
that
to wo vo = t f w f v f
(2.0)(10.0)(40) = (0.844)(10.927)Vf

Vf = (2.0)(10.0)(40)/(0.844)(10.927) = 51.78 ft/min.

 Flat rolling and its analysis
▪ In flat rolling, the work is squeezed between two rolls so that
its thickness is reduced by an amount called the draft:

d = to − t f d1 = t o − t1
where d 2 = t1 − t 2
d: draft
to: starting thickness
tf : final thickness

▪ As a reduction of the starting thickness (r):

to − t f t o − t1 t1 − t 2
r= x100 r1 = x100 r2 = x100
to to t1
The maximum draft
From triangle ABC, we have

As a is much smaller than R, we

can then ignore a2.

Where Δh = ho – hf = 2a

d max = hmax =  2 R
 Flat rolling and its analysis
▪ Rolling may not be possible (the sheet will not be pulled) if the
draft is large. The maximum draft for successful rolling per pass
is:

d max =  2 R

Where:
dmax : maximum draft successful rolling per pass
μ : coefficient of friction
R : roll radius

▪ As can be seen from the equation, if μ is zero, then dmax is also

zero (rolling is not possible)
Number of passes
1. If draft = constant d1 = d 2 = d 3 = d
d T otal t o − t f
number of passes = = 2
d max  R
2. If reduction = constant r1 = r2 = r3 = r
t o − t1
r1 = r =  t1 = t o (1 − r )
to
t1 − t 2
r2 = r =  t 2 = t1 (1 − r ) = t o (1 − r )
2

t1
t 2 − t3
r3 = r =  t 3 = t 2 (1 − r ) = t o (1 − r )
3

t2
t n = t o (1 − r ) wher e : - n = number of passes
n
Example:- A series of cold rolling operations is to be used to reduce
the thickness of a plate from 50 mm down to 25 mm in a reversing
twohigh mill. Roll diameter =700 mm and coefficient of friction
between rolls and work = 0.15. The specification is that the draft is to
be equal on each pass. Determine (a) minimum number of passes
required, and (b) draft for each pass.

Solution

number of passes =
to − t f
=
(50 - 25)
= 3.17 = 4 passes
 2R (0.15) (350)
2

Draft per pass =

to − t f
=
(50 - 25)
= 6.25mm
number of passes 4
1. General mechanics principle
• The underlying mechanics principle for metal forming is
the stress-strain relationship; see Figure 1.

Figure 1
handout 7a 90
• True Stress: Applied load divided by instantaneous
value of cross-section area
 =F/A
• True strain: Instantaneous elongation per unit length
of the material

dL
L L
 = = ln
L0 L L0
L0: the initial length of a specimen
L: the length of the specimen at time t
 the true strain at time t
handout 7a 91
• In the forming process we are more interested in the
plastic deformation region (Figure 1)

Plastic
deformation
region

92
• The stress-strain relationship in the plastic deformation
region is described by
Called
 = K n FLOW
CURVE
Where
K= the strength coefficient, (MPa)
 = the true strain, σ=the true stress
n= the strain hardening exponent,

The flow stress (Yf) is used for the above stress

(which is the stress beyond yield)
93
FLOW STRESS

• As deformation occurs, increasing STRESS is required

to continue deformation

• Flow Stress: Instantaneous value of stress required to

continue deforming the material (i.e., to keep metal
“flowing”):

Yf = K n

94
 AVERAGE FLOW STRESS
• For many bulk deforming processes, rather than
instantaneous stress, average stress is used (extrusion)

• The average flow stress can be obtained by integrating

the flow stress along the trajectory of straining, from
zero to the final strain value which defines the range of
interest:
Strength Coefficient

k n
Average flow stress
Yf = Max. strain during

1+ n
deformation

Strain hardening exponent

95
• The above analysis is generally applicable to the cold
working, where the temperature factor is not considered.

• The metal forming process has three kinds in terms of

temperature: (1) cold, (2) warm, (3) hot

• In the case of warm and hot forming, the temperature

factor needs to be considered, in particular

Temperature up → The (yield) strength down and

ductility up

handout 7a 96
 •The distribution of roll pressure
along the arc of contact shows that the
pressure rises to a maximum at the
neutral point and then falls off.
R
•The pressure distribution does not
N come to a sharp peak at the neutral
vo
ho hf point, which indicates that the neutral
point is not really a line on the roll
p surface but an area.
•The area under the curve is
A B Friction hill in rolling proportional to the rolling load.

