Automata Theory & Formal Languages Introduction

Automata theory is a theoretical computer science study of abstract machines and automata, as
well as computational problems they solve. It is closely connected to mathematical logic. Formal
languages are strings over a finite alphabet, represented using regular expressions and formal
grammar.

1. Three Main Concepts of Automata

i. Automata
Developing a model which takes input, processes it and generates output.
ii. Computability
It checks the ability of computing, whether the machine processes the input or not .
iii. Complexity
Every problem has multiple solutions. It helps in the selection of the optimal or less complex
solution.

2. Computation, Formal Languages

2.1. Computation in automata

Computation in automata involves a machine, following specific rules or instructions, to process

input and generate output. It's the step-by-step execution of a set of rules within the automaton,
helping analyze and understand the capabilities of different machines in solving problems.

Example of computation:
Imagine a simple coin-operated vending machine as an automaton. The input is the coin you
insert, and the output is the item you receive. The computation involves the machine following a
set of rules: if you insert the right amount, it dispenses the corresponding item; otherwise, it
rejects the coin. This process of taking input (coin), applying rules, and producing output (item)
represents computation in the context of automata theory.

3. Formal Languages

Formal languages in automata theory are sets of strings with defined rules for their formation.
This formal language is crucial for defining computer programs and expressing algorithmic
problems. Formal language in computer science refers to a type of computer software.
English Language Language1: Starts with w and ends with o
Work wkro X X work wkro

4. What, Why, Where Automata Theory

4.1. What is Automata Theory?

Automata theory is a branch of computer science and mathematics that studies abstract
machines, called automata, and the languages they can recognize or generate. It explores the
fundamental principles of computation, defining the capabilities and limitations of different
computational models.

4.2. Why Automata Theory?

Automata theory is essential for several reasons:

i. It allows us to think systematically about what machine do without going into hardware
ii. details
iii. Learning of Languages and Computational techniques.
iv. Designing of theoretical models for machines
v. Course Requirement
Fundamental / Core
subject of computer
science

4.3. Where is Automata Theory Applied?

i. Computer Science: Used in the design and analysis of algorithms, programming
languages, and compilers.
ii. Artificial Intelligence: Applied in the development of intelligent systems and natural
language processing.
iii. Software Engineering: Utilized in software verification, formal methods, and
protocol design.
iv. Information Theory: Contributes to the understanding of information processing
and communication protocols.

5. Real applications of automata theory

Automata theory, a branch of theoretical computer science, finds practical applications in various
domains:

5.1. Compiler Design: Automata theory is essential for designing compilers that
translate high-level programming languages into machine code. Lexical analysis and
parsing involve the use of finite automata and context-free grammar.
5.2. Regular Expressions: Automata theory is closely linked to regular expressions,
which are widely used for pattern matching in text processing, search engines, and data
validation.
5.3. Networking Protocols: Finite state machines are employed in the modeling and
analysis of networking protocols. They help in defining the sequence of actions that
communication entities should take.
5.4. Software Verification and Testing: Model checking, a technique based on
automata theory, is used to verify whether a system or program satisfies a given
specification. This is crucial in ensuring the correctness of the software.

6. Basic constructs: Strings, Words, Alphabet, Language

In automata theory, several basic constructs are fundamental to understanding and representing
computational processes:

7.1.Alphabet (Σ): An alphabet is a finite set of symbols or characters. In the context of

automata theory, it represents the basic building blocks from which strings are formed.
For example, {0, 1} is an alphabet commonly used in binary strings.
- Example: Σ = {0, 1}
- Explanation: Here, the alphabet consists of the symbols 0 and 1, forming a binary
alphabet.

7.2. String: A string is a finite sequence of symbols chosen from an alphabet. Strings
play a crucial role in automata theory as inputs, outputs, or representations of states. For
instance, "101010" is a string over the binary alphabet {0, 1}.
- Example: "101010"
- Explanation: The string "101010" is formed by combining symbols from the binary
alphabet {0, 1}.