•The area in shade represents the

force required to overcome
frictional forces between the roll
and the sheet.
•The area under the dashed line
AB represents the force required to
deform the metal in plane
homogeneous compression.
1. General mechanics principle
• The underlying mechanics principle for metal forming is
the stress-strain relationship; see Figure 1.

Figure 1

handout 7a 98
• True Stress: Applied load divided by instantaneous
value of cross-section area
 =F/A
• True strain: Instantaneous elongation per unit length
of the material

dL
L L
 = = ln
L0 L L0
L0: the initial length of a specimen
L: the length of the specimen at time t
 the true strain at time t

99
• In the forming process we are more interested in the
plastic deformation region (Figure 1)

Plastic
deformation
region

100
• The stress-strain relationship in the plastic deformation
region is described by
Called
 = K n
FLOW
CURVE
Where
K= the strength coefficient, (MPa)
 = the true strain, σ=the true stress
n= the strain hardening exponent,

The flow stress (Yf) is used for the above stress

(which is the stress beyond yield)

101
FLOW STRESS

• As deformation occurs, increasing STRESS is required

to continue deformation

• Flow Stress: Instantaneous value of stress required to

continue deforming the material (i.e., to keep metal
“flowing”):

Yf = K n

102
 AVERAGE FLOW STRESS
• For many bulk deforming processes, rather than
instantaneous stress, average stress is used (extrusion)

• The average flow stress can be obtained by integrating

the flow stress along the trajectory of straining, from
zero to the final strain value which defines the range of
interest:
Strength Coefficient

k n
Average flow stress
Yf = Max. strain during

1+ n
deformation

Strain hardening exponent

103
• The above analysis is generally applicable to the cold
working, where the temperature factor is not considered.

• The metal forming process has three kinds in terms of

temperature: (1) cold, (2) warm, (3) hot

• In the case of warm and hot forming, the temperature

factor needs to be considered, in particular

Temperature up → The (yield) strength down and

ductility up
In strip rolling, the width will not change much after rolling. From the
previous equation, it is observed that the exit velocity vf is greater than
entry velocity v0. In fact, the velocity of the rolled sheet continuously
increases from entry to exit.
The rolls contact the rolling sheet along an arc
defined by angle θ. Each roll has radius R, and
its has surface velocity vr. This velocity is in
between entry and exit velocity.

However, there is one point or zone along the

contact arc where work velocity equals roll
velocity. This is called the no-slip point, or neutral
point.

On either side of the neutral point, slipping and

friction occur between roll and sheet. The
amount of slip between the rolls and the sheet
can be quantified by forward slip, S,

v f − vr
S= vf is the final velocity, vr is the roll velocity
vr
The true strain during rolling is given by,  = ln( t 0 )
tf

The true strain is used to find the average flow stress (Yf) and further rolling
power, force.
K n

Yf =
1+ n

On the entry side of the neutral point, friction force is in one direction, and on
the other side it is in the opposite direction, i.e., the friction force acts towards the
neutral point. But the two forces are unequal.

The friction force on the entry side is greater, so that the net force pulls the sheet
through the rolls. Otherwise, rolling would not be possible.

The limit to the maximum possible draft that can be accomplished in flat rolling is
given by,
d max =  2 R

The equation indicates that if friction were zero, draft is zero, and it is not possible
to accomplish the rolling operation.
The friction coefficient in rolling depends on lubrication, work material,
and
working temperature.

In cold rolling, the value is app. 0.1, in warm rolling, a typical value is
around 0.2; and in hot rolling, it is around 0.4.

Hot rolling is characterized by sticking friction condition, in which the

hot work surface adheres to the rolls over the contact region. This
condition often occurs in the rolling of steels and high-temperature
alloys.
When sticking occurs, the coefficient of friction can be as high as 0.7.
Analysis of open Die forging
 Open die forging

A simplest example of open die forging is compression of billet between two flat die halves which
is like compression test. This also known as upsetting or upset forging. Basically height
decreases and diameter increases.
Under ideal conditions, where there is no friction between the billet and die surfaces,
homogeneous deformation occurs. In this, the diameter increases uniformly throughout its height.
In ideal condition, ε = ln (ho/h). h will be equal to hf at the end of compression, ε will be maximum
for the whole forming. Also F = Yf A is used to find the force required for forging, where Yf is the
flow stress corresponding to ε at that stage of forming.

Start of compression Partial compression Completed compression

In actual forging operation, the deformation will not be homogeneous as bulging occurs because of
the presence of friction at the die-billet interface. This friction opposes the movement of billet at the
surface. This is called barreling effect.
The barreling effect will be significant as the diameter-to-height (D/h) ratio of the workpart increases,
due to the greater contact area at the billet–die interface. Temperature will also affect the barreling
phenomenon.

Start of Partial Completed

compression compression compression

In actual forging, the accurate force evaluation is done by using, F = Kf Yf A

by considering the effect of friction and D/h ratio. Here,
0.4D
K f = 1+
h
Analysis of extrusion
 Indirect extrusion: solid billet and hollow billet

Pressure distribution and billet dimensions in direct extrusion

Assuming the initial billet and extrudate are in round cross-section.An
important parameter, extrusion ratio (rx), is defined as below:
A0 A0 - CSA of the initialbillet
re =
Af Af - CSA of the extruded section
True strain in extrusion under ideal deformation (no friction and redundant
work) is given by,
A0
 = ln(re) = ln( )
Af
Under ideal deformation, the ram pressure required to extrude the billet
through die hole is given by,
K n
Note: The average flow stress is found out
A0
p = Y f ln(re ) = Y f ln( ) where Y f = by integrating the flow curve equation
Af 1+ n between zero and the final strain defining
the range of forming
Where Yf is average flow stress, and  is maximum strain value during the
extrusion process.

The actual pressure for extrusion will be greater than in ideal case, because
of the friction between billet and die and billet and container wall.
There are various equations used to evaluate the actual true strain and
associated ram pressure during extrusion. The following relation proposed
by Johnson is of great interest.
 x = a + b ln re = a + b p = Yf  x

Where  x is extrusion strain; a and b are empirical constants for a givendie

angle. Typical values are: a = 0.8, b = 1.2 - 1.5.

In direct extrusion, assuming that friction exists at the interface, we can find
the actual extrusion pressure as follows:

billet-container friction force = additional ram force to overcome that

friction
p f D 0
2 Where pf is additional pressure
peD0 L = required to overcome friction, p e is
4 pressure against the container wall

The above eqn. assume sliding friction condition. Assuming sticking friction at the
interface, we can write:
p f D02
KD0 L = Where K is shear yield strength & m = 1
4
 4KL
The above eqn. gives, p f
=
D0

Assuming, K =
Yf
we get, p = Y 2L
2 D0
This is the additional pressure required to
overcome friction during extrusion.

Now the actual ram pressure required for

direct extrusion is given by,
 2L  The shape of the initial pressure build up
p = Y f  x +  depends on die angle. Higher die angles
 D0  cause steeper pressure buildups.

L is the billet length remaining to be extruded,

and D0 is the initial diameter of the billet. Here
p is reduced as the remaining billet length
decreases during the extrusion process.

Ram pressure variation with stroke for direct

and indirect extrusion is shown in Figure.
 Simple analysis of wire drawing
True strain in wire drawing under ideal deformation (no friction and redundant work)
is given by,
1
 = ln( A0 ) = ln( ) Here r = (A0 – Af) /A0
Af 1− r
Under ideal deformation, the stress required in wire drawing is given by,

 d = Y f ln( A0 ) K n
Here Y f = ,Yf is the average flow stress
Af 1+ n
corresponding to ε mentioned in above equation.

In order to consider the effect of die angle and friction coefficient on the drawing
stress, Schey has proposed another equation as shown below:

   A0
 d = Y f  1+  ln( )
 tan  Af
Here  is a term that accounts for inhomogeneous deformation which is found
by the following eqn. for round cross-section.

 = 0.88 + 0.12 D Here D is the average diameter of the workpiece, LC is the

Lc contact length of the work with die given by,

D0 + D f D0 − D f
D= ; LC =
2 2sin 
Finally the drawing force is given by, F = Afσd

The power required for drawing is given

by multiplying drawing force with exit
velocity of the workpiece