7.3. Word: In automata theory, a word is often used interchangeably with a string. It
refers to a finite sequence of symbols from an alphabet. The distinction between "word"
and "string" is subtle, and the usage can depend on the context or personal preference.
- Example: "abracadabra"
- Explanation: In this case, "abracadabra" is a word formed by combining symbols from
an alphabet that includes the letters {a, b, c, d, r}.
 7.4. Language (L): A language is a set of strings over a given alphabet. In the context of
automata theory, it represents a collection of valid or accepted strings. Languages are
classified into various types, such as regular languages, context-free languages, etc.,
based on the type of automaton that can recognize them.
- Example: The set of all binary strings with an even number of 1s.
- Explanation: L = {"", "00", "1100", "1010", …}
This language consists of strings over the binary alphabet {0, 1} where the count of 1s in
each string is an even number.

These examples illustrate how alphabets, strings (words), and languages are defined and can be
represented within the context of automata theory.

Length of string, reverse of string

Descriptive definition
 It is one of the language defining methods
 In this method, we simply describe the condition imposed on its strings/words

Example:
L1 = {any finite string of letters that does not start with letter 0}
Example:
L1 = {set of all strings of letters that starts with a and ends with a}
Important Question: Define a Palindrome language with Descriptive Definition
Palindrome = {^, and all strings x such that reverse (x) = x }
X = 12321
Reverse(x) = 12321
Reverse(x) = x

Language recognition and language generation devices are concepts related to formal languages
and automata theory. These devices are theoretical models that help us understand and analyze
the properties of different types of languages. Let's explore each concept:

Language Recognition Devices:

Definition: Language recognition devices are theoretical machines or models designed to

determine whether a given input string belongs to a particular language or not.

Examples: Finite Automata (FA), Pushdown Automata (PDA), and Turing Machines (TM) are
common language recognition devices. Each type of automaton corresponds to a specific class of
languages—finite automata for regular languages, pushdown automata for context-free
languages, and Turing machines for recursively enumerable languages.

Language Generation Devices:

Definition: Language generation devices are theoretical machines or models designed to produce
or generate strings belonging to a particular language.

Examples: Context-Free Grammars (CFG) and Regular Expressions (regex) are common
language generation devices. CFGs generate strings for context-free languages, while regular
expressions describe regular languages.

Language & grammars with examples

1. Kleene Star closure (*):

 Imagine you have a set of words or symbols.
 Kleene Star allows you to create new "sentences" by putting these words together in any
way you want, including having no words at all.

Example 2:
Σ={a,b}
Σ0=Set of all strings with length of ‘0’ = ε 20 empty
Σ1=Set of all strings with length of ‘1’ = {a,b}21
Σ2=Set of all strings with length of ‘2’ = Σ . Σ => {a,b}.{a,b}=>{aa,ab,ba,bb}22
Σ3=Set of all strings with length of ‘3’ = Σ. Σ. Σ=>{a,b}.{a,b}.{a,b}
={aa,ab,ba,bb}.{a,b}=>{aaa,aab,aba,abb,baa,bab,bba,bbb]23
And so on…
Σ* (Kleene closure)= infinite language.
=(a+b)* 2n

2. Kleene Plus (+):

 Similar to Kleene Star but with one difference.
 It allows you to create new "sentences" too, but it doesn't allow an "empty" sentence. You
must have at least one word in your sentence.

- So, using the same set

Σ =Set of all strings with length of ‘1’ = {a,b}21
1

Σ2=Set of all strings with length of ‘2’ = Σ . Σ => {a,b}.{a,b}=>{aa,ab,ba,bb}22

Σ3=Set of all strings with length of ‘3’ = Σ. Σ. Σ=>{a,b}.{a,b}.{a,b}
={aa,ab,ba,bb}.{a,b}=>{aaa,aab,aba,abb,baa,bab,bba,bbb]23
And so on… but not the empty sentence.
Σ+ (Kleene Positive closure)= infinite language.

Language defining ways

Regular Languages:

Regular languages are the simplest and least powerful type of formal languages. They can be
recognized by finite automata (A finite automaton is an abstract computational model with a
limited number of states).

Example: The set of all strings over the alphabet {0, 1} that represent valid binary numbers is a
regular language. A regular expression or a finite automaton can describe this language.

In simpler terms, Kleene Star lets you combine words in any way, even allowing no words, while
Kleene Plus requires at least one word in your combination. They're like tools to build different
combinations of words from a given set.